POULTRY BASIC ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (DBBM – 102)

PRACTICAL GUIDE / RECORD

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY MANAGEMENTSUGUNA INSTITUTE OF POULTRY MANAGEMENT

UDUMALPET-642 207

NAME :YEAR :BATCH :

ID NUMBER :

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by Thiru _____________________________________

ID No.____________________

Submitted for the practical examination held on___________

at the Department of Poultry Management, Suguna Institute of Poultry Management, Udumalpet.

Course Teacher

Senior Faculty (HOD)

EXAMINERS

INDEX

DBBM-102 POULTRY BASIC ANATOMY& PHYSIOLOGY

Ex.NO Date TITLEPage No.

Date of Submis-

sion

Signature

1 Comb Patterns

2 Feather Patterns &Tracks

3 Chicken Skeletal System and Res-piratory System

4 Chicken Digestive System and En-zymes Production in digestion

5 Commercial Broiler farm visit-1

6 Commercial Broiler farm visit-2

7 Thermoregulatory Mechanism

8 Chicken reproductive System(Male & Female)

9 Identification And Marking Of Chicken Endocrine Organs and its Functions

10 Chicken Circulatory System and Excretory System

11 Breeder farm visit-1

12 Breeder farm visit-2

13 Drawing of Egg Structure Egg Quality Measurement (Internal &External)

14 Feed mill visit

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Neatness and cleanliness of the individual, his environment, work table

and appliances is essential.

2. Record every stage of experiment in the observation notebook with date,

exercise number and time.

3. Check for the cleanliness of the glass wares and identify chemicals before

use. Replace them in their original place immediately after use. Glass

wares must be rinsed well in distilled water before and after use. Pipettes

and burettes must be rinsed with the solution to be used.

4. Be attentive, bear in mind that any slight error is likely to spoil the result.

5. At the end of the experiment get your work attested by the staff. Clarify

the doubts on the spot without postponing.

6. The record should be written neatly without any omission. Draw diagrams

wherever required.

7. Submit the record on due date.

8. The instructions written by the staff after correction, should be carried out

before you resubmit the record. Any defects pointed out should be recti-

fied.

9. Attend all practical tests. Do not neglect revision practicals.

Ex.No:1 Date:

COMB PATTERNS

Comb patterns help in identifying the various breeds and varieties of chicken. The common comb pattern noticed in chicken is the ‘single comb’. This comb is very prominent in the breed known as White Leghorn. A typical comb namely has a base, blade serrations, points and spikes.

The comb is an indicator of the reproductive ability of the bird as the growth of the comb is controlled by oestrogen and androgen harmones of the bird. An experienced farm hand will distinguish a healthy bird from an unhealthy bird by seeing the comb alone. The comb should be brick red in

colour and erect (expect in white Leghorn females where it lops on anyone side) it should be prominent, rigid, velvety, soft, warm and waxy to touch. Unhealthy birds or a poor layer will have a dry, shrunken, pale, cold comb, with chalky deposits over the surface. Some of the diseases can be identified by the colour and condition of the comb.

The varieties of comb are:1. Single comb2. Rose comb3. Pea comb4. Strawberry comb or Walnut comb5. Cushion comb6. Cap comb7. Cup comb

1. Single comb:This is a comb when viewed from the front is narrow and has spikes

in line, one behind other. It consists of a blade which is the lower solid portion. The space between the spikes are known as serrations. The serrations and spikes are definite in size and shape in different breeds. The White leghorn has five or six spikes. The Rhode Island Red has six spikes. The number of spikes on the comb depends on the action of the modifying genes.

(e.g) White Leghorn, White Rock.

2. Rose comb:

This comb is nearly flat on the top and is covered with small irregular points finished with spikes. It varies and the length of carriage varies according to the breed. The modifying genes determine the size and number of rounded points on the comb as well as the length and direction of the spikes. The Rose comb is dominant over the single comb.

(e.g) Rose combed Leghorn, Wyandotte.

3. Pea comb:

This is a comb resembling three very small single combs joined together at the base and rear. The pea comb is governed by a dominant gene.

(e.g) White Cornish, Dark Cornish

4. Walnut comb:

This comb resembles one half of a strawberry fruit or a walnut with the round part uppermost. It is small in size and has irregular grooves on the surface. When a rose comb and pea comb breed is crossed, the progeny will be walnut combed.

(e.g) Malay, Kvaienkoppe

5. Cushion comb:

This comb is basically noticed in the silkie breed.

