2010 Adoption Options - Article From Adoptive Families By Kay Marner
POST-ADOPTION SUPPORT FOR ADOPTIVE FAMILIES … · POST-ADOPTION SUPPORT FOR ADOPTIVE FAMILIES IN...
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POST-ADOPTIONSUPPORT FORADOPTIVEFAMILIESINAUSTRALIA:Isittimeforthe‘tripleA’approach?
AdoptChangeResearch,November2016
Researcher:DrTanyaBretherton
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AboutAdoptChange
AdoptChangebelievesthateverychildhasarightto
growupinapermanent,stableandlovinghome,and
embracesadoptionasapositiveandimportantway
offormingthatfamily.
AdoptChange’smissionis:
•toraisecommunityawareness
•encourageethicalreform
•empowerAustralian’stoengagewithissues
surroundingadoption
Formoreinformationcontact
www.adoptchange.org.au
AbouttheResearcher
DrTanyaBrethertonisaSydney-based
researchconsultant,sociologistandwriter.
DrBrethertonhastwentyyearsexperienceinthe
fieldsofearlychildhooddevelopment,education
andcare,organisationalcultureandprofessional
development.Shehaspublishedbothdomestically
andinternationallyonawiderangeofissuesthat
impactthesafetyandsecurityofchildrenand
youngpeople.
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ExecutiveSummaryAdoptionpracticeinAustralianowstandsatacross-road.Overthepasttwodecadesresearchers,lawyersand
practitionersinthechildprotectionfieldhavealignedtheireffortsaroundthecoreconceptoftransparencyin
adoption.ThesocialandemotionaldamagecausedbythehistoryofclosedadoptioninAustraliaisnowwidely
acknowledged.Improvedopennessinadoptionnowrepresentstheprevailinggoalofcurrentandemerging
practiceworkbecausethisisarguedtoyieldstrongbenefitsforchildrenintermsofhealthyattachmentand
identitydevelopment.Inmovingtowardsthisobjective,childprotectiveservicesandadoptionexpertsacross
Australiaareseekingtoreviseandadaptlegislation,policyandpracticeinadoptioninwayswhichaffirm
opennesswhilealsoensuringchildrenandfamiliesremainwellsupported.Theconstituentelementsofimpactful
andmeaningfulsupportsforadoptivechildrenandtheirfamilieshowever,remainfarfromclearandcontinueto
bedefined.
Todate,clarityontheissueofpostadoptionsupporthasbeendifficulttoachieveforanumberofreasons.
Firstlytheprovisionofpost-adoptionsupporthasrepresentedalowerorderpriorityforlocalchildprotective
services.ThenumbersofchildreninfostercareinAustraliahasgrownandbothgovernmentandNGOsrightfully
continuetodevotesignificantresourcestomeetingtheneedsofchildreninstatutoryOutofHomeCare(OOHC)
forwhomsafe,secureandpermanenthomesforlifehavenotyetbeenachieved.Asaconsequencehowever,
capacitytoprovidepost-adoptionsupportshasbeenconstrainedandaspiritedpublicdebatesurroundingthese
issueshasnotoccurred.Secondlythestatisticalcaseforpost-adoptionsupporthasbeendifficulttoestablish.
Therearenoregularlycollectedsurveyscapableofprovidingeithertimeseriesdataonchangingdemand,nor
insightsonindicativecurrentdemandforpost-adoptionsupport.Ofthetwonationalagenciesresponsiblefor
consolidatingandpublishingdataonchildren,familycharacteristicsandparentinginAustralia,neithertheABS
norAIHWcanprovidequantitativeinsightsonpost-adoptionsupportspecifically.
Thispaperoffersnewinsightsontheissueofpost-adoptionsupportinAustraliabyofferinganalternative
approach.Ratherthanseekingtolookdirectlyatdemand,thispaperexaminesthesharedelementsofadoption
experiences,andtheknownempiricalevidenceregardingtheseexperiences.
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Ananalysisofkeyfindingstoemergefrompublishedresearchliteraturefindsthatarobustrationaleforthe
provisionofpost-adoptionsupportinAustraliaisalreadypresent.Tenkeyfactorsunderpinexperiencesof
adoptivefamiliesinAustraliainthecontemporarycontextofopenadoption.Thetenreasonsidentifiedbelow
eachindicateaneedfortheavailabilityofpost-adoptionsupportsforadoptivefamilies.
1. Adoptivefamiliesexperienceasequenceofemotionallyintenseexperienceswhichdonotconformto
acceptedarchetypesoffamilyformation.
2. Modernformsofopenadoptionrepresentaradicaldeparturefromhistoricalformsofclosedadoption,and
thesocialnormssurroundingparentinginthiscontextcontinuetobeformed.
3. Socialstigmaspervadeadoptionexperiences.
4. Birthparentsareco-creatorsofattachmentandidentityforchildren.Adoptiveparentsneedknowledgeand
practicalskillsinsupportingtheirchildrentoexploreandunderstandhowtheseexperiencescreateanintact
andwholesenseofself.
5. Manyadoptivechildrenhaveexperiencednotjustsinglebutmultipletraumaeventsleadinguptotheir
placementwithanadoptivefamily.Complex,andpotentiallycostlyongoingtherapeuticsupportsoften
needtobeprovidedtochildrentohelpdealwiththistrauma.
6. Adoptiveparentsarelikelytohaveexperiencedtheirownemotionalhardshipsandchallengesintheroad
toadoption.
7. Childhoodtraumasexperiencedpre-adoptionmeanthatnicheparentingskillsor‘therapeuticparenting’will
berequiredbytheadoptiveparents.
8. Adoptivefamiliesareatincreasedriskofexperiencingsecondarytrauma.
9. Structuralbarriersexistandpoorlevelsof‘adoptioncompetence’acrossmanypartsofthehumanservices
systempreventadoptivefamiliesfrombothseekingandreceivinghelp.
10. Australiaisasignatorynationtoanumberofinternationalagreementswhichhighlightthestate’sobligation
toprovideongoingpostadoptionsupportforadoptivefamiliesandtheirchildren.
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Withthecaseforpost-adoptivesupport
established,thesecondpartofthispaperis
devotedtothestructureandcompositionofpost-
adoptionsupports.Ananalysisofpractitioner
reflections,publishedresearchandprogram
evaluationsonpost-adoptivesupportsisusedto
generateaconceptualframework.Akeyfindingof
thispaperisthatpost-adoptivesupportsextend
wellbeyondconventionalunderstandingsof
therapeuticandcaseworkinterventionswhichhave
traditionallydefinedthechildprotectionspace.
Analysisofpostadoptionsupports,particularly
thosepresentintheUSandUK,identifiesthree
distinctlydifferentmodesofsupport.The
conceptualframeworkpresentedhereinhighlights
thatpostadoptionsupportsarestructuredaround
threecategoriesofactivity-aid,allyoradvocacy-
based-modesofsupport.Forthepurposesofthis
paperthesethreeactivitiesarelabelledthe‘triple
A’approachbecausethisnotonlyaccurately
describesthediversemodesofactivitythatcanbe
usedtosupportadoptiveparentsandadoptive
childrenbutalsothesuperlativeskillandhigh
qualitycaseworkwhichmustalwaysbetheprimary
goalofpractitionersengagedinidentifying,and
workingfor,thebestinterestsofthechild.
AidandassistanceInthepostadoptionphase,itislikelythatchildrenwill
needaccesstospecializedsupportsbecauseof
historiesemergingfrompriortraumaexperiences
associatedwithabuse,neglect,removaland/ortimein
OOHC.Theseformsofsupports,labelledforthe
purposesofthispaperas‘aid-based’supportsarethe
mosttypicalformsofsupportaccessedbyadoptive
childrenandtheirfamilies.
TheroleofadvocacyEffectivepostadoptionsupportincludesacategoryof
activitieswhichdonotinvolvedispensationofdirect
therapeuticassistancetoadoptivefamilies.Advocacy-
basedsupportsareimportantbecausetheyseekto
changetheprofileofservicesavailabletofamiliesand
arefocusedonawarenessraisingandthechangingof
socialnormsandsocietalunderstandingsofadoption
experiences.
Theimportanceofadoptionalliesintheprovisionofpost-adoptionsupportsAwiderangeofresearchfindingsandpractice
highlighttheneedforthebroaderhumanservices
systemtobepopulatedwithkeyprofessionalswho
exhibitsophisticatedlevelsofadoptionawareness,
knowledgeofthelegalandpracticeterrainof
adoption,andareadinesstoadapttothechanging
needsofadoptivefamilies.
Thenotionofanallyisdifferenttothetraditional
notionofanambassadororachampionforacause.
Ambassadorsmayworkinthecollectiveinterestsof
anissueorgroupofstakeholders.Incontrast,‘allies’
haveamuchmoredirectandappliedroleandcan
workcloselyinhigh-trustrelationshipswithfamilies
tocreateanddelivermeaningfulsupportsofrelevance
tothem.
Theconceptualframeworkpresentedbythispaper
seekstobringadeeperunderstandingtotherationale
underpinningpost-adoptionsupportprovisionin
Australiaandhighlightsthatarangeofsystemic
responsesareneededinboththeshortandlongterm.
Thispaperarguesthatthemeaningfulclassificationof
postadoptionsupportsisnotonlypossiblebutis
instructivetounderstandingsofthefuture
developmentandadaptationofthesesupportsin
Australia.
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IntroductionThispaperexploresapproachestopost-adoption
supportforadoptivefamiliesandadopteesandoffers
insightsonthisareaofservicedeliveryinthecontext
ofcontemporaryhumanservicespracticeinAustralia1.
