Powe and Energy Lab Manual - M.tech (PEES)-II Sem Lab

B.V.RAJU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY(UGC Autonomous)

Vishnupur, Narsapur, Medak (Dist.) 502 313(Sri Vishnu Educational Society)

DEPARTMENT OFELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

POWER & ENERGY SYSTEMS LAB(LAB MANUAL)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2015-2016

M.Tech (PE & ES) II-SEMESTER

PREFACE

The significance of the Power & Energy System Lab is renowned in the various fieldsof engineering applications. For an Electrical Engineer, it is obligatory to have the practicalideas about the Power systems. By this perspective we have introduced a Laboratory manualcum Observation for Power & Energy System Lab.

The manual uses the plan, cogent and simple language to explain the fundamental

aspects of Power & Energy System Lab in practical. The manual prepared very carefullywith our level best. It gives all the steps in executing an experiment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is one of lifes simple pleasures to say thank you for all the help that one has

extended their support. I wish to acknowledge and appreciate Associate Professor Mr.SaleemPasha, Assistant Professors Mr.N.Ramchander, Mr.G.Naresh Kumar, and Lab TechnicianK. Srinivas Raju, P. Prabhu Dass, Foremen for their sincere efforts made towards developingthe Power & Energy System Lab. I wish to thank students for their suggestions which areconsidered while preparing the lab manual.

I am extremely indebted to Dr. Ch. Venkateshwarlu, Principal and Professor,Department of Chemical Engineering, BVRIT for his valuable inputs and sincere support tocomplete the work.

Specifically, I am grateful to the Management for their constant advocacy and

incitement.

Finally, I would again like to thank the entire faculty in the Department and those

people who directly or indirectly helped in successful completion of this work.

Dr. N. BHOOPALHOD - EEE

GUIDELINES TO WRITE YOUR OBSERVATION BOOK

1. Experiment Title, Aim, Apparatus, Procedure should be on right side.

2. Circuit diagrams, Model graphs, Observations table, Calculations table should be left side.

3. Theoretical and model calculations can be any side as per your convenience.

4. Result should always be in the ending.

5. You all are advised to leave sufficient no of pages between experiments for theoretical or

model calculations purpose.

DOS AND DONTS IN THE LAB

DOS:-1. Proper dress has to be maintained while entering in the Lab. (Boys Tuck in and shoes, girlswith apron)2. All students should come to the Lab with necessary tools.

3. Students should carry observation notes and record completed in all aspects.

4. Correct specifications of the equipment have to be mentioned in the circuit diagram.

5. Student should be aware of operating equipment.

6. Students should be at their concerned experiment table, unnecessary moment is restricted.

7. Student should follow the indent procedure to receive and deposit the equipment from theLab Store Room.

8. After completing the connections Students should verify the circuits by the Lab Instructor.

9. The reading must be shown to the Lecturer In-Charge for verification.

10. Students must ensure that all switches are in the OFF position, all the connections areremoved.

11. All patch cords and stools should be placed at their original positions.

DONTs:-

1. Dont come late to the Lab.

2. Dont enter into the Lab with Golden rings, bracelets and bangles.

3. Dont make or remove the connections with power ON.

4. Dont switch ON the supply without verifying by the Staff Member.

5. Dont switch OFF the machine with load.

6. Dont leave the lab without the permission of the Lecturer In-Charge.

M. TECH. (PEES) AutonomousM. TECH I YEAR II SEM. (PEES)

Power & Energy Systems Lab

List of Experiments

**Note: Conduct any ten experiments

1. Measurement of load and power factor for the electrical utilities.

2. Determination of characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic (PV) module/cell.

3. Determination of efficiency of DC/AC inverter

4. Study of Lead Acid Battery as energy storage.

5. Study of Performance of Solar Lamp.

6. Measurement of Intensity of solar radiation

7. Experimental study of solar lighting systems and system optimization.

8. Experimental study of solar PV pumping system.

9. Pay back analysis, financial work sheet of a renewable energy project.10. Simulation of PV systems using PSPICE.

11. Simulation studies of PV systems using PVsyst.

12. Designing of grid-connected PV systems using PVsyst.

13. Performance analysis of PV systems using PVsyst.

14. Shading Analysis of PV systems using PVsyst.

1. Measurement of load and power factor for the electricalutilities.

AIM: To measure the load and power factor for the electrical utilities.

APPARATUS:

S.NO Name of the equipment Range Type Qty

1 Wattmeter

2 Rheostats

3 Connecting wires

4

5

6

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Theory:

Power factor is the percentage of electricity that is being used to do useful work. It is definedas the ratio of active or actual power used in the circuit measured in watts or kilowatts (Wor KW), to the apparent power expressed in volt-amperes or kilo volt-amperes (VA orKVA).

The apparent power also referred to as total power delivered by utility company has twocomponents. 1) Productive Power that powers the equipment and performs the useful work.It is measured in KW (kilowatts) 2) Reactive Power that generates magnetic fields toproduce flux necessary for the operation of induction devices (AC motors, transformer,inductive furnaces, ovens etc.). It is measured in KVAR (kilovolt-Ampere-Reactance).

Reactive Power produces no productive work. An inductive motor with power applied and noload on its shaft should draw almost nil productive power, since no output work is beingaccomplished until a load is applied. The current associated with no-load motor readings isalmost entirely "Reactive" Power. As a load is applied to the shaft of the motor, the"Reactive" Power requirement will change only a small amount.

The Productive Power is the power that is transferred from electrical energy to some otherform of energy (i.e. such as heat energy or mechanical energy). The apparent power is alwaysin always in excess of the productive power for inductive loads and is dependent on the typeof machine in use. The working power (KW) and reactive power (KVAR) together make upapparent power, which is measured in kilovolt-amperes (KVA).

Graphically it can be represented as:

The cosine of the phase angle between the KVA and the KW components represents thepower factor of the load. KVAR represents the non-productive reactive power and islagging phase angle.

The Relationship between KVA, KW and KVAR is non-linear and is expressed

KVA2 = KW2 + KVAR2 .

A power factor of 0.72 would mean that only 72% of your power is being used to do usefulwork. Perfect power factor is 1.0, (unity); meaning 100% of the power is being used foruseful work.