(e.g) Silkie

6. Cap comb or V-shaped comb:

This comb will be in the form of a stylish cap this is seen in red cap breeds.

(e.g) Polish

7. Cup comb:

This comb is cupped between two single combs stretched further apart and fused at the base. This is seen in butter cup breeds.

(e.g) Butter cup, Poland

Ex.No:2 Date:

FEATHER

• Feather serves as a protection to the bird from extremes of weather by insulating the body. They are essential for flight. The Feather Pattern and colour will assist in identifying the breed and variety and also help in identifying, the sex of the bird, because sexual dimorphism exists in the feather pattern of chicken.

• In the male fowl the tail feathers are sickle shaped, called sickle feather. In case of ducks the male has a curved tail feather (sex curl) known as the ‘Drake Feather’, which is useful in identifying the sex of the bird. In the Tom turkey the tail feather is long when compared to that of the female. In the Japanese quail he feathers on the neck and breast region of the male is golden or rust brown, while in the female it is specked. Feathers also help in identifying a

good layer from a non-layer, an old layer from a young layer and also to identify the stage of moult in a bird.

• Feather colour-light and darkened shades of colour etc. play a very important role in identifying breeds.

• The root is called as ‘calamus’. The base is called as the ‘quill’, which gives rise to a structure known as a shaft in turn terminates in a structure called ‘rachis’.

• The structure called barbs arise from the shaft rise to the barbule. This further gives rise to barbicels. These join together to form the vane.

FEATHER TYPES:

The various types of feathers are as follows:

1. Contour feather: This forms the general covering of the body and wings including

the large flight feather of the wings.

2. Convert feather: These are noticed on the base of the wings and do not have

barbicels: also called as fluff.

3. Down feather: This is present in newly hatched chicks. Sometimes it is seen below

the contour feathers especially in the abdominal and head regions.

4. Filo plume:Hair like structures under the contour feathers of the body, which

can be seen when the feathers are plucked. It consists of an axis and very few terminal barbs.

FEATHER TRACTS:

Even though the body of the bird looks fully covered with feathers, it has originated only from certain definite feather tracts called pterylae. There are 10 pairs of feather tracts.

1. Cephalic 6. Ventral 2. Alar 7. Femoral3. Humoral 8. Cervical4. Spinal 9. Auxiliary5. Crural 10. CaudalDuring the moulting process the feathers are shed in a particular pattern

starting from the cephalic tract and finally ending with the crural tract.

Ex.No:3 Date:

CHICKEN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The chicken’s beak is composed of hard keratinized epidermal tissue. This rostral structure forms part of the upper and lower jaws. Some bones of the avian species are considered pneumatic as a result of diver-ticula from the air sacs. These air sac diverticula result in a direct connection between the respiratory system and the skeletal system of avians. The vertebral column is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coc-cygeal areas:

1. The cervical vertebrae are the neck bones. 2. The thoracic vertebrae are those in the thoracic, or chest, area. 3. The lumbar vertebrae are those in the abdominal area. 4. The sacral vertebrae are those in the pelvic area. 5. The coccygeal vertebrae are those in the tail area.

The bones of the pectoral girdle are the clavicle, coracoid, and scapula: 1. The clavicle, also called the wishbone, pulley bone, or furculum, lies at

the base of the neck. It is a fused bone. The intraclavicular air sacs are located between the two branches of the clavicle.

2. The coracoid bones lie on either side of the ribcage, and attach the shoulders to the breast bone. They lie just caudal to the clavicle, and are thick bones when compared to the clavicle.

3. The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a long thin bone which runs along the top of each side of the ribcage.

The bones of the wing are the humerus, radius, ulna, and wingtip: 1. The humerus is the upper wing bone. 2. The radius is the small straight lower wing bone. 3. The wingtip bone is the bone at the very end of the wing.

The pelvic girdle is composed of the synsacrum, ilium, ischium, and pubis (there is not a pubic symphysis in the chicken skeleton, probably an adaptation for egg laying):

1. The lumbar, sacral, and first six caudal (coccygeal) vertebrae are fused into an immobile dorsal bony structure referred to as the synsacrum.

2. The ilium is part of the pelvic girdle, and is a flat bone on each side of the anterior half of the synsacrum.

3. The ischium is part of the pelvic girdle, and is a flat bone on each side of the posterior half of the synsacrum.

4. The pubis, also known as the pin bone, is a long thin bone that runs along the ventral side of the ischium.

The leg of the chicken is composed of the femur, tibia, fibula, and shank: 1. The femur is the upper leg bone, which is located in the thigh of the

chicken. 2. The tibia is the major lower leg bone, which is located in the drumstick

of the chicken. 3. The fibula is a very small bone in the lower leg, or drumstick, of chick-

ens. 4. The shank is the portion of the leg below the hock joint. It is normally

removed during the slaughter process along with the paw. 5. The hock joint is located between the drumstick and the shank. It is

normally exposed for postmortem inspection.