Theconclusionsofthispaperareinformedbythe
findingsofdomesticandinternationalresearch
literaturewhichhasbeenevaluated,comparedand
distilledwithaviewto:
• Capturingthediversityofpost-adoptionsupports
available;
• Codifyingthisdiversityinawaythatdeepens
understandingofthepurposeandeffectivenessof
differentmodelsofsupport;and
• Contributingtobroaderpolicyandprogram
discussionsofpost-adoptionsupportsintothe
future.
Understandingthebroadcontextforpost-adoptioninAustralia
Thereisadearthofstatisticalevidencecapableof
pinpointingkeyareasofdemandforpostadoption
servicesinAustralia.Whilepostadoptionsupports
aremoreprevalentoverseas,thesejurisdictionsalso
citechallengesinthepursuitofdataofquality,
accuracyandcomparabilityinthefieldofpost-
adoptiondemand(Holmesetal2013).Asitstands,
therearenosharedsector-wideconventions
regardingeitherdefinitionsofsupport,noragreed
measurementsofeffectiveness(Selwynetal2014;
Zamostnyetal2003;Post2000).Anarrayofstudies
canprovideinsightsonthedesignelementsassociated
withpostadoptionsupports,howeverduetothe
limitedstatisticalevidenceavailable,anydefinitive
statementsaboutthelongtermimpactsderivedfrom
specificpostadoptionsupportsmustbecarefully
considered.
1Thepurviewofthispaperisconfinedtotheexperiences
ofadoptivefamilieswhohaveundertakentheirjourneyin
theeraofopenadoption.Adoptionsupports,policyand
practicepertainingtotwokeystakeholdergroups-birth
parentsandfamilieswhocontinuetolivewiththelegacy
oftheclosedadoptionsystem-arenotdiscussedwithin
thispaper.Theauthorrespectfullynotestheimportance
ofthesestakeholderviews,andfurtherarguesthatbut
theirexperiencesareofsuchgreatsignificancethat
effectivenessoffocusedsupportstothesestakeholders
warrantsdistinctlyseparateanddetailedexamination.
Thereishowever,avastbodyofemergingprimary
datasourcesonchildhooddevelopment,theoretical
literatureonattachmentandsecondarysourcesof
evidenceexploringparadigmsoffamilyandparenting.
Thesesourcesofinformationcanbeusedtoshedlight
onhowpostadoptionsupportmightbeconfiguredin
Australia.Thediscussionbelowlookssystematicallyat
rationalesfortheprovisionforpostadoptionsupport,
andtheoptionsavailablewhenseekingtoconsolidate
orexpandfeaturesofprogramdesigninthisfield.
Whymightadoptivefamiliesneedsupportpost-adoption?
Inseekingtounderstandthenatureanddegreeof
supportrequiredbyadoptivefamiliesafterthemaking
ofafinaladoptionorder,anumberofchallenges
emerge.Thedemographic,socio-culturaland
compositionaldynamicsofadoptivefamiliesvary
greatlyandhavediversesupportneeds(Holmesetal
2013;Hushionetal2006).Inaddition,thearcofan
adoptionjourneyislifelong,withquestionsofidentity
andbelonginglikelytoberevisitedthroughoutan
adoptee’slifetime(Kenneally2012;Dunbaretal2004;
McManus1992).Giventhelimitationsofthedata
currentlyavailable,estimatingthemagnitudeand
intensityofsupportslikelytobeneededbyadoptive
familiesisnotpossible.However,thereareanumber
ofkey,well-documentedanduncontestedfactors
whichappearuniversaltoopenadoptionexperiences
andestablishabaselinerationalefortheprovisionof
postadoptionsupportinAustralia.Thispaperoffers
newinsightsontheissueofpost-adoptionsupportby
lookingmorecloselyatthesharedelementswhich
defineadoptionexperiences,andtheknownempirical
evidenceregardingtheseexperiences.Thefollowing
discussionprovidesabriefsummaryofthese
elements.
1 Adoptivefamiliesexperienceasequenceofemotionallyintenseexperienceswhichdonotconformtoacceptedarchetypesoffamilyformation
Whethertheadoptionisinter-country,known,local
and/oremergingfromastatutorycareexperience,all
adoptionshaveacommonbedrockofexperiences
whichwithoutexceptionmean:
• Achildhasexperiencedabreakinattachmentto
birthparent/swhichoffersprofoundpotentialfor
attachment-relatedtraumatoemergeforthe
childatsomepointthroughoutlife(Pennyetal
2007);
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• Everydayparentingisidentifiedtobenolonger
possibleforthebirthparentsorkinofthebirth
familyofachild;
• Theadoptivefamilyrepresentsapermanentand
lovingfamilyhomeforthechild,andthis
arrangementisformalisedusinglegalprocess
whichiscomplexandpresentsemotional
challengesforallparties;and
• Thatadoptivefamiliesassocialinstitutionsface
heightenedexpectationswhichexceedthose
placeduponbiological,nuclearfamilies.Asfamily
unitsadoptivefamiliesareanticipatedtobesites
forprofoundlytherapeuticandtransformative
experiencestooccur.Adoptivefamiliesareplaces
ofhopeandpromiseforbothadoptiveparents
andchildren.
Thecombinedimpactoftheseexpectationsand
experiencescanmeanthatadoptivefamiliesand
adoptivechildrenfaceextremelyhighsocietal
expectationswhichmaybeneartoimpossibletofulfil.
2 Modernformsofopenadoptionrepresenta
radicaldeparturefromhistoricalformsofclosedadoption,andthesocialnormssurroundingparentinginthiscontextcontinuetobeformed
Theimmensepsycho-socialdamagecausedbyclosed
adoptionhasbeenwelldocumentedinmany
jurisdictionsacrosstheworld(Grotevantetal2014;
AdoptionInstitute2007;Baran&Pannor1993).The
closedadoptionsystemhasleftavastlegacyofsocial
andfamilialnarrativesaboutadoptionwhichare
powerfulandcontinuetoshapenormativebeliefsand
understandingsofadoption.Negativeperceptionsof
adoptioncontinuetoimpactadoptivefamiliestoday,
eventhoseparticipatinginopenandtransparent
adoptionprocesses,becauseofthenegativelongterm
personal,socialandeconomiccostsofclosedadoption
(Grotevantetal2014;Higgins2010).
Thereisnowstrongandgrowingconsensusamongst
academicandpractitionercommunitiesandgrowing
acceptancewithinthebroadercommunitythatopen
adoptionisbeneficialforchildrenandtheirfamilies
(deRosnay2016;Bergeetal2006;Berryetal1998).
However,widerunderstandingsabouthowbestto
‘do’openadoptionareonlynowbeginningtobecome
partofconsolidateddiscoursesonfamilyandfamily
practice(NSWFACS2016).Inhelpingadoptive
childrentonavigateattachment,identityandcontact
issues,adoptiveparentsarenotabletodrawona
bankofaccumulatedunderstandingsnorknownsocial
normstoinformparentingbehaviour(Brodzinsky
2015;Parker2003;Livingston-Smith&Howard1999).
Foradoptiveparents,theclosedadoptionsystem
offersfewinstructiveinsightsandlittletono
informationabouthowtocreateatransparentand
openfamilyclimate,andsustainthisopennessinan
ageappropriatewaythroughoutthecourseof
childhood.Therelative‘newness’ofopenadoptionas
aconceptmeansthatsocietyisonlynowtrulycoming
totermswithwhattransparentadoptionmeansfor
children,youngpeopleandtheirfamilies.
3 Socialstigmaspervadeadoptionexperiences
Stigmasaboutadoptivefamiliesarereinforcedin
societyusingbothovertandsubtlemeans.Feelinga
senseof‘difference’iscommontoadoptivechildren
andtheirfamilies,andthishasbeenwelldocumented
(Brodzinsky2011).Whileadetailedexaminationof
thecomplexitiesassociatedwiththesocietalstigmaof
adoptionliesbeyondthescopeofthepaperitisworth
notingthatlanguageandterminologyappliedto
adoptivefamiliesispowerfullystigmatizing.The
descriptionofchildrenas‘adopted’isitself
problematicasonehighprofileUSadoptionadvocate
notesbecause“childrenbegintounderstandthatthe
word‘adopted’mustmeanthisisthemostimportant
thingtheyneedtoknowaboutthemselves”(Cravens
2016).Labelssuchasdissolutionanddisruptionare
oftenusedbypractitioners,withthebestof
intentions,tojustifyaccesstopost-adoptionsupport
butultimatelyservetofurtherentrenchstigmas
surroundingadoptiveexperience.AsSelwynetal
(2014)notes,theterm‘dissolve’intensifies
perceptionsofadoptivefamiliesasabnormalbecause
thetermisneverusedtodescribetheexperiencesof
non-adoptivefamilies,evenwhenfacingperiodsof
disconnectionandcrisis.
4 Birthparentsareco-creatorsofattachmentandidentityforchildren.Adoptiveparentsneedknowledgeandpracticalskillsinsupportingtheirchildrentoexploreandunderstandhowtheseexperiencescreateanintactandwholesenseofself.
Sincethe1980s,threekeysourcesofevidencehave
consistentlyhighlightedtheneedforadoptiveparents
tobeawareofandresponsivetotheneedforchildren
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tomaintainsomeengagementwithbirthfamily
and/orbirthfamilyhistory.
