In this case study:

PosPort of Spain

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

Location & Topography Port of Spain (POS) is a coastal city located on the north-western peninsula of Trinidad. It is situated on the foothills of the Northern Range. Residential settlement in east Port of Spain (Belmont and Laventille) occurs on slopes and ridges, but most of the city is situated on land which slopes gently toward the sea. The City of POS Corporation Area extends from Cocorite in the west, to Maraval Valley in the north, to Laventille/ Morvant near the boundary with Barataria in the east, and to the sea in the south. This area is also known as Greater Port of Spain (GPOS).

However, the study area under consideration does not include all of the GPOS area, and only the following areas are considered: Downtown and Uptown Port of Spain; Woodbrook; Tranquility; Newtown; Queen’s Park Savanna; Sea Lots; Belmont and Gonzales; and Laventille.

Section 1

Figure 1: Map of study area

Population

Early records of POS (c.1757) describe it as a small fishing village with as few as 60 inhabitants.Several events however, have changed both the physical and demographic structure of POS.

Some noteworthy events include: • The settling of the Spaniards in the middle to late 1700s and the establishment of Port of Spain, then called Puerto de d’España, as the capital and a major port for the country. • The introduction of 24,000 slaves to POS in 1838 with the collapse of the Apprenticeship system. • The introduction of East Indian indentured servants around 1845. • Influx of Chinese immigrant labourers from 1853 to 1866.

These events, along with the influx of persons from surrounding islands and from other areas of the country, and increasing infrastructural development quickly made POS one the most populous and racially diverse areas in the country. In 2000, it was estimated in the Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan (GPOSLAP) that the popula-tion in the city ranged from 40,000 to 45,000. Data from the Central Statistical Office (CSO) in 2000 estimates the population density of POS at 4,096 persons per km2. Although the population numbers of POS are high, the Area Plan indicates that the rate of growth of individual households in POS is decreasing. This is due to out-mi-gration to neighbouring areas, for example Diego Martin, Barataria and San Juan. The reasons for out-migration of resident populations will be described in the section “Port of Spain – An Urban System”. The transient popu-lation, which is the population that passes through the city, is estimated at 500,000 persons daily. This does not mean that at any one time there are half a million persons in the city. Instead, it means that throughout the day 500,000 persons enter and/or exit POS. Some reasons for the high transient population include:

• The city acts as a major corridor from east to west. • POS is the major centre for government and administrative activity. • POS is the major commercial centre of Trinidad and Tobago.

The pattern of resident and transient population, however, is not unique to POS as a coastal city. Coastal cities usually have high resident and transient populations. Estimates put average population density for coastal cities at 80 persons per km2, which is about twice the global average.1 High population densities occur because:

• people derive food from coastal marine ecosystems; • the oceans are critical for shipping and transport industries; • the coast provides livelihoods through fishing and coastal service industries; and • recreational activities such as fishing and diving occur on coasts.

Demographics

1 Liz Creel, “Ripple Effects: Population and Coastal Regions”, Population Reference Bureau, 2003, http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/RippleEffectsPopulationandCoastaRegions.aspx

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Note: Figures taken from the GPOSLAP may not be entirely relevant to the area used in this study.This is one of the challenges faced when redesigning study areas for which discrete or disaggregatedinformation is not available.

Employment

Almost 40% of the jobs in POS are inthe government sector. This is a factorto be considered in land use planningif decentralisation is an option.

• Why do coastal areas have high population densities? • Why do coastal cities develop as large urban centres? • How do coastal cities of small islands such as those in the Caribbean, compare with coastal cities found in larger countries such as those in South-East Asia? Topics for consideration may include population size, population density and history of development of the area.

Activity Identify coastal cities in the

Caribbean region and compare their average population densities with the average population densities for the

respective country.

Discussion An excerpt from Climate Change in the Caribbean

and the Challenge of Adaptation 2:

Approximately 70 per cent of the Caribbean population lives in coastal cities, towns and villages, a consequence of: the abundance of relatively easy to navigate and, therefore, very accessible natural harbours; the export-oriented econ-omy; the importance of artesian fisheries; and the tourism industry’s coastal focus. More than half the population lives within 1.5 km of the coast and international airports, roads, and capital cities are commonly situated along the coast.

Figure 2: Distribution of jobs by type in Port of Spain, 1995-97 3

2 UNEP, “Climate Change in the Caribbean and the Challenge of Adaptation”, UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Panama City, Panama, 2008.3 UDeCOTT, “Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan”, Halcrow Group Ltd. For Ministry of Housing and Settlements, Trinidad and Tobago, 2000.