The sternum, also called the keel or breast bone, is a single large bone on the ventral surface of the body. Ribs are divided into two types. The vertebral ribs are those that originate from the vertebral column. The sternal ribs are those that originate from the sternum (keel, breast bone).

Ex.No:3 Date:

CHICKEN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system of birds is more complex than the mammalian counterpart. For our purposes, the system in the bird is comprised of the trachea, syrinx, lungs, and air sacs.

The trachea, or windpipe, is the structure through which air enters the bird, and has cartilaginous rings along its length. The syrinx is located where the trachea bifurcates (splits into two separate branches), and is similar to the larynx (voice box) of mammals.

Air passes through the trachea and at the terminal portions of the trachea the air sac structures bud out. These are very thin, colorless membranes that, when inflated with air, resemble tiny balloons inside the body cavity.

The function of the lungs is to facilitate gas exchange. However, because avians have air sacs, air flows through avian lungs on both inspiration and ex-piration. As well as functioning in respiration, air sacs may also regulate intra body pressure and body temperature. The number of air sacs varies in different species. Most birds have nine air sacs.

The most anterior air sac is the cervical. It lies, as the name implies, in the neck area and is not observed during postmortem inspection. It is the only air sac in the young chicken not observed during postmortem inspection.

The next air sac, moving in a caudal direction, is the inter clavicular air sac. Some information to remember about this particular air sac is that it lies between the clavicles (as the name implies), is the most anterior air sac ob-served on postmortem inspection, and has communication with other tissues, including bone, through diverticula (tiny fingerlike projections). The diverticula

from the inter clavicular air sac have the following communications: (1) into the breastbone, (2) into the bones of the shoulder girdle, and (3) around the shoulder joint.

The thoracic air sacs are next and lie in the rib cage area. In chickens and ducks there are two pairs- anterior and posterior- whereas the turkey only has one pair of thoracic air sacs.

The abdominal air sacs are paired ,very thin and are located in the ab-dominal part of the body cavity. Since it is very thin and is unable to observe in the opened carcass.

Ex.No:4 Date:

CHICKEN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Feed consumed by a chicken break down in its digestive tract, with the complex nutrients being converted into simple nutrients in intestine for absorption. This is known as digestion.

• Enzymes produced in the digestive system have a specific func-tion in breaking down complex molecules into simpler units of re-spective nutrients for absorption. The digestive and absorptive processes in a chicken are rapid and take less than three hours.

• The following parts comprise of digestive system in chicken.1. Mouth, 2.Esophagus, 3.Crop, 4.Proventriculus, 5.Gizzard, 6.Small Intestine, 7.Ceca, 8. Large Intestine, 9.Cloaca and 10.Vent. Supplementary organs are Pancreas, Liver and Gall bladder.Mouth:

Chicken has no teeth or cheeks but a horny immovable upper and mov-able lower beak serves as prehensile organ. Saliva is secreted in mouth which contains enzyme amylase. Saliva lubricates the feed and helps in transporting the feed down to esophagus into the crop. Chicken has tongue and in it has taste buds. Birds do respond to salt, sugar, hot and cold taste but not to chilies and pepper as this number of taste buds are less.Esophagus

The esophagus or gullet is the tube through which the food process on its way from the back of the mouth (pharynx) to the proventriculus. It is composed of two regions the upper part(between the mouth and crop)is approximately 8

inches(20cm) long in the adult chicken, while the lower part (between the crop and proventriculus)is about 6 inches(16cm)in length. Birds can not swallow feed but has to be send into the proventriculus by gravitational force when mixed with saliva and drinking water.Crop

This acts as storage place for food. No digestion takes place here. The stored material slowly enters into proventriculus from here by constant peri-staltic movement.Proventriculus

This is a true glandular stomach of the chicken and digestive juices are produced and secreted. Hydrochloric acid and pepsin are secreted here. Feed digestion doesn’t start here as the stay is for a very short period .Gizzard

This is muscular stomach and helps in grinding the food particles. Gizzard always has some grit and it helps in grinding the coarse food particles. Calcium grit stays in gizzard and helps in grinding.