Thevoicesofadopteesthemselveshavehelpedto
broadenperceptionsandenrichunderstandingsof
adoption.Sincethe1980s,publishedlifehistory
narrativesofadoptivepeoplehavemadeanimportant
contributiontothebodyofevidenceassociatedwith
adoption.Inparticular,thesenarrativeshighlightthat
adoptiveparentsplayacriticalroleinhelpingtheir
childrentounderstandtheirhistorybyremainingopen
totalkingfreelyandwithoutjudgementaboutbirth
familywhenchildrenneedto.IntheUSforexample,
BettyJeanLifton’sworkhashelpedtore-define
mainstreamunderstandingofadoptionintheUS
(2009;1994)byemphasizingtheimportantrole/sof
bothadoptiveparentsandbirthparentsinadoptive
experiences.InAustralia,thelifelongshameandgrief
whichindividualsandcommunitiesexperiencedwhen
theopportunitytoexplorebirthandculturalhistory
wassuppressedhasbeenexploredinnational
inquiriestodocumenttheexperiencesofforced
adoptioncommontotheForgottenAustraliansand
theStolenGeneration(CommonwealthofAustralia
2004;HREOC1997).Thecontinuingforcedclosed
adoptionofAboriginalchildrenupuntilthe1980s
makesthesensitivitiesandimpactsassociatedwith
adoptionveryrecentandveryrealfortheAustralian
communityandtheAustralianpsyche(Gair2012).
Someresearchersarguethatthecumulativeimpact
ofthetraumacreatedbyclosedadoptionforchildren
andtheirfamilieshaspermanentlyre-castthinking
aboutclosedadoptionandintensifiedtheneedfor
adoptivefamiliestoremainsensitivetotheneedsof
birthparentsparticularlyinAustralia(Swain&Swain
1992).
Theacademicbodyofevidencesurroundingidentity,
attachmentandchildrenhasgrownoverthelasttwo
decadesandthisoverwhelminglyhighlightsaneedfor
awarenessofandengagementwithbirthparentsand
birthfamily(whereverpossible)forchildren.The
bodyofliteratureontheimpactoftrauma
experiencesonchildhooddevelopmentissignificant
andgrowing.Researchfindingsnotethattheabilityof
childrentoexperience‘feltsecurity’andattainasense
ofsafetyinthepostadoptivephasecanbeprofoundly
impaired(Peterson2012).AsBeauchamp(2014),
citingtheevocativewordsoftheNationalCouncilfor
AdoptionintheUK,notesthattheadoptiveperiodis
whenthegenuinetherapeuticworkonpasttrauma
beginsas“childrenareleftwithasuitcaseofquestions
andfeelingsoftraumaandloss”.
Thefieldofchildprotectionhasalsore-defined
relationshipsbetweenadoptivefamiliesandbirth
families.Practitionersworkinginthisfieldhave
identifiedadoptivefamiliestoplayacentralrolein
facilitatingandmaintainingopenadoption
partnerships(NSWFACS2016).Practitionershighlight
thatprescientknowledgeofbirthparents/familyand
improvedcommunicationskillscanassistadoptive
familiesinnegotiatingtheserelationships.Thenotion
of‘communicativeopenness’forexample,has
emergedasanimportantconceptwhichpractitioners
usetodescribeappropriatemessagingbetween
adoptiveparentandchildaroundissuesofbirth
parentandbirthfamily(Jones&Hackett2007).
Asoneresearcheraffirms,theeffectivenessof
communicativeopennessisabsolutelycriticalandcan
eitherhelporharmchildren(Brodzinsky2011;
Brodzinsky2005).Asitstands,thecurrentpractice
frameworkssurroundingcommunicativeopennessare
under-developedandwillrequiresignificant
adaptationiftheyaretobetranslatedintomaterials
whichcanbeusedtosupport,instructandguide
adoptiveparents.“Adoptionsocialworkandsupport
practiceswill,inmostcases,needtobesignificantly
reformedsoastoadequatelysupportthecapacityof
adoptiveparentstonavigateboththeirownemotions
aroundadoptionaswellasthesocialstigmathey
encounter,andtherebytofulfiltheircommunicative
obligations”(Baylis&McLeod2014).
Thevernacularsurroundingcommunicativeopenness
alsocontinuestochange(Cravens2016)andthis
reflectsthefluidityassociatedwithparenting
discoursesbetweenbirthparentsandadoptive
parents.Forexamplethetermbiologicalparentshas
slowlybeenreplacedwithbirthparents,whichisnow
beingreplacedinsomejurisdictionswitharangeof
alternativelabelsarguedtovalidatetheexperiencesof
birthparentswhilenotdiminishingtheprimary
importanceoftheadoptiveparentasthechild’s
parentor‘everydayparent’.Theemergenceofterms
suchas‘tummymummy’,‘firstparents’,‘parentsof
love’allindicatethatpractitionersthemselves
continuetoexperimentwiththelanguagethat
adoptiveparentsandchildrenmightapplysothat
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constructivemeaningcanbegeneratedfromthese
experiencesforadoptivechildreninthelongterm.
Whilethereisincreasinglystrongunderstandingthat
knowledge,awarenessandcontactwithbirthparents
canyieldstrongbenefitsforchildren,thepractice
whichmightsupportfamiliestoundertakethis
potentiallysensitiverelationshipmanagement
continuestoform.AsSelwynetal(2014)notessome
levelofopennessinadoptionhasformedpartof
mainstreamfostercareandpermanencypracticein
theUKforalongperiodoftime,yetknowledgeand
understandingsofattachmenttheorystillvaries
greatlyacrossthesector.
Itmustalsobenotedthatthereisinconsistencyin
practiceacrossthepost-adoptionsupportsector,and
adoptiveparentsfaceanincreasinglyconfusingrange
ofoptionswhenseekingadviceabouthowbestto
negotiaterelationshipswithbirthfamily,andmanage
conversationsandinformationwithinanadoptive
familyaboutcontact(Beauchamp2014;Egbert2003).
Putmoresimply,whatthesystemandsocietyrequires
ofadoptiveparentshassignificantlychanged,and
institutionalresponsesthatmightassistadoptive
parentsinmeetingthesechallengesremainwoefully
underdeveloped.
5 Manyadoptivechildrenhaveexperiencednotjustsinglebutmultipletraumaeventsleadinguptotheirplacementwithanadoptivefamily.Complex,andpotentiallycostlyongoingtherapeuticsupportsoftenneedtobeprovidedtochildrentohelpdealwiththistrauma.
Themajorityofchildrenwhoundergoadoptionhave
experiencedaremovalfrombirthfamilyduetoabuse,
traumaand/orneglect(NSWFACS2016;Crowe&
Murray2005).Whileitmustbenotedthatsome
childrenareadoptedthroughadirectnegotiation
betweenbirthparentandanadoptiveparent(a
knownlocaladoptionagreement)theseadoptionsare
extremelyrare(AIHW2015).
Earlytraumaevents,whethercomprisingphysical
abuse,emotionalabuseand/orneglectaffectneural
pathwaysinwayswhichmakechildrenvulnerableto
developmentalchallengesdownthetrack(Perry2004;
Perry&Pollard1998).Peterson(2012)notesthat
whilemanyadoptivechildrendonotexperience
significantchallenges,theredoesappeartobean
evidencebasesuggestingahigherincidenceof
behaviouralandemotionalissuesamongstadoptive
children(Barth&Miller2000;Brodzinsky1987).The
legacyoftraumaisalsoafeatureofintercountry
adoptionsbecausethereisahigherincidenceof
institutionalcareamongstchildrenadoptedfrom
overseassettings.Institutionalsettingshavetheir
owndocumentedlegacyofdevelopmentalandpsycho
social‘aftershocks’forchildren(Eigstietal2011:629).
Researchershighlightthatchildrenadoptedfrom
anothercountrylosenotjustfamilybuttheirsenseof
placeandcultureaswell(Peterson2012;Viana&
Welsh2010).
Whileitmustbenotedthatsocial,physicaland
emotionalchallengesareassociatedwiththe
developmentarcofanylifecourse,asnochildhoodis
troublefree,thesechallengesareintensifiedwhen
trauma,neglect,abuseorseveranceinprimarycare
attachmentformsthebackdropofexperience
(Peterson2012).“Formostchildrenadoptedfrom
caretheirchilddevelopmentwillhavebeen
compromisedbytheirexperiencesofabuseand
neglect,leavingthemwithalong-termlegacyof
emotional,behaviouralanddevelopmentaldifficulties.
Thosedifficultieswill,inturn,haveaneffectontheir
abilitytobuildandmaintainpositiveattachmentand
relationships,includingwiththeirnewadoptive
parentswhowillrepresenttheirbestopportunityof
overcomingtheimpactoftheirearlytrauma”
(Pennington2012:3).
Theactofadoptionitself,thoughapositiveandjoyful
event,canalsogenerateformsofgriefwhichchildren
finddifficulttocometotermswith(NSWFACS2016).
Adoptionpromptsidentityandattachmentquestions
whichwillberevisitedthroughoutayoungperson’s
life(NSWFACS2016;Morgan2006;Benevolent
Society2006).Adopteesgeneratetheirown
narrativesaboutadoption(Cravens2016)andthese
representaconfluenceofbothpositiveandnegative
imageryincluding:mediaandpopcultureportrayals;
psycho-socialunderstandingsofthefamilyand
relationships(Passmore,2007);culturalandsocio-
demographichistory;individualpersonalityand
disposition;discussionswithfamilyandpeers;and
corebeliefsaboutself(Pennyetal2007;Brodzinskyet
al1998).
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Researchevidencesuggestsconclusivelythatadoptive
parentsandadoptivechildrenwillhavetosensitively
manage,negotiateandaddressissuesofidentity,and
theywillneedsupportindoingso.Thedegreeofsupportrequiredhoweverisdifficulttoquantify,as
needswillvaryfromfamilytofamilyandindividualto
individual(Selwynetal2014).