FORMULAE:

PF = cos

where

PF = power factor = phase angle between voltage and current

Procedure:1) Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.2) Ammeter is connected in series with wattmeter whose other end is connected to one ofthe loads of the balanced loads.3) The Y-phase is directly connected to one of the nodes of the 3-ph supply.4) A wattmeter is connected across R-phase & Y-phase as shown in fig. The extreme ofBphaseis connected to the third terminal of the balanced 3-ph load.5) Another wattmeter is connected across Y & B phase; the extreme of B-phase is connectedto the third terminal of the balanced three phases load.6) Verify the connections before switching on the 3-ph power supply.7) Calculate the power factor by the give formulae at different loads as mentioned.

TABULAR FORM:Power = Hp.

S.NO SPEED(rpm) Load Load Full Load

1 hp = 745.7 W.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Avoid making loose connections.2. Readings should be taken carefully without parallax error.

RESULT: The load and power factor for the electrical utilities is calculated.

2. V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF SOLAR CELLAIM: To study illuminated characteristics of a solar cell for different illumination levels.

APPARATUS:

1. Solar cell,2. Rheostat,3. Ammeter,4. Voltmeter,5. Illumination source,6. Variac and7. Connecting wires.

THEORY:

A solar cell is illuminated by light having photon energy greater than the band gap energy ofthe solar cell. Then, using a proper circuit, the open circuit voltage, short circuit current andpower drawn from the solar cell are measured.

I. Introduction

1. Solar cell is basically a two terminal p-n junction device designed to absorb photonabsorption through the electrical signal or power in the external circuits. Therefore it isnecessary to discuss the physics of semiconductor p-n junction diode, which convertsthe optical energy into electrical signals.

2 It is well known that doped semiconductors are of two types, p and n- typessemiconductors depending upon the nature of the charge carriers. In n-typesemiconductor the free carriers are electrons and in p-type semiconductor, the positivecharge carriers are holes. Since the semi conduct- ors are electrically neutral, in a dopedsemiconductor the number of free carriers is equal to the lattice ions present in thesemiconductor. The nature of the semiconductor can be defined from the location of Fermienergy level (EF) in the band structure of the semiconductor as shown in Fig.1. (The Fermienergy level is defined as the highest filled energy level at 0 K). In p-type semiconductor theFermi level lies just above the valence band (EV) and in n-type semiconductor it lies justbelow the conduction band (EC) as shown in Fig. 1. When these two types ofsemiconductors come in contact, the free carriers flow in opposite direction and neutralizeeach other. This process will continue until the Fermi energy levels of the twosemiconductors come to the same level as shown in Fig. 2.

The region surrounding the junction thus only contains the uncovered positive ions in n-sideand uncovered negative ions in p-side. This region is known as the depletion region (W)

and there are no free carriers available in this region (Figure 3a). In the depletion region, thenature of Fermi energy level is most important from device point of view.

The variation of different parameters across the depletion region is also shown in Fig. 3(b-e).

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductorFigure 1. Location of Fermi energy level in p and n type semiconductors.

Figure 2. Energy bend band diagram of p-n junction diode under no bias condition.

Vo is the potential difference at the depletion region.

3. A p-n junction semiconductor can be used in forward as well as in the reversebiasing mode. If V is the applied reverse voltage across the junction then the current in theexternal circuit can be expressed as follows: Where,

Lp,n = Recombination length of holes and electrons in semiconductors.

tp,n = Life time of holes and electrons.

A = Surface area of the junction in p-n semiconductor diode.pn , np = minority carrier density in n and p sides.

V = is the applied reverse bias voltage across the junction.For a combination of two particular semiconductors, the quantityand is known as the reversesaturation current ( Irs ).

4. When a radiation of photon energy greater than the band gap energy of thesemiconductor falls up on the surface across the junction (i.e., region surrounding thedepletion region), it produces new electron hole (e-h) pairs. Since there exists a junctionpotential difference as shown in Fig 3, the new carriers flow in opposite directions dependingon their nature of charge. Under this condition eq. (1) can be modified as follows:

Where, gop is the optical generation rate of e-h pairs per (cm3- sec) and V is the appliedreverse bias across the p-n junction diode. The second part of the equation is the current dueto optical genera-tion of e-h pairs (Iop).

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of p-n junction showing different parameters exist across the junction.

So, the above equation could be written as

Following eq.(2), when the device is short circuited (V=0), there is a short circuit currentfrom p to n equal to Iop. The usual (i.e., under dark conditions) V-I characteristic fordiode is shown in Fig. 4 by the dashed line that passes through the origin (see eq. (1)).

Figure 4. V-I characteristic curves of a photo-diode under dark (------) and illuminated ( ___ ) conditions.

When the optical generation current, Iop is introduced , the nature of thecharacteristic curve is modified. In the illuminated condition, the curve passes throughthe fourth quadrant also. When the circuit is open, I=0, using applied reverse bias is alsozero, the potential across the junction due to optical generation of electron hole pairs,become Voc ( as like V) and one can write from eq. (2),

Under this condition the Fermi levels will again change the nature in depletion region.From the difference of the Fermi levels in n and p-type semiconductors one can express theopen circuited voltage as shown in Fig . 5.

Figure 5. Illuminated I-V characteristics for solar cell for two different illuminations

5. When we need to use the photodiode as detector application, we usually operate it in the3rd quadrant. If power is to be extracted from the device, the fourth quadrant is used. Theequivalent circuit for the purpose is shown in Fig. 6. in the experimental section. Themaximum power delivered through the load RL is when the series resistance RS isequivalent to the value of RL as given in the procedure. Again to receive maximum powerfrom solar cell, it is designed with large surface area coated with appropriate materials toreduce the reflection of the incident light and to reduce the recombination. Therefore in solarcell device the junction depth from the surface must be less than the recombination length ofelectron and holes from both sides, so that the optically generated carriers can reach thedepletion region before recombination with the majority carriers in the semiconductors. Inmost of the cases the incident photons penetrate the n and p regions and are absorbed in thedepletion region.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Complete the circuit as shown in circuit diagram (figure 6.)

2. Illuminate the solar cell. Adjust the rheostat position for resistance so that the volt meterreads zero. This is the short circuit connection. Adjust the variac 119 (maximumup to 230 V) such that ammeter reads a value of about 500 mA. Note down the value ofthe current as short circuited current, Isc .

3. Increase the resistance by varying the rheostat slowly and note down the readings ofcurrent and voltage till a maximum voltage is read. Ensure to take at least 15 20readings in this region.