Small Intestine Small Intestine has duodenum and Ileum. Duodenum has a duodenal loop

which contains the pancreas and islet of Langerhans which secretes insulin. Pancreatic juice contains enzyme amylases, lipase and trypsin. Small Intestine is about 50 to 60 cm long. This is primary area where the nutrient are enzymat-ically digested and absorbed.Ceca

Two blind pouches lie between small and large intestine is known as ceca. Each cecum is about six inches long in adult birds. No digestion or absorption takes place here except for water absorption. It is believed that microbial fer-mentation of dietary fibre takes place in ceca to a certain extent.Large Intestine

Large intestine is only four to five inches in length in adult bird. Here also only water absorption takes place and helps in maintaining water balance.Cloaca

The end of alimentary canal is known as the cloaca. Here the openings of digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts are situated.Vent

The vent or anus is the external opening of the cloaca.

Ex.No:4 Date:

ENZYMES PRODUCTION IN DIGESTION Digestion defined as the process of proteins, fats and complex carbo-

hydrates are broken down into units small enough to be absorbed .This process is accomplished primarily through the action of digestive enzymes.

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by certain cells within the body which speed biochemical reactions at ordinary body temperatures without be-ing used up in the process .Enzymatic activity is responsible for most of the chemical changes occurring in feed as they move through the digestive tract. Many of the digestive enzymes are stored in an inactive form is called as zymogens or proenzymes.

DIGESTIVE PROCESS IN POULTRYREGION SECRETION ENZYME FUCTIONS

AND ENZYME ACTIONS

END PRODUCT OF DIGESTION

COMMENTS

Mouth saliva(salivary glands)

Amylase Starch, dextrin’s lubricates the food

DextrinsGlucose

Amylase is secreted in some birds .but most domestic birds lack this enzyme

Crop Mucus ------------

Lubricants and softens food

------------ -------------

Proventriculus

Gastric juice and acids(HCL)

Pepsin

LipaseAmylase

Protein

Fat

Proteoses, poly-peptides,peptidesHigher fatty acids and glycerolcoating of stomach lining and lubrication of food

-------------

Gizzard ------------ -------------

Grinding Ground foods reduced particle size

Grit in the gizzard in creases the motility and grinding action

of the gizzard and the digestibility of coarse feed

Duodenum(Small intestine)

Pancreatic juice(pancreas)

Bile(Liver)

Trypsin, Chymotrpsin

Amylopsin(amylase)

Steapsin(Lipase)

Carbozypeptidase

collagenease

Cholesterol -esterase

Proteins,proteoses,peptones,and peptides)

Strach,Dextrins

Fats

Peptides

Collagen Cholesterol

Fats

Peptones,peptides,aminoacids

Maltose,Dextrins

Higher fatty acids.glycerol

Aminoacids,peptides

Peptides

Cholesterol esterified with fatty acids

Emulsion of fats(soap, glycerol)

Small intestine

Intestinal juice(Secreted by intestinal wall)

Peptidase(erepsin)Sucrase (invertase)MaltaseLactasePolynucleotidase

Peptides

Sucrose

MaltoseLactoseNucleic acid

Amino acids and dipeptidesGlucose and fructose

GlucoseGlucose and galactosemononucleotides

Caeca A limited amount of microbial activity

Cellulose,polysaccharides,starches,sugars

Volatile fatty acids microbial protein Bvitamins,vitamin K

---------------

Ex.No:5 Date:

COMMERCIAL BROILER FARM VISIT-1

Ex.No:6 Date:

COMMERCIAL BROILER FARM VISIT-2

Ex.No:7 Date:

THERMOREGULATORY MECHANISM

• As this term indicates, it is associated with the regulation of the temperature of the bird. Adult fowls are homeothermic animals. The normal adult body temperature is in the range of 41-41.7oC and at approximately 46oC death will occur.

• Chicks, which are still poikilotherm (variable body temperature) at the day of hatch, gradually change into a homeotherm (stable body temperature) as it gets covered up with its feather and development of brain.

• At day of hatch, chicks seems to be anatomically complete. However, next to the development of organs, certain physiological systems require maturation to support further growth and development. Three major systems which are not fully developed at day of hatch are the digestive, immune and thermoregulation systems.

• Development and activation of the digestive system is influenced by the intake of feed and water. The intake of feed and water stimulates development of the intestinal tract and an efficient use of nutrient uptake. More efficient use of nutrient leads to a better developed immune system. The development of the thermoregulation system takes place during the first four days after hatch.