6 Adoptiveparentsarelikelytohaveexperiencedtheirownemotionalhardshipsandchallengesintheroadtoadoption
Inthequesttofinalisealegaladoption,adoptive
parentshaveundoubtedlyfacedchallengeswhichmay
include:infertility(Goldbergetal2009);struggleswith
bureaucracy(Selwyn2014);financialdifficulties(NSW
FACS2016);andtheirownpersonalandemotional
journeytodevelopandgrowtoembracetheirroleas
parents(Brodzinsky1987).Experiencedadoption
agentsintheUSdescribetheprocessasoneof
claiming,carefullyacknowledgingandcomingtoterms
withthesimultaneouslossandjoythatcomeswith
becominganadoptiveparent(Cravens2016).
Peterson(2012)notesthatadoptiveparentstypically
holdexceptionallyhighexpectationsofthemselvesas
parentsandthisincreasestheirvulnerabilityto
perceivethemselvesasfailures.Adoptiveparents
absorbsocialnormsandexpectationsabouttherole
ofadoptiveparentsasheroesandrescuers,andthis
comeswithenormousandoftenunrealistic
expectations.
Socialmessagingsurroundingadoptionimpliesthat
withadoptioncomes“developmentalrecovery”forall
pasttraumas(Donaldson2013).However,society
doesnotplaceasimilarburdenonbiologicalparents
to‘heal’theirbiologicalchildrenofbehavioural,
psycho-social,mentalillnessandalloflife’s
challenges.Biologicalparentsareexpectedtocare
andnurture,butarenotexpectedtoassumefull
responsibilitywhenaparentcannotfully‘heal’their
child.Gair(2009)notesthatadoptiveparentsoften
believethattheycannotbeanythingotherthan
‘perfect’parents.Thisincreasestheriskofadoptive
parentstoarangeofpsychologicaltraumasincluding
specificformsofdepression(PADorpostadoptive
depression)whichissufferedexclusivelybyadoptive
parents(Peterson2012;Viana&Welsh2010;Senecky
etal2008).Whileadoptivemothersareoften
identifiedtobeatriskofthiscondition,thereisalso
anemergingbodyofclinicalresearchfindingswhich
identifiesadoptivefatherstobeatriskaswell
(Brabender&Fallon2013;Foli2010).
7 Childhoodtraumasexperiencedpre-adoptionmeanthatnicheparentingskillsor‘therapeuticparenting’willberequiredbytheadoptiveparents
Whenchildrenexperiencetrauma,conventional
approachestoparentingrequirerevisionanddifferent
parentingskillsareneeded.Thereisasignificantand
growingbodyofevidencewhichdemonstrates
conclusivelythatconventional‘learned’modelsof
parenting,particularlythosebasedonpunishment,do
notworkformanyadoptivechildrenandcancauseor
compoundtheharmassociatedwithpasttrauma
experiences.Beauchamp(2014)notesthatsuccessful
parentingstrategiesacrossarangeofpostadoption
supportschemesarethosethatfocusonnon-
punishmentbasedparenting.“Traditionalparenting
techniquesmaynotworkandadoptiveparentsmay
needtodevelopalternativeparentingstrategiesin
theirroleas‘therapeuticparents’fortraumatised
children”(Pennington2012:12).Inaddition,research
findingsnotethatthosechildrenwhohavebeen
victimsofsystematicabusechallengesmayalso
experiencedifficultiesreceivingintimacyandderiving
comfortandsafetyfromcaringparents(Selwynetal
2014).Traditionalnotionsofemotionallyaffective
parenting(includingphysicalcontactandhugging)can,
forsomechildren,re-visitpriortrauma.Somestudies
identifythatforadoptivechildren,‘commonsense
parenting’islesseffectiveorineffective(Peterson
2012).Whileitisnotpossibletonarrowlydefine
appropriateparentinginanadoptivecontext,because
everyparentandeverychildisdifferent,research
findingshighlightthattheemotionalhorizonfor
childrenwhohaveexperiencedadoptionisinherently
morecomplexandrequiresuniquesetsofparenting
skills.
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8 Adoptivefamiliesareatincreasedriskofexperiencingsecondarytrauma
Adoptiveparentsandanychildrenofadoptiveparents
areatriskofexperiencingvicariousstressderived
fromthetrauma,abuseandneglecthistoriesof
adoptivechildren.Familiesaredeeplyinterconnected
social,psychologicalandemotionalsystemsandas
childrentrytocometotermswithidentityissuesor
pastissuesoftrauma,allotherfamilymemberswill
havearoleinthepsycho-therapeuticprocess(either
directlyorindirectly)andbepersonallyimpactedby
theseexperiences.AsPenningtonnotes“Anyonewho
spendstimewithatraumatisedchildmayexperience
secondarytrauma.Theempathyneededtoparent
suchachildproducespsychologicalchangesasthough
theparents/carersthemselveshavebeenexposedto
thetrauma,e.g.brainfunctionchanges,parentscan
becomelessarticulate,lessemotionallyliterate,more
angryanddespairing.Peoplewholivewith
traumatisedchildrenexperiencehighlevelsofstress
andneedappropriatesupporttoenablethemtocare
fortheirchildren”(2012:12).Putanotherway,the
issuesinunderstanding,navigatingandhealing
traumacanbephysiologically,emotionallyand
psychologicallycomplexandliebeyondtheabilityof
mostfamiliestohandleentirelyontheirown.
9 Structuralbarriersexistandpoorlevelsof‘adoption’competenceacrossmanypartsofthehumanservicessystempreventadoptivefamiliesfrombothseekingandreceivinghelp.
Acrossanumberofstudies,twobarriersare
consistentlynotedbyadoptiveparentsinthesearch
forpostadoptionsupport.Adoptivefamilieshavea
lackofinformationaboutwheretogoforservicesand
thecostofservicesofgenerallyprohibitiveaswell
(Selwynetal2014;Festinger2002;Soderlundetal
1995).Inarecentsurveyofadoptiveparentsinthe
UK,almosthalfofallparticipantsidentifiedtheyhad
troubleaccessingpostadoptionsupportbecausethey
couldnotlocatestaffwithadoptionspecific
knowledgeandskillswhocouldunderstandtheir
situation(Pennington2012).Morethanonequarter
ofalladoptiveparentssurveyedidentifiedthatthe
levelofunderstandingandexperienceamongst
professionalsindealingwithadoptionwasabarrierto
accessingsupport,andalmostonefifthidentifiedthat
theycouldnotaccesssupportbecausetheirlocal
agencywasnotskilledenoughtoidentifynorseetheir
problem.Similarly,adoptiveparentswhohave
undertakenanintercountryadoptionalsoidentifythat
postadoptionsupportisdifficulttolocate,andthe
challengestoaccessingprivatetherapywere
significantbecausefamilieshadoftenexhaustedtheir
financesinordertoactuallyadoptachildfrom
overseas(BenevolentSociety2013).
ExperienceintheUKhighlightsthateventhepresence
ofalegislated(mandated)entitlementtoadoption
supportservicesdoesnotensurethatthesystemis
appropriatelyequippedtodelivertheseservices.
Pennington(2012)notesmanyadoptivefamilieswho
hadformallyrequestedanassessmentforserviceshad
notreceivedit,andinothercasesfamilieshadbeen
assessedbutweredeemedineligibletoreceive
support.Otherstudiesidentifythatageneralizedlack
ofawarenessoftherangeofadoption-relevant
servicesamongstprofessionalstaffalsorepresenteda
significantbarriertoaccessingsupportamongst
familiesintheUSbecauseitinhibitedaprocessof
appropriatereferral(Patricelli2015).Selwynetal
(2014)notesthatappropriatelyskilledlabour,andthe
supplyofprofessionalswithadoption-relevant
knowledgeremainslow,evenincountrieswithhigh
levelsofadoptionsuchastheUK.Pennington(2012)
notesofthestudyofadoptionservicesintheUK,that
almosthalfofalladoptiveparentssurveyedidentified
a‘systemblockage’asthereasontheycouldnot
accesssupport.
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10 Australiaisasignatorynationtoanumberofinternationalagreementswhichhighlightthestate’sobligationtoprovideongoingpostadoptionsupportforadoptivefamiliesandtheirchildren
Asafinalnote,itisimportanttohighlightthatwhile
Australiahasgivenin-principlesupportfortwo
internationalconventionswhichspecificallycitethe
valueofpost-adoptionsupportsforadoptivefamilies,
thepolicyframeworksinthiscountrywithregardto
postadoptionsupportarehighlyfragmented.
AustraliaisasignatorytoboththeInternational
ConventionoftheRightsoftheChildandtheHague
AdoptionConvention,bothofwhichpointdirectlyto
theneedforgovernmentstodevelopandimplement
post-adoptionsupportsforadoptivefamilies.
TheInternationalConventionsoftheRightofthe
Child,Article39,identifiesthatthestate“shalltakeall
appropriatemeasurestopromotephysicaland
psychologicalrecoveryandsocialreintegrationofa
childvictimof:anyformofneglect,exploitation,or
abuse;tortureoranyotherformofcruel,inhumanor
degradingtreatmentorpunishment;orarmed
conflicts.Suchrecoveryandreintegrationshalltake
placeinanenvironmentwhichfostersthehealth,self-
respectanddignityofthechild”.Inthiscontext,the
entitlementofthevastmajorityofadoptivechildren
toreceiveadditionalformsofsupportisnotjust
implied,butclearlyassertedbecauseoftheirstatusas
survivorsoftraumaandabuse.
AustraliaisalsoamemberoftheInternationalHague
AdoptionConvention,whichaddressesissuesof
supportarisingfromintercountryadoptions
specifically.Theconventionbroadlyassertsaneedfor
ongoingsupportforchildrenwiththe“aimof
adequatepost-adoptionsupporttoprovidethesocial
andculturalprotectionofadoptedchildren”
(Bernacchietal2006).However,governments
worldwidehavebroughtvaryinginterpretationsto
bearinmakingprovisionforpostadoptionsupport/s.