Information for this section is drawn from literature on Port of Spain produced by Michael Anthony 4 in 1978 and Carlton Ottley 5 in 1962, and by a report on the urban history of Port of Spain produced by Yvonne Dickman 6 in 1992.

A recent history of POS is provided to highlight some key events that helped to shape the physical structure and influence much of what we know today as Port of Spain.

• In 1796 the name “Puerto de d’España” was changed to “Port of Spain” under British rule. Many of the streets were given patriotic names such as Duncan, Nelson, and Duke. The Rio Santa Ana became known as the St. Ann’s River. • 1797 to 1802 saw two phases of development. In the first phase the boundaries of POS were established. The boundaries were the East Dry River to the east, Richmond Street to the west, Park Street to the north, and the sea to the south and south west. The second phase of development included the designation of northward-running streets, starting with Henry Street and moving westward to Edward Street. • A major fire occurred in 1808 consuming most of the town from George Street in the east to St. Vincent in the west, and from Duke Street in the north to Independence Square North in the south. In 1813 the town of Port of Spain was rebuilt. • In 1899 the boundaries of POS were extended to include Belmont, East Dry River and Woodbrook. • In 1914 Port of Spain was declared a city. • In 1917 St. Clair was incorporated into the boundaries of the city. • In 1933 the East Dry River burst its banks due to torrential rain and caused flooding in POS. • In 1934 the paving of the East Dry River was completed. This changed the hydrology of the river, and also introduced a new corridor from southern to northern areas of Port of Spain. • In 1935, Gonzales was incorporated into the city. Also in that year, vehicular traffic along Henry and Frederick streets was restricted to one direction. • Between 1937 and 1938 land was reclaimed from the sea in order to develop western areas of POS. • In 1953 traffic lights were introduced in POS. This marked a significant advancement in traffic control within the city. • In 1987 a land use plan was developed for POS. The main objective of the plan was to repopulate the city by constructing 1200 new dwellings by 1995 in Newtown, Uptown, Tranquillity and Downtown. Other objectives included the refurbishing of Independence Square into tree-lined open spaces, with shelters for commuters. • On July 27 1990, members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen attempted to stage a coup d’état against the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The police headquarters located on Sackville and Edward streets were bombed and burnt. • In 1993 and 2008, the East Dry River again burst its banks and flooded Downtown POS.

History

4 Michael Anthony, “The Making of Port of Spain”, (Port of Spain: Key Caribbean Publications, 1978).5 Carlton Ottley, “The story of Port of Spain: capital of Trinidad, West Indies, from the earliest times to the present day”, (Diego Martin Trinidad: Crusoe P, 1962).6 Yvonne R. Dickman, “An urban history of Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago”, (Master of Urban Planning Research, McGill University, 1992).

Urban systems are built environments with a high population density and are operationally defined as human settlements with a minimum population density commonly in the range of 400 to 1000 persons per squarekilometre, minimum size of typically between 1,000 and 5,000 people. 7

Port of Spain is the most prominent urban centre in Trinidad and Tobago, housing many of the country’s com-mercial, government and administrative services. Residential settlement both planned and unplanned is another major land use in POS. Urbanisation of POS is taking place at a rapid rate, and is evident by the increasing infrastructural development, resident and transient population. Pollution levels in POS, flood events, vehicular traffic and crime are also increasing. These are common problems faced by many urbanised centres, and are managed through urban planning and management. In discussing POS as an urban system, let us first look at land use.

Residential Land UseResidential settlements surround Downtown and Uptown POS. There are four main groups of settlement:Group 1: Woodbrook, Tranquility and Newtown; Group 2: Belmont, Gonzales and Laventille; Group 3: Sea Lots; Group 4: Inner-city housing. These areas are grouped because of their close proximity to each other, and because they share similar socioeconomic issues like crime, land use development and history of development.

Group 1:• Woodbrook was first settled in 1911 and was traditionally a middle class area. Although residential settlement remains the prominent land use, commercial development is encroaching. Tragarete Road, Ariapita Avenue and Wrightson Road are now predominantly commercial strips featuring restaurants, bars, and furniture stores. The key issue in Woodbrook is the continuing commercialisation which is pushing residents out to more distant suburban areas of POS. Security is a major issue as a result of commercialisation. Commercial properties become targets for criminal activity in the evening when they are vacant.