4. Disconnect the rheostat and note down the voltage. This is the open circuit voltage,Voc

5. Repeat the experiment for another intensity of the illumination source.

6. Tabulate all readings in Table 1. Calculate the power using the relation, P = V x

7. Plot I vs. V with Isc on the current axis at the zero volt position and Voc on the voltageaxis at the zero current (see Figure 5.)

8. Identify the maximum power point Pm on each plot. Calculate the seriesresistance of the solar cell using the formula as follows : RS = [ DV/DI ].

9. To see the performance of the cell calculate fill factor (FT) of the cell, which can beexpressed by the formula, FF = [ Pm/Isc Voc ].

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:1. What is a semiconductor? What are p and n type semiconductors? Give one example ofeach.

2. What are the advantages of using doped semiconductor rather than puresemiconductors? Why are semiconductor diodes preferred to valve diodes?

3. What is the meaning of valence and conduction band in semiconductor? How is the Fermienergy level in a semiconductor defined?

4. Why do the Fermi energy levels come to the same level when p and n-types ofsemiconductors come in contact?

5. What is the depletion region? Assuming majority carrier concentration in n-typesemiconductor is higher than p-type, discuss about the width of the depletion region about thephysical contact layer.

6. What is the meaning of recombination, recombination length, and life time of carriers indoped semiconductor?

7. What is reverse saturation current in p-n diode? If you increase the reverse bias voltage,what will be the nature of the 3rd quadrant part of the dotted line in figure 4?

8. Give some practical uses of the solar cell

3. Lead-Acid Batteries

AIM: Study of Lead Acid Battery as energy storage.

APPARATUS: Lead acid battery, load

THEORY:

Methods of chargingSome of the methods of charging are constant-current method, constant-voltage method,modified constant-voltage method, float charging method, and trickle charging method.

Constant-current charging methodIn the constant-current method, a fixed current is applied for a certain time to the battery torecharge it. The charging current is set to a low value to avoid the voltage across the batteryfrom exceeding the gassing voltage as the battery charge approaches 100%. Consequently,this results in long charge times (usually 12 hours or longer). Figure below (A) shows thecharging characteristic curves obtained with the constant-current method (single step).

Multiple decreasing current steps can also be used to shorten charge times obtained using theconstant-current charging method as shown in Figure below (B) Though it is used forcharging some small lead-acid batteries, the constant current charging method is not widelyused for lead-acid batteries, because of the gassing which is likely to occur when charging abattery too long. The risk of gassing is more important when charging a battery which is onlypartially discharged.Constant-current is also used in trickle charging, another charging method described later inthis discussion.

a

bConstant-voltage charging method

In the constant-voltage charging method, a fixed-voltage is applied to the battery to rechargeit. The initial charging current (current at the beginning of the battery charge) is at itsmaximum and can even reach higher values (even exceeding the maximum charge currentprescribed by the battery manufacturer) when the battery depth of discharge is high. For thisreason, purely constant-voltage charging is seldom used to charge lead-acid batteries that areused in cyclic charge-discharge applications (e.g., battery in an electric vehicle). However,constant-voltage charging is often used to maintain the charge of lead-acid batteries used instandby applications (e.g., as in uninterruptable power supplies), in which case the chargeprocess is referred to as float charging (another charging method described later in thisdiscussion). Figure below showsthe charging characteristic curves obtained with the constant-voltage charging method. Thewaveform difference between the charger output voltage and the battery cell voltage at thebeginning of the charge cycle is caused by the internal resistance of the battery.

Typical charging characteristics of a SLI battery using the constant-voltage chargingmethod.

Float charging method

In the float charging method, a constant voltage, set to a value just sufficient to finish thebattery charge or to maintain the full charge is applied to the battery. Typical float chargingvoltage values range from about 2.15 V to 2.3 V per battery cell. The float charging methodis commonly used to maintain the charge of lead acid batteries used in stationaryapplications, such as in uninterruptable power supplies and SLI batteries (when the battery ischarged from the motoralternator). Note that to achieve a full recharge with a low constant voltage requires theproper selection of the starting current, which is based on the manufacturers specifications.

Modified constant-voltage charging method

In the modified constant-voltage charging method, both a constant initial current and aconstant finishing charge rate (float charging) are used. Battery charging starts with aconstant current until a certain voltage is reached (usually the gassing voltage). Batterycharging continues with a constant-voltage just equal to or slightly below the gassing voltageuntil the current decreases to a value of about 2.3V. At this point, the constant-voltage isreduced to the float value (seefloat charging method) to complete and maintain the battery charge. The higher the initialconstant-current and constant-voltage, the shorter the charge time. Figure shows the chargingcharacteristic curves obtained with the modified constant-voltage charging method. Thischarging method is also known as the fast charging method. This charging method is used inthe lead-acid battery charger (fast) implemented with the Four-QuadrantDynamometer/Power Supply.

Modified constant-voltage charging method

Trickle charging methodIn the trickle charging method, a low-value constant current is applied to the battery. Thissmall current is sufficient to maintain the full charge of a battery or to restore the charge of abattery that is used intermittently for short periods of time. The trickle charging method, alsocalled the compensating charge, is used to maintain the charge of batteries used for stationaryapplications and SLI batteries. During trickle charging, the battery is disconnected from theload (e.g. in the case of an SLI battery, the battery is disconnected from the electrical circuitof the car).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Battery connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operating as a battery discharger.

PROCEDURE:

The Procedure is divided into the following sections:

1. Setup and connections

2. Battery charge using the modified constant-voltage charging method (fast charge)3. Battery charge using the float charging method (slow charge).

RESULT:

4.SOLAR LIGHTENING SYSYTEM AND SYSTEMOPTIMISATION

AIM: Experimental study of solar lighting systems and system optimization.

APPARATUS:

1. Photovoltaic module or solar arrays.

2. Lightning device.

3. Inverter.

4. Battery.

THEORY:

Solar Photovoltaic (pv): Photovoltaic is the technical term for solar electric. Photo meanslight and voltaic means electric. PV cells are usually made of silicon, an element thatnaturally releases electrons when exposed to light. Amount of electrons released from siliconcells depend upon intensity of light incident on it. The silicon cell is covered with a grid ofmetal that directs the electrons to flow in a path to create an electric current. This current isguided into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC appliances. Typically, one cellproduces about 1.5 watts of power. Individual cells are connected together to form a solarpanel or module, capable of producing 3 to 110 Watts power. Panels can be connectedtogether in series and parallel to make a solar array, which can produce any amount ofWattage as space will allow. Modules are usually designed to supply electricity at 12 Volts.PV modules are rated by their peak Watt output as solar noon on a clear day. Someapplications for PV system are lightning for commercial buildings, outdoor (street) lightning,rural and village lightning etc. Solar PV systems are found to be economical especially in thehilly and far flung areas where conventional grid power supply will be expensive to reach.