Forexample,therapeuticsupports(counselling,
behaviouralmanagementandhealthservices)often
featureprominentlyinpostadoptionservicesyet“in
theHagueConventionprovisionsthereisno
mentioningofanyclinicaland/ormedicalintervention
inconnectionwithtypicalpost-adoptionservices”and
that“theseservicesaregenerallyprovidedbypublic
bodieseventhough,inmostCountries,theseactivities
arealsogenerallydelegatedtoprivateentities
providingservicesinthesocialsector”(Bernacchietal
2006).Asitstands,theneedforpostadoption
supportsareasserted,butthereislittleagreement
abouthowgovernmentscanbemadeaccountablefor
thesecommitmentsandthereforeenforcementhas
beendifficulttopursue.
Bothoftheseinternationalconventionshighlightthe
necessityforongoingsupportservices,afteralegal
adoptionorderisfinalized,yetthefocusand
outcomestobederivedfromtheseservicesremains
largelyunspecified.InAustralia,‘post-placement
support’forprospectiveadoptiveparents(carers)is
commonandtypically,initiatedandmaintainedprior
tothefinalizationofanadoptionorder.Post-adoption
supporthoweverisfragmented,andtypicallyprovided
byNGOsonasporadicandad-hocway.State
governmentshaveprimaryresponsibilityforchild
protectionissuesandthebureaucraticandservice
deliverychallengesassociatedwithprovidingcarefor
thegrowingnumbersofchildreninstatutoryOutof
HomeCaremeanthatpost-adoptionservices
comprisealowerorderbudgetpriority.Whilefederal
governmentsandstategovernmentsmayshowin-
principlesupportfortheneedforpost-adoptivecare,
thepoliciesandprogramsnecessarytomanifestthis
supportremainunderdeveloped.
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Introducingaconceptualframeworkforunderstandingpost-adoptionsupportsWiththecaseforimprovedpost-adoptionsupportin
Australianowestablished,thepapernowturnstothe
compositeelementsofthesesupports.Post-adoption
supportstructuresareexplicitlyandimplicitlyshaped
byawiderangeoffactorsincluding:culturalhistory
andtradition(BenevolentSociety2013);overarching
socialandeconomicpolicies(UN2009);thelegislative
trajectoriesofnationstates(ChildONEurope2007);
trendsinresearchevidence;practitionerthinking;and
prevailingsocialnormssurroundingfamily.Todate,
researchattemptstosystematicallycontrastand
comparepostadoptioninitiativesandthecomplex
factorsunderpinningtheiremergence,hastypically
involvedlistingdifferencesintheseapproaches(Simon
2011).AsSelwyn(2014)notes,theneedtoreflect
differencesinfamilyexperienceisparamount.While
respectfullyreflectingthediversityoffamily
experienceisimportant,inordertoprogress
understanding,thispaperarguesthatanalysismust
movebeyondaninventory-basedapproachalone.
Listingtheactivitiesassociatedwithaspecificsupport
programmayactuallyservetoobscureratherthan
deepenunderstandingofthecomplexitiesassociated
withdevelopingandimplementingpostadoption
support.Thefollowingdiscussionseekstodistila
rangeofexistingperspectivesonpostadoption
supportandofferconceptualcoherencetothe
examinationofsomekeysourcesofevidence.
Thispaperarguesthattheclassificationofpost
adoptionsupportsisnotonlypossiblebutis
instructivetounderstandingsoffuturedevelopment
andadaptationofthesesupports.Thefollowing
conceptualframeworkhighlightsthatallpostadoption
supportsarestructuredaroundthreecategoriesof
activity-aid,allyoradvocacy-basedmodesofsupport.
Ineachcase,thecharacteristicsassociatedwitheach
ofthesemodelswillbehighlighted.Itmustbenoted
howeverthatthesemodelsarenotnecessarily
mutuallyexclusiveaspostadoptionsupportsystems
mayexhibitcharacteristicsofhybridservicedelivery
models.
Diagram1 ThetripleAofpost-adoptionsupportforadoptivefamilies
Whatmighteffectiveaid-basedpostadoptionsupportlooklike?
Thefollowingdiscussionsummarisesanddistils
insightsprovidedbypublishedaccountsofpost
adoptionsupportwhichseektodirectlyaidorassist
eitherindividualsorfamilysystemsviacorrectiveor
restorativeinterventions.AsAustralian-basedstudies
ofpostadoptionssupportsarerare,evaluationsof
overseasmodelswilllargelybeusedtoinformthese
discussions.
Medicalobservationofthephysicalhealthneedsofadoptivechildrenareespeciallyimportantinthepostadoptionphase,inboththeshortandlongterm
Inthepostadoptionphase,itislikelythatchildrenwill
needaccesstospecialisedsupportsbecauseof
historiesemergingfromtraumaexperiences.Asone
comparativestudyoverseasnotesofintercountry
adoptionexperiences“Evenifpercentagesvaryfrom
oneresearchstudytoanother,researchstudiesagree
thatmanyofthechildrenarrivingintheirnew
countrieshavesignificantgrowthandhealth
problems.Thecombinationofprenatalunfavourable
conditions(suchasmaternalalcoholism,malnutrition,
nopregnancyorchildbirthcare),inadequatepostnatal
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care(suchasneglect,badnutrition,noimmunization,
poorstimulation)andexposuretoadverseconditions
(suchasinstitutionalization,leadpoisoning)giverise
todelaysandillnessesinmanyadoptees”(Bernacchi
etal2006:12).Gindis(2012)notesthatsymptomsof
institutionalautismarepresentamongstchildrenwho
haveexperiencedintercountryadoption,thoughthe
reasonsandlongtermimpactsofthisremainfarfrom
clear.
Researchstudieswhichexaminethelongerterm
healthoutcomesforchildrenwhohavebeenadopted
fromOutofHomeCareprovideaconflictedsetof
findings.Ameta-analysisofhealthstudiesassociated
forchildreninfostercarehighlightsthatsome
researchersforeseelongtermhealthrisksarisingfrom
theseexperiences(Selwynetal2014;VanAndeletal
2012;Baeretal2006),whileothershighlightthat
manyareasofambiguitysurroundtheinterpretation
ofevidence(Troutman2011;Osborn&Bromfield
2007).Thereisconsensushowever,thatadoptive
childrenwillrequireattentiveobservationoftheir
physicalneeds,becauseoftheirpastexperiences.For
thesereasons,nicheformsofmedicalpost-adoptive
supportarelikelytobeneededbyadoptiveparents
and/oradopteesatseveralpointsacrossthelife
course.
Directtalk-basedtherapiesandcounsellingaidsareconsideredcentraltomuchpost-adoptionsupport
IntheUSandtheUK,therapeuticinterventionsplaya
criticalroleinpostadoptionsupportbecauseitis
throughthesemechanismsthatadoptivefamiliesand
adopteesseektoresolveissuesofpasttrauma,
manageissuesofidentityinthecontextofnewfamily
relationships,andsolicitsupportinmanagingfeelings
andresponsestobirthfamilymembers.
Therapeuticsupportscanincludeawiderangeof
activitiesbuttypicallyexhibitaheavyemphasison
counsellingfor:parents;adoptivechildren;other
familymembers(particularlynon-adoptivechildren)
(BenevolentSociety2013).Groupcounselling(family,
parent,andadoptee-focused)areallpresentina
rangeofadoptionsupportprogramsintheUS,theUK
andAustralia.PreliminarydatainAustraliaidentifies
thatadoptiveparentsdesireimprovedaccesstothese
services.Asurveyofadoptiveparentsadministered
bytheBenevolentSocietyfoundthatbothlocaland
inter-countryadoptivefamiliesoverwhelminglywant
betteraccesstothesekindsofsupports(Benevolent
Society2013).
Whiletheprovisionofcounsellingservicesisasserted
tobeacriticallyimportantaidforadoptivefamilies,it
isimportanttonotethateveninsystemswherethere
issignificantstatefundingassociatedwithservice
provision,identifiedchallengestoservicedelivery
persist.Pennington(2012)notesthatdirect
therapeuticsupportsarealmostuniversallyseenas
beneficialforfamilies,buttherearedrawbacksto
servicedeliverybecauseofcost.Thelackof
counsellingprofessionalswhohavespecializedinsight
onadoptionisalsocitedtobeanobstacletothegood
provisionoftheseservices(Selwynetal2014).
Similarly,Greennotes“Primarily,theliterature
discussingadoptioninterventionhascomefrom
psychoanalyticalthought,anecdotalaccountsoris
characterised,apartfromafewexceptions,bypoorly
designedresearch”(2014:2).
Thispaperdoesnotseektodebatethequalityof
publicversusprivateformsoftherapeuticcounselling
interventionsandservices.However,itmustbenoted
thatinthefieldofpostadoptionservicesthereappear
tobebenefitsderivedfromgovernment-funded
modelsthroughthecreationofeconomiesofscale
andexpertise.Forexample,whileSelwyn(2014)
notesservicegapsforfamiliesintheUK,theprovision
ofgovernmentfundingforpostadoptionhas
undoubtedlyimprovedthequalityofserviceavailable
becausetraining,guidelinesforpractice,and
professionalnetworksbegintoemergeandbecome
codified.ThiscontrastswithexperienceintheUSin
which“theprovisionofpost-adoptionservicesinthe
USremainspatchy.Andtoooften,preventative
servicesarenotavailableandservicesareavailable
onlywhencumulativestrainonthefamilyhas
escalatedtothepointofcrisis”(Beauchamp2014:17).