1.Birds’ feathers are for flight and insulation; feathers help them regulate their body temperature.

2.Birds do not have sweat glands. Birds use panting mechanism during hot weather to evaporate water from its throat, thus reducing body temperature. Panting is extremely effective in cooling birds. Feathers are great insulation in cold weather but inhibit heat loss in hot weather.

3.chickens are not able to adjust well to extreme temperature. It is important, therefore, that broilers be housed and cared for so as to provide an environment that will enable them to maintain their thermal balance. This is known as the thermo neutral zone . which is a range of temperatures at which an animal does not have to actively regulate body temperature. There is considerable margin in cold weather, a chicken’s body temperature can drop to as low as 73°F before death occurs. However, there is much less flexibility on the high side. The upper lethal limit on body temperature is 113-117°F.

4.Latent heat loss is usually expressed as the amount of water evaporated from the broiler, referred to as moisture production. Evaporation uses broiler heat tochange water state from liquid to vapor. The evaporation takes place inside the broiler as water passes over the wet surfaces of its respiratory system.

5.Sensible heat loss refers to heat dissipated through heat transfer from the broiler to the surrounding air. If the air is cooler than the broiler’s surface temperature, heat flows from the broiler to the surroundings. If the air is warmer than the broiler’s surface temperature, broilers will not be able to dissipate heat and heat stress will occur

6.Heat stress in poultry is a serious problem for the poultry industry. Mortality during extremely hot weather can be significant, especially when combined with high humidity. However, probably even more costly is the routine loss of weight and feed conversion efficiency during less severe periods of heat stress.

Ex.No:8 Date:

CHICKEN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system of birds is extremely simple ,consisting of two testes ,each having an epididymis and vas deferens that lead to the copulatory organ.

The male birds is unique among domestic animals in that the testes are located along the backbone within the abdominal cavity .In mammals ,the testes are located in sac called the scrotum which hangs from the body . this sac keeps the testes slightly cooler than the interior of the abdominal cavity because spermatogenesis cannot take place in mammals at normal body temperature .However ,birds have evolved a mechanism , not yet completely understood , that permits their intra-abdominal testes to be fully functional.

The process of removing the testes from young males to promote meat quality for market is called caponizing, and castrated birds are called capons. Because incisions must be made in the abdominal wall to remove the testes, the operation is more dangerous than the castration of mammals where

the testes hang away from the body and can be easily removed. Because broiler now marketed at about 45 days of age, well before they reach sexual maturity, caponizing is rarely performed. However, in some metropolitan areas where certain ethnic groups are located, a very limited market for capons may exist.

The copulatory apparatus for the turkey and chicken consists of two papillae and a rudimentary copulatory organ that is located at the vent. In ducks and geese, this organ is fairly well-developed and is erectile in nature.

Ex.No:8 Date:

CHICKEN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Females of most animals have two functional ovaries on either side of the spinal card .In care of the hen only the left ovary functional ovary, which is situ-ated in the body cavity near the backbone, at the time of hatching. The female chick’s left ovary contains approximately 3600 to 4000 tiny ova from which full-sized yolks may develop when the hen matures. Each yolk (ovum) is enclosed in a thin-walled sac (follicle) which is at-tached to the ovary by a stalk. This sac contains the vast network of blood ves-sels which supply the yolk materials. When a pullet attain sexual maturity, some of the ova develop and the mature yolk is released from the follicle by rupture of the follicle wall along a line called the stigma. Soon after its release, the yolk is picked up, or engulfed by the funnel called infundibulum of the oviduct. The oviduct is a coiled, folded tube about 20 to 30 inches. Long occupy-ing a large part of the left side of the abdominal cavity. It is divided into five rather clearly defined regions , each of which plays a specific role in the forma-tion of the whole egg. A normal hen requires slightly over 24 hours to form an egg. Within 30 minutes after the egg is laid, another yolk is released from the following day. The functions of each of the five parts of the oviduct are set forth in the following table. FUNCTIONS OF THE OVIDUCTPart Approximate

time egg spends in each section

Functions

Infundibulum (funnel) 15 minutes Pickes up yolk from the follicle . if live sperm are present ,fertilization oc-

curs in this section

Magnum(albumen secreting re-gion)

3 hours Thick white(albumen)is deposited around the yolk . this layer later forms the chalaziferous layer, the chalaza, and inner thin and thick white.

Isthmus 1 1/4hours Inner and outer shell membranes are added and some water and minerals salts. These membranes give some protection to the egg contents from outside contamination.