• Tranquility started as a predominantly middle income residential area, but presently features a mixture of residential and commercial development. The area is developed in a grid pattern, and the plots are larger than those in Woodbrook. Traffic congestion is a problem in Tranquility because roads were not expanded and parking spaces not created to accommodate the increased vehicular traffic due to commercial development.

• Newtown started as a predominantly middle income residential area, but presently features a mixture of housing and commercial developments consisting of corporate offices and embassies around 4 to 6 storeys in height. However, housing remains the dominant land use in Newtown. Like Woodbrook, Newtown faces pressure from medium-density commercial development on residential sites.

Port of Spain - An Urban System

7 UNEP, “Our Human Planet: Summary for Decision Makers/ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment”, (USA: Island Press, 2005).

Major trends: Potential loss of remaining residential development inTranquility and Newtown areas.

Group 2:• Belmont and Gonzales started off as residential suburbs in the 1840s and 50s, and retain their residential characteristic today. These two areas are known for their street patterns of narrow winding roads which wander into lanes and abruptly end in valleys. 8 This pattern was the result of a rapid influx of population in the 1880s and 90s. Many of the large houses previously occupied by the black professional class in Belmont have been renovated and converted for commercial uses. Some parts of Gonzales (the higher ridges) are unplanned, unsewered and there is no pipe-borne water except by the way of standpipes. 9

• Laventille is a residential district located on the rim of the city of POS on the slopes of the Northern Range. The district is made up of a number of villages which include Trou Macaque, Success, Chinapoo, Prizgar Lands and Picton Hill. The development of the settlement has been largely unplanned and features a mixture of ad hoc houses, paved roads, unpaved tracks and steep steps. Because of unplanned development, infrastructure like sewage and pipe-borne water is lacking in some parts and services like solid waste collection is not always available. One of the major issues Laventille faces is crime; homicide and drug-related activity are commonplace in some areas of Laventille. In spite of a largely negative character, Laventille has been identified in the GPOSLAP as a cultural heritage site because of its context in the history and evolution of Carnival and steel pan.

Group 3:• Sea Lots is a squatter settlement with poor drainage and little or no infrastructure for sewerage or pipe-borne water. The settlement is physically divided by the East Dry River (St. Ann’s River) into Sea Lots East and West. Residents of the settlement derive livelihoods from jobs available on the adjacent waterfront and the Sea Lots Industrial Centre.

Group 4:• Inner-city housing settlements are located in the south-eastern section of Central POS. These settlements include areas commonly known as the “Plannings” on Duncan, Nelson and George Streets along the East Dry River and Charford Court. The “Plannings” were constructed under the Colonial Government’s Slum Clearance Act of 1944, in order to improve the overcrowded conditions and dilapidated housing conditions. Charford Court was one of the National Housing Authority’s (NHA) High Density Housing Projects.

8 Ralph Araujo, “Memoirs of a Belmont Boy”, (Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1984).9 Asad Mohammed, “Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain”, 39th ISoCARP Congress, 2003.

A good reference – East Port of Spain Development Company Limited website available at http://eposdctt.com/

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Commercial Land usePort of Spain is the largest, and most important, commercial and retail centre in the country. Many headquarters of large financial corporations, like major banks, as well as major commercial enterprises are located in POS. The variety of commercial and retail stores include major shopping facilities – mainly along Frederick and Henry streets, specialty stores, food shops, professional offices – located in POS and surrounding areas like Woodbrook and Newtown. However, specific types of commercial and retail activity occupy particular areas of POS. Let us look specifically at the Downtown and Uptown POS and the Waterfront.

• Downtown is the retail core of POS and features many stores selling a variety of goods. There is street vending – on Charlotte and George Streets. There is some high and medium rise commercial development, for example, Nicholas Tower that houses a variety of service industries. Because Downtown is the centre of retail it experiences high pedestrian and vehicular traffic; we will look at this issue in greater detail in the section “Issues”. The Central Business District (CBD) is located in Downtown POS within the boundaries of Park Street, Independence Square, Richmond and Duncan Streets.

Figure 3: First Citizens Bank Independence Square

Figure 4: Excellent City Centre!

Figure 5: Housing Development Corporation

Figure 6: Nicholas Tower

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Trends: Some private sector development (finance and corporate firms) are moving out of Downtown to the Uptown/Tranquility area and smaller businesses moving to Woodbrook.