PROCEDURE:

The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at convertingsun light into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energy will work efficiently to createelectricity.

STREET LIGHTNING SYSYTEM:

It consists of two photo-voltaic modules mounting frame, four meter long pole battery box,lead acid battery and inverters. It works with one fluorescent tube light of 20 Watts for wholenight.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Absence of moving parts.

2. Modular in nature in which desire currents, voltage and power levels can be achieved bymore integration.

3. They consume no fuel to operate on solar energy

4. Maintenance cost is low.

5. Easy to operate

6. Solar cells can be used in combination with power conducting circuits to feed powerv intoutility grid.

APPLICATIONS:

1. Home lightening system

2. Traffic control system

3. Street lightening system

4. Battery charging

RESULT:

5.STUDY OF SOLAR PV PUMPING SYSTEMAIM: Experimental study of solar PV pumping system.

APPARATUS:

1. Solar cell array

2. Inverter

3. Cable

4. Submersible pump motor

5. Delivery pipe

6. Storage tank

DIAGRAM:


APPARATUS:

1. Solar cell array

2. Inverter

3. Cable


5. Delivery pipe

6. Storage tank

DIAGRAM:


APPARATUS:

1. Solar cell array

2. Inverter

3. Cable


5. Delivery pipe

6. Storage tank

DIAGRAM:

WORKING:

A solar photo voltaic water pumping system consist of photo voltaic array mounted on astand and one of the following motor pump sets compatible with the photo voltaic array. Thisarray converts the solar energy into electricity, which is used for running the motor pump set.The pumping system draws water from the open well, bore well, streme, pond, cannel, etc.The system components of solar photovoltaic water pumping systems are photo voltaic array,motor pump, interface voltaic, connecting cables, switches and pipes etc.

The SPV water pumping system is used in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry,

poultry forming high valve crops, fish culture, salt farming, drinking water etc..

The water pumping systems are available in different types to meet various needs andapplications:

SURFACE PUMPS: These pumps are suitable for lifting and pumping water from amaximum depth of 20 meters (total head)

SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS: These pumps can be used in areas where water is available at agreater depth and where open wells are not available. The maximum recommended depththese systems can pump is 50 meters

SOLAR HAND PUMP: These pumps are exclusively designed by Balaji Industrial andagricultural casting to meet both the requirements of surface and submersible pumps. It has a

manual operation mode where the system can be used manually when sufficient sunshine isnot available to drive the pump.

b. Organic fluid based solar pumpApparatus:1. Solar collecter array2. Heat exchanger3. Organic fluid4. Heat engine5. Condenser6. PumpCIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WORKING: When the su ray falls on the solar collector, black body absorbs the sun raysand water in the tubes get heated up and circulates to the heat exchanger. Through the heatexchanger, hot water is again pumped back in the solar collector with the help of pump. Theorganic fluid in the other tube senses the heat produced in the heat exchanger and convertsits phase into vapor. Ground water is pumped with the help of a pump, which is coupledwith the heat engine.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Result:

6. EFFICIENCY OF DC/AC INVERTORS

AIM:To determine efficiency of DC/AC inverter.

APPARATUS:

Eqipment for stand-alone invertor test:

Equpiment for grid-connected invertors test:

CIRCUIT:

Experimental set up for testing of stand-alone connected inverter.

Experimental set up for testing of grid connected inverter.

THEORY:

A.STAND-ALONE INVERTERS

Stand-alone, or battery supplied, inverters are demand driven - they provide any power orcurrent up to the rating of the inverter and assuming that there is enough energy in thebattery. These inverters are being used increasingly to operate household appliances andother normal 230 V equipment. The question as to the maximum size for which a singlecentral inverter for all electrical devices is still the best solution, is a matter of philosophy.The central inverter must be in operation all the time. In this case, it is important that theinverter itself has a very low internal consumption.

Different types of inverter produce different AC waveforms and are suitable fordifferent situations.Square Wave InvertersThe square wave inverter derives its name from the shape of the output waveform figure (1)

Square wave output wave Figure (1)

Square wave inverters were the original electronic inverter. The first versions use amechanical vibrator type switch to break up the low voltage DC into pulses. These pulses arethen applied to a transformer where they are stepped up. With the advent of semiconductorswitches the mechanical vibrator was replaced with solid state transistor switches.Nowadays, the most common circuit topology, which is used to produce a square wave

output, referred to as push-pull. Square wave inverters run simple electric motors, but notmuch else, and will require a lot of energy to do so. Also, this kind of inverters is low quality.The price of better quality inverters is low enough to make the use of these unattractive.

Modified Square Wave InvertersModified square wave inverters (often referred to as modified sine wave inverters) use apush-pull topology as well as square wave inverters, with the addition of a few extra parts intheir design. However, some modified square wave inverters use another one topology, whichis called H-Bridge. Their output has the shape of the waveform of the next page (see figure2).

These inverters are a good choice for a 'whole home' inverter since their high surge capacitylets them start motors whilst their high efficiency lets them run small applianceseconomically. Most loads will run without trouble from a modified sine wave. It is suitablefor a variety of applications such as induction motors (i.e. refrigerators, drill presses);resistive loads (i.e. heaters, toasters); universal motors (i.e. hand tools, vacuum cleaners) aswell as microwaves and computers. However, some appliances will not operate or will runnoticeably less well if not on a pure sine wave.

Problem loads: e.g. many laser printers, copiers, some computers, light dimmers and somevariable speed tools may not operate; some TV's and some audio equipment will pick upinterference or background buzz; some digital clocks may not keep time; microwave ovenswill have longer cooking times; and some small battery chargers may fail. Central heatingignition systems can be problematic.

Sine Wave InvertersA sine wave inverter puts out an AC equal to what you get from utility grid, a smooth sinewave. A 'mains' quality pure sine wave output is necessary for some applications such asrunning electronics or audio equipment. Two common tolopogies that are used to producesine wave output are push-pull and H-Bridge. True sine wave inverters can run all types ofload and are now available which are powerful, efficient and affordable! Their disadvantageis their cost, which is higher than the cost of the other kinds of inverters.