Uterus(shell gland) 21 hours During the first part of the egg’s stay in the shell gland , water and minerals pass through the shell membranes into the white , inflating the egg and giving rise to the outer layer of thin white. Soon after the egg is inflated, the shell gland starts to add cal-cium over the shell membranes , continuing this process until just prior to laying . if the shell is going to be colored , pigment is ad-ded in this section.

Vagina Entire time from ovulation to laying is slightly more than 24 hours

The egg passes into this section just prior to lay-ing . its function is not known.

Ex.No:9 Date:

ENDOCRINE ORGANS IDENTIFICATION AND MARK-ING

The endocrine system is composed of a number of glands that produce , store, and secrete hormones .Figure shows the location of these glands , and table lists the hormones produced by the various glands and the physiological function of the hormones . Hormones can be classified into two broad categor-ies, according to structural properties: (1) protein hormones ,and (2) steroid hormones

HORMONES OF THE FOWLGland Hormone Type of

hor-mone

Functions of Hor-mone

Hypophysis (pituitary gland)1.Adenohypophysis(an-terior lobe)

Gonadotropic hor-mones1.Follicle stimulat-ing hor-mone(FSH)

2.Lutenizing hor-mone(LH)

3.prolactin

Growth hormone (GH) or somato-tropin (STH)

Adrenocortico-tropin (ACTH)

Thyrotropin(TSH)

Protein

Protein

Protein

Protein

Protein

Protein

Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles in fe-males. maturation of sperm in males.

Triggers ovulation in females . acts on ley-dig cells of testes to produce androgen.

Causes broodiness in chickens .Initiates crop-sac secretion in pigeons. Growth promotion .protein synthesis

Stimulation of the ad-renal cortex and re-lease of the adrenal corticoids.

Stimulation of the thyroid glands to (1)release thyroxin , and (2)absorb iodine.

2.Neurohypophysis(pos-terior lobe)

Melanotropin(MSH)

Oxytocin(storage)

Vasotocin (stor-age)

Protein

Protein

Function is not known in birds.

Stimulates uterine tissue.

Antidiuretic hor-mone. may initiate the contraction of the uterus that begins oviposition.

Hypothalamus OxytocinVasotocinReleasing factors for: 1.LH 2.FSH 3.TSH 4.ACTH

Proteinprotein

See neurohypo-physis.See neurohypo-physis.Stimulates the aden-ohypophysis to re-lease its hormones.

Thyroid glands Thyroxin and trii-odotyrosine

Protein Affects metabolic rate .affects feather growth and color.

Ultimobranchial glands Calcitonin Protein Calcium metabolism . may play a role in the regulation of serum phosphorus.

Parathyroid glands Parathyroid hor-mone(PTH)

Protein Calcium mobilization and also phosphorus metabolism

Adrenals: 1.cortex

2.medulla

Aldosterone

Corticosteroids

Catecholamines 1. Adrenaline (epinephrine) 2. noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

Steroid

Steroid

Protein derivat-ive

Protein derivat-ive

Electrolyte and water metabolism.Carbohydrate , fat, and protein metabol-ism.

Initiates sympathetic neural responses .

Neural transmitter.

Pancreas Glucagon

Insulin

Protein

protein

Carbohydrate, fat ,and protein metabol-ism.

Carbohydrate, fat

,and protein metabol-ism.

Testes (male) Testosterone Steroid Secondary sex char-acteristics . sexual behavior , spermato-genesis

Ovary(female) Estrogens: estra-diol, estriol, es-trone

Progesterone

Steroid

Steroid

Secondary sex char-acteristics . affects growth and fat de-position . may be in-volved with the growth and develop-ment of the follicle . involved in albumen synthesis.

Involved in albumen synthesis .antagon-istic to ovulation

Pineal gland Melatonin protein Functions unclear in poultry

Ex.No:10 Date:

CHICKEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMThe heart of the chicken is four-chambered, and beats at a rate of 250

beats per minute for larger breeds and up to around 350 beats per minute for smaller breeds. The deep body temperature of a chicken is around 107 degrees F, Avian red blood cells or erythrocytes are nucleated ( whereas mammalian red blood cells are not) .The chicken heart consists of four chambers-right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left ventricle. Incoming deoxygenated

blood is received in the right atrium and is subsequently passed to the right ventricle. Contraction of the heart pushes the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where oxygen is picked up by the blood and carbon dioxide removed. Freshly oxygenated blood travels from the lungs to the left atrium and left vent-ricle. Upon contraction of the left ventricle, blood is pushed through the arterial system where it eventually reaches the target cells, gives off its oxygen, and picks up waste products which will be excreted ultimately. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the heart through the venous system, thence the process is repeated

Ex.No:10 Date:

CHICKEN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The main organ of the excretory system is the kidney. The functional units of kidneys are nephrons. The functions of the excretory system are to excrete wa-

ter and metabolic wastes and to regulate the acid-base balance of the bird’s body.