Similarly,aChildONEuropeauditofpostadoption
supportsamongstEuropeanUnionnationshighlights
thatwhiletherapeuticsupportsareabsolutely
essentialtoadoptivefamilies,thelackofcommitment
byEUnationstatestoprovidetheseservicesremains
akeyareaofconcern.Thereis“insufficientsupport
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bytheStatetofamiliesintermsofparentaleducation
andcounselling”(ChildONEurope2007:10),
Foradoptees,thebenefitsoftherapeuticpost-
adoptionsupportsappeartobeimmense.For
example,childandadolescentpsychotherapy,
attachmentformingthera-play,selfesteemtherapy
andresilience-focusedcounselling,haveallbeen
notedastherapeuticsupportswhichhaveeffective
outcomesforadoptivechildrenwhenthesecanbe
accessed(Pennington2012;Giligan2009;Kenricketal
2006;Hushionetal2006;Egbert2003).Whilea
detailedinventoryofspecifictherapeutictechniquesis
beyondthescopeofthispaper,itisimportanttonote
thatagrowingbankoftherapeuticapproaches
continuestogrowanddevelop,usingavarietyof
multi-disciplinarytheoreticalframes(Kenricketal
2006).
‘Pointofcontact’modelsareoneofthemostcommonformsofservicedeliveryfordispensingdirectpostadoptionassistance
Pointofcontactmodels,sometimesreferredtoas
gatewaymodels,arepresentintheUKandinsome
USstates.Underthismodelofpostadoptionsupport,
directassistancetofamiliesisofferedviaakey
adoptionliaisonofficeroralocalspecializedunit
(Pennington2012).Someevaluationsnamegateway
modelsasbestpracticeserviceprovisioninpost
adoptionsupportbecausetheyseektooffera
consistentadvisor(pointofcontact)forthefamily
whoworksinconcertwithotherprofessionalstoalign
servicestomatchtheneedsoffamilies
(First4Adoption2015;NACAC2010;Jones2008).
Avarietyofdifferentgovernancestructurescanbe
usedtooverseegatewaymodels,andasitstands
thereisnodefinitiveevidencesuggestingthatone
modelissuperiortoanother.InUtahforexample,
adedicated‘gateway’officerisappointedinevery
DepartmentofChildrenandFamilyServicesregion
inthestatetorespondspecificallytotheneedsof
adoptivefamilies(Jones2008).Thiscontrastswith
thegatewaymodelusedacrossintheUK,inwhich
specificlocaladoptionauthoritiesoperateasfairly
autonomousunitsandmaintainlocaldiscretionover
howtotriageadoptivefamiliesforsupport.Inthe
UK,therearealsolocallyadministeredadoption
allowances.
Informalaidisimpactfulforfamiliestodevelopasenseofsolidarity,remainconnectedandtomaintainasenseofautonomyanddiscretionovertheassistancetheyaccess
Forthepurposesofthisanalysis,theterm‘informal’is
usedtodescribeinitiativeswhichlieoutsidethe
protocolsusuallyassociatedwithscheduledpscho-
therapeutictreatmentprogramsandappointments.
Informalpost-adoptionsupportisnotbasedonthe
progressivetrackingoftherapeuticmilestones,
instead,itfocusesontheprovisionofsupportswhich
arehighlyflexibletotheindividualneedsofadoptive
families.
Holmes(2013)notesthatadoptiveparentand/orpeer
supportgroupsformacriticallyimportantroleinthe
provisionofinformalpostadoptionassistance.Where
theseprogramshavebeenevaluated,peersupport
programsandserviceshaveshownalevelofsuccess
fortworeasons.Participationinsupportgroupscan
reducethesenseofisolationthatsomeadoptive
parentsandadoptivechildrenfeel.Inaddition
improvedknowledgeofservicesgained,andthesense
ofcollectivesolidarityfeltinsupportgroupscanalso
culminateinparentsandadopteesseekinghelp
sooner(proactively),beforeacrisispointisreached
withinafamily(Beauchamp2014).Cravens(2016)
notesthatpeersupportgroupsforadoptivefamilies
andadoptivechildrencanhelptocreategroupnorms
aroundadoption,becauseparentscancounsel,share
fears,supporteachotherandbuildtrustinasafe
environment.
Therapeuticparentinggroupsofthekindprovided
byPostAdoptionSupportQueensland(PASQ)
(BenevolentSociety)alsohavetheadvantagesthat
comewithorganicformation.Forexample,the
experienceofPASQdemonstratesthatonceanetwork
isestablished,thefocusofoperationscanbegradually
expandedtotargetissuesofrelevanceinkeepingwith
thechangingneedsofadoptivefamilies.PASQhas
longheldastrongfocusonadoptionsupportsfor
adopteesaffectedbytheclosedadoptionera.More
recently,andduetopublicdemand,thePASQhas
builtacommunityofparentsandyoungpeoplewith
intercountryadoptionexperiencesinthesouth-east
Queenslandregionsothattherelevanceofpost
adoptionsupportstothesefamiliesmightbe
strengthened.
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Directassistanceprogramswhichcloselytargetlocalneedareessential
Localsocio-demographiccharacteristics,thelocation
andgeo-spatialcharacteristicsofresidentialareas,
andthefeaturesandqualityofkeylocalservices
(egschools,healthcareandcommunityorganisations)
canalldeeplyimpactthequalityoflifeforadoptive
families.Forthisreason,researchonpostadoption
supportshighlightsthatgrassrootsbasedadoption
supportsarebestabletounderstandandrespondto
localfamilyneeds.Incountrieswithheavilydispersed
populationslikeAustraliaandtheUS,researchers
arguethatlocalsupportagenciesarebestableto
understandthehealthandbroaderhumanservice
infrastructurewithinanareaandharnessthis
effectively(Beauchamp2014).AstheBenevolent
Society(2013)notes,adoptionsupportservicesmust
alwaysbedevelopedmindfuloftheneedsoffamilies
atthelocallevel.
Effectiveformsofpostadoptionassistancearethosewhichare‘journeyaware’
Whilethereisnolongitudinaldataavailableonthe
impactsofspecificpostadoptionprogramsoflong
standing,commentatorsandexpertsinthefield
advocatestronglyforpostadoptionsupportswhich
havebothshortandlongtermfocus(Cravens2016;
BenevolentSociety2013;Pennington2012).Inother
words,effectivepostadoptivesupportsarethose
capableofrenderingaidtoanadopteeorfamily
member(potentially)longafteranadoption
experiencehasoccurred.AsNACAC(2010)notesinits
evaluationofpostadoptionsupportsintheUS,
assistancemustbeavailabletofamiliesatmultiple
pointsalongthefamilytimeline.Similarly,
observationsbyJones(2008)concur“child’sneeds
andtheparents’needsmayhavetobeaddressedin
differentwaysatdifferentpointsintime”.
Bibliotherapyaids
Theterm‘bibliotherapy’isusedbyanumberof
practitionerstodescribetheself-helpresourceswhich
canbeprovidedtoadoptivefamiliesandadopteesby
postadoptionsupportservices(Green2014).The
provisionofresourcesintheformofinformation
sheets,readingmaterial,toolkitsandtheoretical
evidenceinadigestibleform(PASQBenevolent
Society2013)canalsoaidfamiliesbyequippingthem
withanenduringsetofskillstorespondtochildrenas
issuesarise.Theseaidsarehighlyadaptablebecause
theycanbedevelopedtobeageappropriateincluding
everythingfromchildren’sbooksthroughtomore
sophisticatedsupporttextsforadults(Kavanaugh&
Fiorini2009).
Thisfieldofpostadoptionsupportissignificantto
families,andrequiresproperfunding(includingskilled
staff)inordertobeeffective.Theproductionand/or
distributionofqualitybibliotherapyaidsinvolves
distillingandconsolidatingrelevanttheoretical
thinkingwithprevailingadviceandguidancewitha
viewtosupplyingparents,childrenandyoungpeople
withknowledge,skillsandpracticaltools.
Attachment,grief,trauma,childhoodgrowthand
maturation,emotionaldevelopmentandattachment
shouldformfoundationconceptsandbeusedto
underpinthedevelopmentofresources(Kavanaugh&
Fiorini2009).Thisinformationalsoequipsparentsto
bebetterinformedandtobuildcapacityforadvocacy
amongstparentsasstakeholderstolobbyandagitate
fortheservicestheyneeddownthetrack.Inone
studyofadoptionauthoritiesintheUK,theseagencies
wereidentifiedwiththepotentialtogeneratevery
appliedanddetailedhighqualitybibliotherapyaidsfor
families(intheformofsamplelifestorybooksand
laterlifeletters)however,theauthoritiesfailedto
deliverandsharetheseresourceseffectively(Selwyn
etal2014).
AsGreen(2012)notes,‘bibliotherapy’istypicallyused
asanadjuncttoconventionaltherapy,wherethereis
somelevelofliteracyaroundpostadoptioncareinthe
therapeuticcommunity.Inthosejurisdictionswhere
thereisnotawellestablishednetworkofpost
adoptionsupportprovidershowever,bibliotherapy
canrepresentapowerfulandeffectiveresourcewhich
adoptivefamiliescanhave‘athand’and‘inthehome’
tohelpnavigatesituationsastheyarise.
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Whatroledoadvocate-basedformsofpostadoptionsupportplay?Effectivepostadoptionsupportincludesacategoryof
activitieswhichdonotinvolvedispensationofdirect
assistancetoadoptivefamilies,butinsteadindirectly
supportadoptivefamiliesthrougharangeof
awarenessraisingandadvocacyactivities.