B. GRID-CONNECTED INVERTERS

Grid-connected inverters are supply driven - they provide all the power supplied from a DCsource to the grid or mains. Therefore, in grid-connected systems, the solar inverter is theconnecting link between the solar generator and the AC grid, while the characteristics of theinverter have a decisive influence on the performance of the grid connected photovoltaicsystem.Generally, grid-connected inverters operate at a higher DC voltage than stand alone inverters.Grid-connected inverters should NOT be connected to batteries and stand-alone invertersshould NOT be connected directly to PV or the grid. Smaller systems with few appliancesmay have only DC power, but recent advances in inverter design, efficiency, and reliabilityhave increased the potential of solar systems considerably.

With the use of modern high efficiency AC lighting the majority of, if not all, loads can beoperated on AC especially in larger installations. We can use both AC & DC where each ismost effective and economical - many DC appliances use less power than their ACequivalents (especially refrigeration, lighting & electronics) - but DC appliances tend to beharder to find and more expensive.

PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING EFFICIENCY:

EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS:

EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS:

Rated output efficiencyRated output efficiency will be calculated from measured data as follows:nR = (Po / Pi) * 100 (1)wherenR is the rated output efficiency (%);Po is the rated output power from the inverter (kW);Pi is the input power to the inverter at rated output (kW).

Partial output efficiencyPartial output efficiency will be calculated from measured data as follows:npar = (Pop / Pip) * 100 (2)wherenpar is the partial output efficiency (%);Pop is the partial output power from the inverter (kW);Pip is the input power to the inverter at partial output (kW).

MODEL GRAPHs:

Graph of efficiencies

RESULT:

7. Measurement of Intensity of solar radiationAim: To measure the Intensity of solar radiation

Apparatus:

1. Pyranometer

2. Pyrheliometer

Theory:

A Pyranometer: is an instrument for measuring solar irradiance from the solid angle 2 ontoa plane surface. When mounted horizontally facing upwards it measures global solarirradiance. If it is provided with a shade that prevents beam solar radiation from reaching thereceiver, it measures diffuse solar irradiance.

These radiometers must be calibrated periodically against a standard. An accuracy of about3% is then obtainable in good instruments.

Great care is needed when choosing a site for these radiometers, especially when themeasurements are required for climatological studies in conjunction with measurements byother instruments over a large area. It is surprisingly difficult to find sites that have anuninterrupted view of the sky from the zenith to the horizon in all directions. Objects thatstand above the horizontal plane of the instrument obscure part of the sky and influence thediffuse solar irradiance measured.

Pyrheliometer:

The receiver of the instrument consists of two thin strips of manganin, made as identical inevery way as possible. One strip is exposed to the sun radiation, while the other one isscreened from the sun. Through the screened strip an electric current is passed, the intensityof which is regulated so that heating of the two strips is the same.

To secure this thermo junctions connected through a sensitive galvanometer are attached tothe central points at the back side of the two strips. A current through the screened strip isadjusted, so that the galvanometer shows no deflection.PROCEDURE:

The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power contained in the sunlight,but also on the angle between the module and the sun. When the absorbing surface and thesunlight are perpendicular to each other, the power density on the surface is equal to that ofthe sunlight (in other words, the power density will always be at its maximum when the PVmodule is perpendicular to the sun). However, as the angle between the sun and a fixedsurface is continually changing, the power density on a fixed PV module is less than that ofthe incident sunlight.

The amount of solar radiation incident on a tilted module surface is the component of theincident solar radiation which is perpendicular to the module surface. The following figureshows how to calculate the radiation incident on a tilted surface (Smodule) given either thesolar radiation measured on horizontal surface (Shoriz) or the solar radiation measuredperpendicular to the sun (Sincident).

CALCULATIONS:-

RESULT:-

8. Designing of grid-connected PV System using PVsyst

Grid-connected system definition:The "system" is defined as the set of components constituting the PV-array, the inverter, upto the connection to the grid.

First rule: all the strings of modules connected to the input of an inverter (or a MPPT input),should be homogeneous: identical modules, same number of modules in series, sameorientation.Exceptions may sometimes be acceptable - as far as only differences in the current of stringsareconcerned - for example strings of different orientations (cf Heterogeneous planes ).

PVsyst now allows the construction of heterogeneous systems with several differentsubfields.For a given subfield: you have to define your requirements, and PVsyst will automaticallypropose a suited arrangement.

The basic requirements for a sub-field (i.e. the parameters you should input) are:- The desired nominal power, or alternatively the available area for installing modules,- The inverter model, chosen in the database,- A PV module model, chosen in the database.

Then the program will choose the required number of inverters, according to a pre-definedPnom array/inverter ratio of 1.25. It will then propose a number of modules in series, and anumber of strings in order to approach the desired power or available area.

The acceptable choices for the number of modules in series/parallel are mentioned on thedialog. They should meet the following requirements:- The minimum array voltage in worst temperature conditions (60C) should not be under theinverter's voltage range for MPPT,















- The maximum array voltage in worst temperature conditions (20C) should not be abovethe inverter's voltage range for MPPT,- The maximum array voltage in open circuit should not exceed the absolute maximumvoltage at the input of the inverter,- The maximum array voltage in open circuit should not exceed the allowed system voltagespecified for the PV module.

The inverter power sizing is a delicate and debated problem. PVsyst proposes amethodology based on the predicted overload losses. This usually leads to Pnom ratios farbelow those recommended by inverter's providers, but we think that they are closer to aneconomical optimum. All these conditions are explicitly displayed on a system sizing graph,(button "Show sizing").

Array voltage sizing according to inverter:

The number of modules in series has to match the following conditions:- The minimum array operating voltage (i.e. at max. module operating temperature, 60C bydefault) should be above the minimum inverter's operating voltage (Vmin of MPPT range).- The maximum array operating voltage (i.e. at min. module operating temperature, 20C bydefault) has to stay below the maximum inverter's operating voltage (Vmax of MPPT range).- The maximum array absolute voltage (i.e. Voc at min. temperature, -10C by default) hasto stay below the absolute maximum inverter's input voltage.- The maximum array absolute voltage (i.e. Voc at min. temperature, -10C by default)should not overcome the maximum system voltage specified for the PV module.