The two kidneys of the domestic fowl each generally with three lobes are found embedded in the lumbosacral (synsacrum) region . They are brownish in color .

Each kidney is divided into three distinct lobes. Chickens do not have a bladder. Urine passes from the kidney, through the ureters, which then empty into the cloaca. Chicken urine consists of yellowish fluid with a white pasty substance largely made of uric acid. Uric acid is the main product of nitrogen metabolism in birds and is not water soluble; this is why solids make up part of the urine.

The straight and narrow ureter is a tube that leaves the medial border of each kidney and opens into the cloaca adjacent to the deferent duct of the male or the oviduct of the female. The primary component of poultry waste is uric acid, the major end product of protein utilization. Uric acid is a white, pasty sub-stance.

Ex.No:11 Date:

BREEDER FARM VISIT-1

Ex.No:12 Date:

BREEDER FARM VISIT-2

Ex.No:13 Date:

DRAWING OF EGG STRUCTURE

Egg is an inexpensive but very nutritious component within the human diet. It is one of the few foods that are used widely worldwide and are healthy and safe for consumers. It is a vehicle for reproduction and can be raw material for many products in food processing plantsChicken egg constituents

• . The major parts of the chicken egg are: yolk, albumen and egg shell. • The yolk of the egg is formed in three stages during 10 to 12 days before

being laid. • Albumen is formed during a few hours and has 4 layers. The percentage

of the total albumen varies between eggs due to many factors. • Shell membrane is constituted of inner and outer membranes separated

by the air cell; their role is defence against bacterial invasion. Egg shell is constituted of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, calcium phos-phate, organic matter and protein. Egg shell is formed in a distinct pat-tern allowing gas exchange. Composition of the egg as well as percentage of each layer:

Main part Layer % of weight of egg

Yolk Germinal disk (blasto-derm Latebra Light yolk layer Dark yolk layer Vitelline membrane

30-33

Albumen Outer thin albumen Outer thick albumen Inner thin albumen Inner thick albumen Chalaza

60

Membrane Outer shell membrane Inner shell membrane Air cell

0-1

Shell Cuticle Spongy (cal-careous)layer Mammillary layer

9-12

Ex.No:13 Date:

EGG QUALITY MEASUREMENTChicken Egg Quality

• The overall quality of the chicken egg is determined by the egg shell qual-ity and egg internal quality

EXTERNAL EGG QUALITY• There are many factors that affect the overall quality of the egg shell. egg

shell quality is based on egg size, egg specific gravity, shell color, shell breaking strength, shell deformation, shell weight, percentage shell, shell thickness and shell ultra structure .

• The egg shell consists of about 94 to 97% calcium carbonate. The other three to six percent is organic matter and egg shell pigment

• There are also as many as 8,000 microscopic pores in the shell itself

• The outer coating of the shell itself consists of a mucous coating called the cuticle or bloom which is deposited on the shell just prior to lay. This pro-tein like covering helps protect the interior contents of the egg from bac-teria penetration through the shell

• Egg shell quality is determined by the color, shape, and structure of the shell. Colors can range from white to tints to brown and egg shape can also vary

• For table eggs, shells must be strong enough to prevent failure during packing and/or transportation

• For hatching eggs, shells must be initially thick and strong to preserve the embryo and then it must become thin and weak later during incuba-tion in order to allow the gas exchange as well as easier cracking when hatching

• The shape of the egg was determined by measuring maximum length and width of each egg. Egg shape index was calculated using the follow-ing formula given

Egg width Egg shape index =------------- × 100 Egg length

Ex.No:13 Date:

INTERIOR EGG QUALITY

Interior egg quality is based on albumen quality, yolk quality and the presence of blood or meat spots

Air cell

The larger end of the egg contains the air cell that forms when the contents of the egg cool down and contract after it is laid. Chicken eggs are graded according to the size of this air cell,

White Albumin

White is the common name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. Ichickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the anterior section of the hen's oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around either fertilized or unfertilized yolks. The primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo.

Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved 10% proteins ,including albumins, mucoproteins, and globulins. egg white contains almost no fat, and the carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg white has many uses in food, and many others, including the preparation of vaccines

Yolk

The yolk in a newly laid egg is round and firm. As the yolk ages it absorbs water from the albumen, which increases its size and causes it to stretch and weaken the vitelline membrane (the clear casing enclosing the yolk). The resulting effect is a flattened and enlarged yolk shape.

Yolk color is dependent on the diet of the hen; if the diet contains yellow/orange plant pigments known as xanthophylls, then they are deposited in the yolk, coloring it. Lutein is the most abundant pigment in egg yolk. A colorless diet can produce an almost colorless yolk.

Measures of Internal Egg Quality

The quality of egg can be best ascertained by breaking open the egg and studying the various parameter of the shell, albumen, yolk and also by objective evaluation. The equipment required are:

1. Egg breaking stand2. Vernier callipers3. Tripod stand Micrometer or Spherometer4. Screw gauge or shell thickness gauge5. Empty beakers6. Balance, kitchen knife, scoop etc.7. Roche yolk colour fan

The measurements to be taken are

1. Shell per cent2. Shell thickness3. Albumen index4. Haugh unit

5. Yolk index6. Yolk colour7. Other abnormalities like blood spots, meat spots, germ spots and

any other foreign bodies like worms etc.1. Shell per cent

This constitutes about 11-12% of the egg. The shell is dried with the membranes intact in a hot air oven at 105 ± 5oC overnight, cooled and weighed. The result is expressed as per cent of total egg weight. Smaller egg will have a greater per cent than larger ones.

2. Shell thickness

After breaking the shell, cut the membranes and peel. Take three pieces of shell, each piece is taken from three representative areas, namely from the narrow and broad ends and third piece at the equatorial region. A good quality chicken egg will have a thickness of 0.33 mm, Japanese quail egg 0.13 mm, Turkey egg 0.4 mm and duck egg 0.3 mm.

3. Albumen index

The firmness of the egg white is correlated with the albumen quality. After breaking open the egg, the height of the thick albumen is measured using a Tripod stand micrometer or a Spherometer, while the width and the diameter of the thick albumen is measured using the Vernier calliper. The height of the albumen increases in a fresh egg and slowly lowers as the egg ages. A fresh egg will have an albumen index of 0.1.

The proportion of the thick and thin albumen can also be measured in percentage on total weight of the egg. A good quality egg will have 55% thick and 45% thin albumen. A sieve of 1/16th inch size is made use of to separate the thick and thin albumen. The quality can also be evaluated objectively using the USDA score chart or otherwise known as Van Wagenan chart, this has 12 pictures of break open eggs ranging from high, medium to low, each ranging from AA to C grades.

Albumen index =

Height of albumen (mm)

Average width of albumen (mm)

4. Haugh unit

It is the most widely used value to measure the albumen quality. It is a modified version of albumen index, with the height of thick albumen adjusted to the standard egg weight.

Haugh unit = 100 log (H+7.57 - 1.7 W0.37 )

Where

W = Weight of egg in grams

H = Height of thick albumen in mm

A fresh egg will have a haugh unit score of 105 and above.

HU of 60 - 72is A grade,

30 - 60 = B grade and less than 30 = C grade

For Japanese quail eggs, the Haugh Unit formula is

HU = 100 log (H+4.16-0.19 W 0.67)

5. Yolk index

This is an expression of the spherical nature of the yolk. The height of the yolk is measured by micrometer and diameter is measured by using Vernier calipers. The yolk index is a measure of the standing-up quality of the yolk.

Yolk index =

Height of yolk in mm

Average diameter of yolk in mm

The average value for a fresh egg is 0.40 and above. As the egg becomes aged, it gets flattened and the yolk index is lowered.

6. Yolk colour

Even though the yolk colour is not an indication of its absolute quality, it may some times indicate the development of objectionable colours due to chemicals or microbial growth. The normal yolk colour is yellow to orange. Diets, which are rich in carotenoid pigments especially Xanthophill, Cryptoxanthine. Leutein will impart dark yellowish/ orange colour in the egg-yolk. Birds fed with diets rich in yellow maize, alfalfa meal, groundout leaf meal will have a deep orange colour yolk. A rich yolk colour is preferred by consumers. Olive brown discolouration is objectionable. This is due to feeding layers with cotton seed oil cake. Sometimes there could be germ development, which is an indication of a fertilized egg. The colour of yolk is measured by various colour charts, colour disc, serially diluting solution of potassium di-chromate or by using the Roche yolk colour fan.

Ex.No:1 Date:

FEED MILL VISIT