Researchfindingsandkeyexpertsinthefieldhighlight
thatadvocacy-drivenstructuresarecriticaltothe
successfuldeliveryofpostadoptionsupportsfor
adoptivefamiliesforthereasonsoutlinedbelow.
Advocacy-basedsupportsareimportantbecausetheyseektochangetheprofileofservicesavailabletofamilies
Advocacy-basedpostadoptionsupportstypically
emergefromarecognitionthatmainstreamservices
arenotsufficientlyresponsivetotheneedsof
adoptivefamilies.Beauchampnotes“Previously,it
wasassumedthatmainstreamcommunityservices
couldmeettheneedsofadoptivefamilies.However,
asadoptiveparentswereunsuccessfulinfinding
effectivehelpfortheirchildrentheneedfor
specialisedservicesbecameapparent”(2014:5).In
Australia,advocacy-basedsupportsaretypically
providedbyagenciesinthenotforprofitsectorwho
actasagentsofchangetofacilitatetheproduction
and/orsourcingofnicheservicesandsupports.
Advocacy-basedsupportshelptobuildsystemcapacityinwaysthatareresponsivetochangingpatternsofadoptivecare
Advocatesareimportantbecausetheyworkasagents
ofchangetoremovesocial,cultural,attitudinaland
logisticalbarriersforadoptivefamiliesinaccessing
assistance,andhelptoanticipateemergingareasof
supportneed.Advocacy-basedformsofadoption
supportalsohelptobuildaskilledandsufficiently
diverselabourforceofworkerscapableofdealing
withtheneedsofdiversefamilies(NACAC2010).In
theUSforexample,advocacymodelsofadoption
supporthavedevelopedhighlyeffectivepartnerships
withLGBTorganisationsinordertodeepen
understandingofadoptionissueswithinacommunity,
andtoprovidepositiverepresentationsofLGBT
parentsofadoptivechildren(Brodzinsky2011).In
Australia,advocacy-basedsupportshavebegunto
morestronglyalignaroundtheneedsofinter-country
adoptionfamilies(BenevolentSociety2013).AsGreen
notes,advocacysupportshelptobridgethegap
betweenrigidityinpracticeguidelinesandemerging
issuesinadoptivecare.“Professionalserviceshave
mirroredsilenceandsecrecy.Thereisalackoftraining
abouttheimpactofadoptioninuniversitycurriculums
andinprofessionaldevelopment.Furthermore,there
isadearthofclinicalliteraturedocumentingmodelsof
appropriateinterventionusingcasestudies”(2014:4).
Advocacy-focusedsupportscanseektoconsolidate
evidencebasedpracticeinwayswhichareresponsive
totheneedsofthecommunitiesinwhichadoptive
familieslive.TheworkofAdoptChangeintheareaof
trainingandsupportcurriculumsforschoolsrepresent
anexampleofthistypeofsupport.
Advocatescanhelptoamelioratedirectbarrierstopostadoptionsupport
IntheUS,adoptionadvocacyorganisationshave
workedeffectivelyonbehalfofadoptiveparentsin
verydirectways.ForexampleinthestateofUtah,
adoptionadvocatesliaisewithhealthagenciesto
accessdataandinformation(egmedicalrecordswhich
giveafullerpictureofanadoptivechild’shistory)and
consolidatethisinformationforadoptivefamiliesto
acceleratetheiraccesstopostadoptivesupport
services.
Researchfindingsalsonotethattheroleofthe
intermediaryplayedbysomeadvocacyorganisations
ishighlyvaluedbytheadoptivefamily.AsSelwynetal
(2014)notes,adoptiveparentsandchildrenwhohave
hadcontactwithstatutoryOutofHomeCarewantto
‘normalise’bydistancingthemselvesfromthe
impersonalbureaucraticstructurestheyassociatewith
childprotection.Researchfindingshighlightthatmany
adoptivefamiliesfindthatre-engagementwithsocial
andcommunitypresentsparticularlychallenging
emotionalterrainforfamiliesforarangeofreasons.
Theyfeartheywillbeperceivedasfailuresandthey
fearthattheirchildrenwillbe‘taken’awaybecause
theymightbeperceivedasbadparents(Brabender&
Fallon2013;Malhomes&King2012).Advocatesand
agenciescanruninterferencewithgovernment
departmentswithwhomfamiliesmayhavehad
negativeexperiences.
IntheUKadoptionauthoritieshaveassumedastrong
advocacy(inadditiontoadirectassistance)role.
Adoptionauthoritieshaveworkedtoprovidemore
nuanceddistinctionsbetweenfamilyversustrauma
therapy(akintotheGPversusERfunctionsofthe
18
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healthsystem),andtherebyhelpadoptivefamilies
delineatethespecificservicetheymightneedto
access.Holmes(2013)notesthatthisdistinction
hasbeenempoweringforadoptivefamiliesby
demystifyingthetherapeuticsupportsystemin
theUK.
Whatroledoadoptionalliesplayintheprovisionofpostadoptionsupport?Awiderangeofresearchfindingsandpractice
highlighttheneedforthebroaderhumanservices
systemtobepopulatedwithkeyprofessionalswho
exhibitsophisticatedlevelsofadoptionawareness,
knowledgeofthelegalandpracticeterrainof
adoption,andareadinesstoadapttothechanging
needsofadoptivefamilies.
Thenotionofanallyisdifferenttothetraditional
notionofanambassadororachampionforacause.
Ambassadorsmayworkinthecollectiveinterestsof
anissueorgroupofstakeholders.Incontrast,‘allies’
haveamuchmoredirectandappliedroleandcan
workcloselyinhigh-trustrelationshipswithfamiliesto
createanddelivermeaningfulsupportsofrelevanceto
them.
Allieshelpadoptivefamilies(eitherparentsorchildren)tomakesenseoftheirexperiencebylookingmoreholisticallyatthefamilyecosystem,andtherangeofinstitutionalsupportsavailablebeforemakingareferralorprovidingdirectsupport.Theterm‘allies’canbeusedtodescribethose
professionalswhohaveunderstandingsofadoptive
processandtheassociatedidentityconcernsraisedby
anadoptiveexperience,andcanworkinconcertwith
otherprofessionalstoalignsupportservicesfor
familiesasneeded.Unlikeadoptionadvocates,who
mayactasintermediariesforfamilies,alliesare
adoption-savvyprofessionalswhounderstandthe
needsofadoptiveparentsandhelptostrengthenthe
effectivenessofthesupportsinplaceforfamiliesin
thelongterm(Brabender&Fallon2013).
Adoption-awarealliescanhelpfamiliesinvery
impactfulwaysbecausetheseprofessionscanlook
beyondthereasonswhyaparentmayinitiallypresent
forhelpandlookholisticallyatwaystosupportthe
entirefamilymorefullyintheadoptivejourney
(Peterson2012).Allieswhoworkcloselywiththe
familyhelptofacilitate,referandestablishthesekinds
ofconnectionsforfamilies,withanemphasisonthe
provisionofcontinuityandresponsivecarebeing
primaryconsiderations(Jones2008).Passmore(2007)
notesthatunlessfrontlineworkers(egdoctorsand
teachers)areversedinadoption,thereisariskthat
everychallengewillbecharacterisedasanadoption-
relatedone,andconversely,behaviouralorlearning
difficultiesmaybemisdiagnosedbecausethe
connectiontoanearlytraumaorattachment
experienceisoverlooked.
Selwynetal(2014)notesthatadoptionalliescanplay
apowerfulroleinaddressingsupportbarriersfor
adoptivefamilies.Firstly,professionaladoptionallies
canhelpto‘chaseup’gapsininformationandthe
biographyofanadoptivechild.Secondly,theseallies,
becauseoftheirbroadtheoreticalandpractical
knowledgeoftrauma,identityandattachment
concernscanalsohelptointerpretand“understand
thesignificance”oftheinformationoncelocated
(Selwynetal2014).Anallycanhelptoachievegood
contactbetweenrelevantagencies,andinsodoing,
reducetheburdenontheadoptivefamilytoalign
thesesupports.Jones(2008)notesthatwhengeneral
practitionersareabletoaccessdetailedbackground
medicalandfamilyhistory(includingchildprotection
information)priortoamedicalexamination,adeeper
levelofunderstandingoftheadoptivechildresults.
Anadoption-savvyGPforexamplewillknowthey
needtodrawfromarangeofinformationsourceson
psycho-social,physicalandemotionaldevelopmentin
ordertomakeamoreholisticandthereforeeffective
assessmentofanadoptivechild’sneeds.
Adoption‘allies’areneededinawiderangeoffrontlinehumanservicesincludinghealth,disabilitysupportservices,educationandpolice
Researchfindingsandabodyofevaluativeevidence
fromadoptionsupportprogramsoverseaspointsto
theneedforadoptionalliesandaliftedlevelof
adoptioncompetencyacrossawiderangeofhuman
services.
Firstly,adoptivefamiliesneedprofessionalallies
outsidecommunityservicearenas,becauseresearch
suggeststhattheseagenciesarethelastportofcall
foradviceorassistanceforthesefamilies.Instead,
adoptivefamiliesaremorelikelytoapproachother
professionalsatvaryingpointsacrossthehuman
servicechainincludingschools,thepolice,andprivate
mentalhealthproviders.Secondly,itisinmainstream
institutionalsettingsinwhichchallengesforadoptive
childrenaremostlikelytoariseandbeidentified.For
19
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thisreason,Egbert(2003)andothersnote,thelevelof
adoptionawarenesstobothrespondand/orrefer
appropriatelyisparamount.