Design temperatures:

These conditions involve design temperatures, which are part of your project and may bechanged according to your climate in the definition of the project, option "Site and Meteo" /"Next". The default values (for each new project) may be redefined in the Hidden Parameters,topic "System design parameters". These are:- Maximum cell temperature in operating conditions, default 60C,- Summer usual operating conditions, not used for sizing constraints, default 50C,- Winter minimum cell temperature in operating conditions, default 20C,- Absolute Cell lower temperature for determining the Maximum possible voltage of thearray. The default is set to -10C for most European countries (best practice rule). For thislimit, the cell temperature is considered as the ambient temperature (worst case when the sunsuddenly appears on the field).

Inverter / Array sizing:

The inverter power sizing is a delicate and debated problem.Most inverter providers recommend (or require) a PNom array limit or a fixed Pnom(inverter/array) ratio,usually of the order of 1.0 to 1.1.But we have to notice:- The Pnom of the inverter is defined as the output power. The corresponding input power isPnomDC =PnomAC / Effic, i.e. about 4 to 6% over.- The Pnom array is defined for the STC. But in real conditions, this value is very rarely ornever attained (the power under 1000 W/m and 25C is equivalent to that under 1120 W/mat 55C if we take a Pmpp= -0.4%/C).- The power distribution is strongly dependent on the plane orientation,

- But the maximum powers are not very much dependent on the latitude: by clear day andperpendicular to the sun rays, the irradiance is quite comparable, only dependent on the airmass,- Most inverters accept a part of overload during short times (dependent on the temperature ofthe device). This is not taken into account in the simulation, and may still reduce decalculated overload loss,- When over-sized, the inverter will operate more often in its low power range, where theefficiency is decreasing.

Grid Inverter sizing:

Please note that the inverter sizing should take into account the fact that:- the inverter nominal power is defined as the device output power. The corresponding inputower has to be increased by a factor 1 / Efficiency (about +4 to +8% at maximum power).- the array nominal power is defined at STC (1000 W/m, 25C). Under operatingconditions the module temperature, mismatch and other losses decrease the effective arrayoutput power of at least15 to 20% from the given nominal power. Therefore, for properoperation an inverter nominal power about 20-25% below the array nominal power issufficient.

System sizing

As with any usual system, you are advised to start by specifying the required power for yoursubfield (or the available area). After that you have to choose a PV module. When choosing aSolarEdge inverter, the system sizing dialog will change to a suited dialog for the SolarEdgearchitecture, and predefine the number of required inverters for your system size. You havefirst to choose the Power Box to be used in your system (in the PV module group). Then inthe Array design part, please define the Power Box input configuration, i.e. the number of PVmodules connected to each Power Box (according to number of available inputs).

Then you define the inverter input:

- The number of Power Boxes in Series. The limits described above are shown on the right ofthe edit box. The nominal power corresponding to a whole string is shown, as well as the partof the inverter capacity (in percent). This very important information indicates how manyidentical strings you can connect on one inverter. For example if more that 50%, only onestring of that length can be connected to each inverter.- The number of Strings in Parallel. When one only string is allowed per inverter, this will belimited to the number of inverters. Below 50% capacity, this will be 2 times this number ormore You are of course advised to use the "Show Sizing" tool for visually checking the

sizing of this sub-field.

Systems with different strings

When you have strings with different lengths, you should define different sub-arrays, one foreach length to be defined. In this case within a subfield, only a part of the inverter will beused for each string. Therefore you should define "Uses fractional Input" option, and definethe inverter fraction to be used for this string. When several inverters are used, this will be thefraction for one inverter times the number of inverters. This will allow the use of thecomplement of each inverter within another subfield, with the suited fraction (for example70% in one subfield and 30% in another one). The total number of inverters defined in thewhole system appears in the "Global system summary" table at the top right of the dialog.When inverter inputs are connected to strings of different lengths, the program is not able tocheck the full Compatibility of your system. You should check by yourself that the definedfractions are compatible with the foreseen strings.

SimulationWith distributed SolarEdge architecture:- there are no mismatch losses,- the near shadings should be defined as "Linear", i.e. without string partition.Linear shading is a good approximation for the shadings in SolarEdge architecture. Asopposed to theoption "according to module strings", that is used for the upper bound of electrical losseswith regular inverters. The most exact way for SolarEdge simulation would be to define astring partition with rectangles corresponding to the number of PV modules in series at theinput of one Power Box. These very little rectangles will reduce drastically the usualelectrical shading losses observed with full strings, except in very regular cases like shedarrangement, where each module of the lower row becomes unproductive as soon as thebottom cell is shaded.

9. PAY BACK ANALYSISAim: To determine the Pay back analysis, financial work sheet of a Renewable energyproject.Theory: Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert Sunlight directly into Electricity. This PVsystems vary greatly in size and cost, calculating the economics of a solar system is key toknowing whether a solar system is right for your home, business or farm. Knowing theeconomics of solar PV systems will be one of the most important considerations whendeciding on solar energy. Here you should view your solar PV system as an investment; thisdecision should be made after determining the feasibility of installing a solar system atspecific site. This experiment focuses on grid-tied PV systems. These economic calculationswill be similar for off-grid systems.

Procedure:

1. Determine if you have a viable site (facing south )2. Determine the total installed cost of a system from the local solar installer, Work with

the installer to estimate annual production from solar array.3. Determine your cost of electricity, Check state net metering laws, and check local

utilities net metering policy.4. Calculate simple payback period.5. Determine eligibility for local, state and federal grants and tax credits.6. Include inflation estimate in your calculations.7. Calculate Internal Rate of return and Net Present value using a spread sheet.

CALCULATIONS:

Example:

ASSUMPTIONS:Capacity 1 MWCost of Project (Rs ) 70230000 Per MW costProject cost excluding land (Rs) 66690000 70230000Technical Inputs:Capacity Utilization factor 19.50%Degredation for Ist year 2%Degredation year on year 0.70%Generation 1st year 1674036Length of transmission line 5 KmLossess per Km 0.05%Total loss 0.25%Sale of Power:PPA tariff 0 Rs per unitPPA tariff year on year escalation 0.00%APPC rate 3 Rs per unitAPPC tariff year on year escalation 5.00%Rate of REC 3.5 Rs per unitRate valid upto years 3 yearsREC rate after the years 3.5 Rs per unitCDM Benefits:Grid Emission factor 0.916 tones of Co2/MWhrCER rate 1.5 Euro%of revenue available to the owner 50%CDM benefit start year 2No of years of CDM benefit 10VCU rate 2 Dollars

Project Financing:Debt 70% %Debt 49161000 Rs in lakhsEquity 21069000 Rs in lakhsSubsidy Rs in lakhsInterest on term loan 12.50%period of loan 10 yearsMoratorium 1 yearsOperating Expenses:

O&M Charges 500000 per MWO&M charges escalation 5%Insurance 0.50% Of COP

Working Capital Requirment:O&M charges 1 MonthsAccounts Receivable 1.5 MonthsSpares 10.0% (% of O&M)Interest 12% % p.a

Taxation:MAT rate 20.96%Income tax rate 32.45%80 I/A holiday starts from 4 yearDepreciationUse WDV book depreciation at 15.33% ?(y/n) yUse accelerated Dep (y/n) yAccelerated Dep in 1st year 80% ( 40% or 80%)Standalone project n ( y/n)

Other Parameters:Exchange rate ( Euro) 90 RsExchange rate ( Dollar) 62 RsDiscounting rate for NPV 12%FeasibilityIndicators:Project Pay Back No of years 6.80Equity Pay Back No of years 10.14Project NPV Rs 8578530Equity NPV Rs 9110076Project IRR % 15%Equity IRR % 18%DSCR 1.24

COST OF SOLAR PV PROJECT

SlNo. Particulars Nos

per unitcost

Cost perMW ( Rs inlakhs)

Total cost (Rs in lakhs)

Cost of land & boyndary wall etc1 Cost of land ( in Acres) 4 400000 16000002 Conveyancing charges 15% 2400003 Boundary wall (mt) 600 2000 12000004 Site development 1 500000 500000

Sub Total 3540000 3540000Plant & Machinery:

5 Modules 1000000 36 36000000 360000006 Inverters 2 2000000 4000000 40000007 Module mounting structures 55 70000 3850000 38500008 Cables & connectors 1 2500000 2500000 25000009 SJB 12 80000 960000 960000

10 Lightning arresters 10 50000 500000 50000011 Transformer & HT panels 1 6000000 6000000 600000012 Evacuation line 5 1200000 6000000 6000000

Civil Construction: 5981000013 Inverter & control Room (Sqft) 1200 2400 288000014 Trenches 1 300000 30000015 Internal roads 1 500000 500000

Sub Total 3680000 368000016 SCADA 1 1000000 1000000 100000017 Metering panels 1 200000 200000 20000018 Misc approvals etc 1 2000000 2000000 2000000

320000070230000 70230000

Cost of Project without land cost 66690000

10. Performance analysis of PV systems using PVsystPage 1/3

Grid-Connected System: Simulation parameters

Project : BVRIT SOLAR PLANT 100kWpGeographical Site Narsapur, Medak Country India

Situation Latitude 17.7N Longitude 78.3ETime defined as Legal Time Time zone UT+6 Altitude 560 m

Albedo 0.20Meteo data : Narsapur, Medak, Synthetic Hourly data

Simulation variant : No shading effectsSimulation date 21/02/14 23h59

Simulation parameters

Collector Plane Orientation Tilt 17 Azimuth 0

Horizon Free Horizon

Near Shadings No Shadings

PV Array Characteristics

PV module Si-poly Model SIRIUS-250Manufacturer SIRIUS SOLAR ENERGY

Number of PV modules In series 20 modules In parallel 20 stringsTotal number of PV modules Nb. modules 400 Unit Nom. Power 250 WpArray global power Nominal (STC) 100 kWp At operating cond. 88 kWp (50C)Array operating characteristics (50C) U mpp 534 V I mpp 165 ATotal area Module area 644 m

Inverter Model RefuSol 20KManufacturer REFU Elektronik GmbH

Characteristics Operating Voltage 480-800 V Unit Nom. Power 19.2 kW ACInverter pack Number of Inverter 5 units Total Power 96.0 kW AC

PV Array loss factorsThermal Loss factor Uc (const) 20.0 W/mK Uv (wind) 0.0 W/mK / m/s

=> Nominal Oper. Coll. Temp. (G=800 W/m, Tamb=20C, Wind velocity = 1m/s.) NOCT 56 CWiring Ohmic Loss Global array res. 55 mOhm Loss Fraction 1.5 % at STCModule Quality Loss Loss Fraction 2.0 %Module Mismatch Losses Loss Fraction 2.0 % at MPPIncidence effect, ASHRAE parametrization IAM = 1 - bo (1/cos i - 1) bo Parameter 0.05

User's needs : Unlimited load (grid)

GlobHor

kWh/m

T Amb

C

GlobInc

kWh/m

GlobEff

kWh/m

EArray

kWh

E_Grid

kWh

EffArrR

%

EffSysR

%

JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJune JulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember

160.1

165.8204.5207.1203.6158.6145.1139.9144.6150.2151.5154.2

22.88

25.9731.1729.9132.1827.8726.2726.3126.2624.3524.8122.62

190.7

188.4215.0202.9189.1145.7136.7135.3145.6160.8177.3189.4

185.5

183.3209.0196.8182.8140.6131.7130.8141.0156.0172.1183.8

15046

1412515632152171399611244109191074811488128441381014907

14725

1382215304148961368610985106711050311232125731352314596

12.25

11.6411.2911.6511.5011.9812.4112.3412.2612.4112.1012.23

11.99

11.3911.0611.4011.2411.7112.1312.0611.9812.1511.8411.97

Year 1985.1 26.72 2077.0 2013.5 159975 156514 11.96 11.70

Nor

mal

ized

Ener

gy[k

Wh/

kWp/

day]

Perfo

rman

ceR

atio

PR

PVSYST V5.14 22/02/14 Page 2/3

Grid-Connected System: Main results

Project : BVRIT SOLAR PLANT 100kWpSimulation variant : No shading effects

Main system parameters System type Grid-ConnectedPV Field Orientation tilt 17 azimuth 0PV modules Model SIRIUS-250 Pnom 250 WpPV Array Nb. of modules 400 Pnom total 100 kWpInverter Model RefuSol 20K Pnom 19 kW acInverter pack Nb. of units 5.0 Pnom total 96 kW acUser's needs Unlimited load (grid)

Main simulation resultsSystem Production Produced Energy 157 MWh/year Specific prod. 1565 kWh/kWp/year

Performance Ratio PR 75.4 %

Normalized productions (per installed kWp): Nominal power 100 kWp Performance Ratio PR8 0.8

PR : Performance Ratio (Yf / Yr) : 0.754Lc : Collection Loss (PV-array losses) 1.31 kWh/kWp/dayLs : System Loss (inverter, ...) 0.09 kWh/kWp/day