Betteradoptionawarenessand/orspecializedmental
healthsupportsforadoptivefamiliesandchildrenare
alsorequired.Psychologists,counsellors,psychiatrists
andcognitivebehaviouraltherapistswhoareadoption
alliesareneededbecauseknowledgeoftheimpactsof
longertermimpactsofearlytraumaandattachment
experiencescanhelptodevelopmoreresponsiveand
relevanttreatmentprogramsforpatients(Selwynetal
2014).
Flexibilitytoprovideadoption-awaresupportservices
inthefieldofdisabilitysupportservicesisidentifiedby
manyresearchersasanareaofneed.Selwynetal
(2014)notesthatautismspectrumdisorderdiagnoses
arecommonamongstadoptivechildrenintheUK,and
specializedmedicalprofessionalscapableofexploring
thesignificanceofthisconnectionisneeded.
Educationsettingsareacriticalsitefortheformative
socialisationforchildren,andareoftenplacesinwhich
challengeswillemergeasachild‘ages’throughan
adoptionexperience(BenevolentSociety2013).
Egbert(2003)notesthatapoorlevelofunderstanding
amongstteacherswillcreateadditionalhurdlesfor
adoptivefamiliesinnavigatingandmanaging
behaviouralandlearningchallengesfacedbychildren.
AsPenningtonnotes“educationinparticularisanarea
inwhichadoptiveparentsfeltthesystemwaspoorly
equippedtodealwiththeissuesfacingadoptive
children,inparticulartheissuesoftraumaand
attachmentcanaffectbothbehaviourandabilityto
learnoverthedevelopmentalcourseofachild’slife”
(2012:12).StudiesintheUK,theUSandAustralia
havegonesofarsosaythatschoolscanbeunsafe
environmentsforchildrenwithadoptionand/orOOHC
experiencesbecausetheycanbecometargetsfor
bullyingbypeers(NSWCCYP&ChildGuardian2012;
Rao&Simkiss2007).TheAdoptionInstitute(2007)
identifiesthatteachersandstudentsgenerallyexhibit
highdegreesofinsensitivitytowardandlowlevelsof
awarenessaboutadoptionissues.TheInternational
AdoptionProjectdocumentsthatadoptivechildren
reportexperiencesofbullying,whenclassmatesand
peersareillinformedaboutadoptionexperiences(IAP
2013).TheworkoftheAdoptionInstitute(2007)also
highlightsthatnegativecurriculumbasedexperiences
canpresentintheclassroomforadoptivechildren.
Thecontinuinginclusionofcurriculumtasksand
homeworkactivitieswhichrequirestudentsto
reminisceaboutearlychildhood,recountfamily
historyresearchand/ormemorialisefatherormother
roles(egmakingamother’sdaycard)havethe
potentialtocauseimmensedistressforchildrenwith
priortraumaexperiences.
Communitiesofalliesforadoptivefamiliescanbebuiltthroughtrainingandeducation,butaccreditedformsoftraininginthisfieldareunderdeveloped
IntheUS,adoptionsupportagenciesadvocate
stronglyforprofessionalstoparticipateinaccredited
adoption-competenttraining(NACAC2010).
However,thereisfarfromclinicalnorfrontlineworker
consensusoverwhatthistrainingshouldcomprise.In
Australia,theformationofadoptionsupporttraining
hasbeendeeplyshapedbythehistoryofforced
adoptionandwhethertransferabilityofthisskillsetto
openadoptionenvironmentsispossibleisfarfrom
clear(BenevolentSociety2013).Inaddition,the
growinginfluenceofNGOsasdelegated/authorized
adoptionagenciesmeanthatindividualorganisations
arelikelytodeveloptheirownin-houseadoption
supporttrainingwhichiscustomizedtomeetniche
clientandfamilyneed.Thismaycreatechallengesfor
thesector,asNGOsmaybeunwillingtosharetraining
andskilldevelopmentandconsolidateprofessional
practiceinthedevelopmentofpost-adoption
supports.
Examplesofally-basedmodelsofpostadoption
supportarepresentintheUS,andevaluationsof
theseschemessuggestthatpracticecanbeshared
aroundtheseactivities.Theadoptionexchangemodel
operatinginMissouriforexample,usesamulti-agency
approachbytrainingprofessionalsacrossarangeof
humanserviceagenciesinanadoptionspecific
curriculum(NRCDR2009).Oncetrained,these
professionalsreturntotheirworkplacestoliftthe
levelofawarenessofadoption-specificneedsacross
theirownagenciesandtoworkasbetteralliesfor
adoptivefamilieswhoapproachtheirorganisationsfor
help.
20
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Paediatricians,generalmedicalpractitioners,nurses
andpoliceareallfrontlineserviceroleswhichhave
beenidentifiedasneedinganetworkofadoption
alliesbecausesensitivitytopost-traumaissues
amongstchildrenandyoungpeopleisdeemedtobe
low.IntheUSthereareindicationsthatanumberof
professionalfieldsarebeginningtoembracetraining
andprofessionaldevelopmentprogramswhich
consolidatepracticeinareasoftraumacare.In2016,
forthefirsttime,theAmericanAcademyof
paediatricshasformallyacknowledgedthattheneed
toassesstraumashouldbepartofassessment
protocolsforchildren.TheAcademyisscheduledto
releaseitssetofprofessionalguidelinesforpractice
dealingwithtraumaassessmentandchildrenthis
year.
Teachershavebeenidentifiedaskeyprofessioninthe
creationofadoptionallies.Twoclearreasonscanbe
identifiedforliftingthelevelofadoptionawareness
amongsttheseworkers.Firstly,interactionsand
engagementsbetweenchildrenandteachersimpact
thepsycho-socialandintellectualdevelopmentof
childreninpowerfulways,andteacherscanmake
betterinformeddecisionsaboutstudentsandstudent
behaviourwhenthereisawarenessoftraumaandits
impactsonchildhooddevelopment.Secondly,thereis
agrowingbodyofevidencetosuggestthatthereare
poorlevelsofadoptionawarenessamongstteachers.
Pennington(2012),drawingonarangeofstudies,
assertsthat“adoptedchildrenachievelower
educationaloutcomesthantheirpeers”.Formal
trainingofteachers,unlessitisearlychildhood
educationandcare,doesnottypicallyincorporate
contentonchildhooddevelopmentandattachment
theory.Jones(2008)notesthatadoptivefamiliesoften
facethechallengeofhavingtoeducateaschooland
teachersthatwhenchildrenexhibit‘badbehaviour’at
school,thismaybeduetoattachmenttrauma.
Traditionalteachingpedagogiesdefineattachment
concernstofallwithinthepurviewoffamily(as
custodiansoftheprimarycarefunction)andtherefore
areconsideredmatterswhichliebeyondthe
professionaldominionofteachersasprofessionals.
Adoption-allieswouldarguethatthislackof
knowledgeconstrainstheabilityofteachersto
adequatelyrespondtothebehaviouraldifficultiesand
developmentalchallengesthatchildren-survivorsof
traumamaymanifestinaschoolsetting.
Anetworkofadoptionalliescanhelptostrengthensupportsforadoptivefamiliesinthelongtermbyreducingthesocialstigmasurroundingadoptionexperiences
Stigmahasbeenidentifiedasabarrierformany
adoptivefamiliesinseekingandreceivingsupport.
Liftedlevelsofadoption-awarenessacrosskeyareasof
frontlineserviceprovisionwouldassisttoreducethis
barrier.Parentsbelievethatraisingconcernsaboutan
adoptivechildorabouttheadoptivefamilymeantheir
capacitytoparentwillbequestioned(Benevolent
Society2013).IntheUK,otherresearchfindings
concur“Parentswerefrustratedbyprofessionalswho
didnottreatthemasreliableandcredibleinformants.
Parentswantedaservicedeliveredbyprofessionals
whounderstoodthecomplexandoverlapping
difficultiesshownbyadoptedchildren”(Selwynetal
2014:228). ResearchfromtheUKhighlightsthatwhileawell
establishedandcrediblerangeofgovernmentfunded
localadoptionauthorityagenciesexists,manyfamilies
(forarangeofpracticalreasons)stillaccessadoption
supportsthrougharangeofbureaucraticand
administrative‘doorways’.Penn’sstudy(2012)found
thatwhilejustoverhalfofadoptivefamiliesaccess
postadoptionsupportfromtheirlocalauthority
adoptionagency,othermainstreamserviceswere
alsoidentifiedbyfamiliestobesignificantproviders
ofadoptionsupport.Thisstrengthenstheneedfor
goodlevelsofadoptioncompetencetobepresent
atmultiplepointsalongthehumanservicedelivery
chain.
21
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Conclusion
Thispaperhighlightsthatnewandmeaningfulinsightsonpost-adoptionsupportcanbebroughttobearand
usedtoinformfuturedesignofthesesupportsinAustralia.Whileempiricalevidenceonthelevelofspecific
demandforpost-adoptionsupportmaynotcurrentlybeavailable,carefulcontextualexaminationofadoption
experiencesyieldsmanypowerfulinsights.Bylookingmorecloselyatthesharedelementswhichdefine
adoptionexperiences,andtheknownempiricalevidenceregardingtheseexperiences,apotentandstrongsetof
argumentsforimprovedpost-adoptionsupportemerge.
Analysisofthepost-adoptionsupportterrainoverseassuggeststhata‘tripleA’approachisnecessaryifadoptive
familiesaretobeproperlysupportedinthelongterm.Whiletherapeuticsupports(aids)areimportantin
renderingdirectassistancetoadoptivefamilies,arangeofothersupportprovisionsarealsoneededinorderto
reducestigmaandtostrengthenthelevelofawarenessofthechallengesexperiencedbyadoptivefamilies.For
thesereasons,supportmeasureswhichimproveadvocacyforthesefamiliesandthecreationofadoptionallies
acrossthehumanservicesdeliverychainarealsorequired.
22
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