7 Yf : Produced useful energy (inverter output) 4.29 kWh/kWp/day 0.7

6 0.6

5 0.5

4 0.4

3 0.3

2 0.2

1 0.1

0 0.0Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

New simulation variantBalances and main results

Legends: GlobHor Horizontal global irradiation EArray Effective energy at the output of the arrayT Amb Ambient Temperature E_Grid Energy injected into gridGlobInc Global incident in coll. plane EffArrR Effic. Eout array / rough areaGlobEff Effective Global, corr. for IAM and shadings EffSysR Effic. Eout system / rough area

PVSYST V5.14 22/02/14 Page 3/3

Grid-Connected System: Loss diagram

Project : BVRIT SOLAR PLANT 100kWpSimulation variant : No shading effects

Main system parameters System type Grid-ConnectedPV Field Orientation tilt 17 azimuth 0PV modules Model SIRIUS-250 Pnom 250 WpPV Array Nb. of modules 400 Pnom total 100 kWpInverter Model RefuSol 20K Pnom 19 kW acInverter pack Nb. of units 5.0 Pnom total 96 kW acUser's needs Unlimited load (grid)

11. PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR LAMPAim: To study the performance of Solar lamp.

Apparatus: Solar panel, LED

Theory:

Limited energy resources, increased energy demands, as well as energy market speculationshave recently escalated the energy prices. This indeed has an enormous impact on industry growth-rates, product prices, transportation costs, and therefore an impact on our lifestyles. Our economy hasbeen too dependent on fossil fuels, resulting in increased CO2 emissions worldwide which havefurther accelerated climatic changes at an alarming speed. Higher energy costs have afforded thefurther adoption of renewable energy like waterpower, biomass heating, wind turbines, tidal powerand, last but not least, solar technologies.

Electricity from the sun is a versatile technology that can be scaled up from small to largeapplications. The modular nature of solar technology enables us to construct distributed electricity-generating systems in increments as demands grow, to improve supply reliability, and to moderatedistribution and transmission costs. And because sunlight is widely available, we can buildgeographically diverse solar electric systems that are less vulnerable to international energy politics,volatile fossil-fuel-based markets, and transmission failures. One part of solar technology is based onphotovoltaic cells, which convert light into direct current using the photoelectric effect. The first PV-cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity. Today PV-cells with about 20-30% areavailable on the market. Germany has become the leading PV market worldwide since revising itsfeed-in tariff system as part of the Renewable Energy Sources Act. Installed PV capacity has risenfrom 100 MW in 2000 to approximately 4150 MW at the end of 2007.

Besides renewable energy sources, efficient consumer loads are needed and in this respect theLED technology plays an important role in reducing energy consumption in lighting. A mainadvantage of the PV-cell technology and LED technology is the fact that they can easily becombined, because the voltages produced by PV-cells and the LED load-voltage can be matched.These systems are highly efficient without additional voltage transformation stages. Today, LED-Solar systems are used in street-lighting, residential lighting where no or poor mains are available,and in mobile lighting systems, e.g. the World Banks Lighting Africa initiative supports providinglight to underdeveloped regions.

It is incredible that about 20% of electricity is used for lighting worldwide and that, for somemunicipalities, up to 40% of the electricity bills are calculated for street lighting. In todaysenvironmentally- and budget conscious society, engineers have combined two existing technologiesto help reduce energy costs as well as CO2 emissions. This most recent generation of solar LED streetlights provides a mature optical design, thoroughly chosen and dimensioned components, andoptimized, robust electronics. Subject to these premises, the combination of photovoltaic and LEDtechnology allows for street lighting, pedestrian lighting, park lighting, etc., and shows numerousadvantages over conventional systems: lowered maintenance costs, reduced light pollution, reducedCO2 emissions, and an enhanced green image for cities, which attracts new investors, companies,and inhabitants

Benefits of new solar lighting solutions include significant cost savings, less fire risk fromKerosene type lanterns, and no direct carbon footprint and the use of a sustainable naturalcommodity, sunlight or manpower to generate electricity. In addition there are economic and socialbenefits from being able to undertake activities in the evening hours. Other products and servicescould involve crank able torches, woodstove and water purifiers.

Advantages of LEDs in (solar) street lightingThere are numerous advantages for LED technology: Directed light output system efficiency/homogeneous illumination Low voltages best fit for solar-powered street lighting Long and predictable service intervals reduced maintenance costs Reliability and long lifetime increased road safety Dimming adjusting to specific ambient light levels

Small package size flexible, flat and compact luminaries design High-color rendering appearance and safety LED contains no polluting materials easy lamp recycling Higher light output even at low temperatures.

Especially for PV applications, the LED is the perfect product choice. The low DC forward voltage ofLEDs can be applied with an electronic circuit to the battery power. Alternatively an electronic boostconverter can easily be used to achieve a higher DC voltage and to drive more LEDs in series.

Total Cost of Ownership (TCO):

The LED + PV solution requires a higher investment in the beginning, but the digging work for thepower cable and the energy costs are not applicable. With the long LED lifetime, expensivemaintenance work can be decreased, resulting in a benefit for LED over traditional lighting.

Solar Streetlights (StreetSun)Pieces Product Price/Unit Price

11 Solar Streetlights 2480/- 27280/-11 Foundation 300/- 3300/-44 Batteries 200/- 8800/-22 LED modules 240/- 5280/-

Total 44660/-Traditional Streetlights

9 Street Lights 1600/- 14400/-1 Digging, 9 foundations, cabling 15058/- 15058/-

36 Illuminants 51 1836/-Electricity 32248/- 32248/-

Total 63542/-

This results in a relaxed budget for the municipalities as an average city spends about 40% of itselectrical bill on street lighting. The zero-energy consumption of the solar lights additionally helps tofulfill the strong targets of CO2 reduction.

Conclusion:

Improvements in recent years in LED technology and photovoltaic technology allow for attractivelydesigned street lighting products and adequate light output for most requirements, even under winterconditions with poor solar input. The preconditions are a well-designed optical

System that guarantees good light distribution with minimal losses, and the usage of the best, mostefficient, high-quality components available. Regarding TCO, this combination is competitive today.Replacing line driven streetlights with solar streetlights would be a valuable contribution to energysaving and CO2 reduction. Considering the research results of recent laboratory samples of PV cellsand LEDs, we can expect a bright future for these two combined technologies.

Powe and Energy Lab Manual - M.tech (PEES)-II Sem Lab

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