Residents are moving out of Uptown and Tranquility to Woodbrook because of competitionfrom commercial industries.

Discussion:What is the CBD and why is it located

in this specific area of POS?

Figure 7: BP Building

• Uptown features less retail development than Downtown POS. Instead, larger corporations, embassies and international agencies/companies dominate the commercial activity in this area. Traffic is a major issue in this area, and will be explored in greater detail in the section “Urban Issues in Port of Spain”.

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Figure 8: The Red House – the seat of government

Figure 9: Police Headquarters

• The Waterfront spans the coast from Sea Lots up to the Movie Towne Entertainment and Shopping Complex located on the Audrey Jeffers Highway in the west. The port occupies part of the waterfront, and services international cargo handling, cruise shipping facilities, towage and dredging services, the inter-island ferry between Trinidad and Tobago, and the ferry from POS to San Fernando. The waterfront has undergone recent development to include two 26 storey buildings, the Hyatt hotel with the largest conference facilities in the Caribbean, a recreational park space, a parking lot and retail centres – most of which are currently unoccupied.

Administrative FunctionPOS is the seat of government and is the centre of government’s administrative services. Many of the govern-ment offices are located in Downtown POS within the CBD, for example, the Red House, City Hall and the Hall of Justice. However, many government services are now moving out of the POS area to other areas such as Tunapuna, Chaguanas and San Fernando in a process called decentralization. This is an effort to reduce some of the traffic congestion that POS faces.

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Recreational Land UseOne of the notable recreational areas in POS is the Queen’s Park Savannah. The Savannah is an 82 hectare area of open land covered with grass located on the outskirts of Uptown POS. It serves multiple uses including a site for social, cultural and sport activities. One of the relatively unnoticed uses of the Savannah is as a water catch-ment: the Water and Sewage Authority (WASA) pumps roughly one million gallons of water per day from this aquifer to supply the Woodbrook and the General Hospital. 10

Other recreational spots include the Brian Lara Promenade, restaurants and bars, nightclubs, cineplexes and sporting facilities located all around POS.

TransportThe major transport hub for the country – City Gate – is located to the south of POS. City Gate provides public transport for fifty per cent of the population leaving POS to head to the east, central and south areas in Trinidad. A number of smaller taxi stands are located within Downtown and Uptown POS for transport within and out of POS.

Many of the major roads direct traffic into POS. For example, Mucurapo Road, Western Main Road, Wrightson Road and the Beetham Highway form a corridor through Port of Spain. The Lady Young Road provides a ring road around POS, for vehicles traversing from east to west of POS.

10 UDeCOTT, “Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan”, Halcrow Group Ltd. For Ministry of Housing and Settlements, Trinidad and Tobago, 2000.

Activity On a blank map of Port of Spain, use symbols such as international travel

information symbols to identifydifferent land uses and activities.

Discussion Can a pattern of land uses be identified? Does this pattern conform to any models of urban structure, for exampleBurgess, Hoyt, or Ullman and Harris?

Many of the problems that are faced in POS are not unique to the area as an urban centre. The United Nations Human Settlement Programme (UN HABITAT) highlights pollution and transport (traffic congestion) as two ofthe leading problems that urban centres face. These are two major issues that POS faces along with periodicflooding and crime. Crime will not be covered in this case study.

Urban Issues In Port Of Spain

Figure 10: Links between urban characteristics of POS and urban issues

Traffic congestionThe concentration of commercial activities in a relatively small and compact area causes congestion and traffic-related noise in the downtown area. Much of the traffic congestion in Downtown POS stems from the lack of available parking spaces in the city. Double-parking often occurs along streets and brings traffic to a crawl or complete standstill in certain areas of downtown. The high volume of pedestrian traffic, coupled with people crossing roads in a haphazard manner also contributes to the traffic congestion.

The causes of traffic congestion uptown and in areas of Newtown, Tranquility and Woodbrook are similar to those Downtown. Lack of parking space is a major problem in these areas, as they were not originally designed for the high volume of vehicular activity due to increasing commercial activity. The roads themselves are also quite narrow, so parking on the roads exacerbates the problem.

Discussion What are some options for alleviating traffic in the city? Have any of these options been successful in other countries?

FloodingFlooding is emerging as a major issue in POS. It usually occurs after brief rainfall events along South Quay, Henry Street and the Brian Lara Promenade and recedes in about an hour. However, there have been occasions when the East Dry River has burst its banks and caused widespread flooding in Downtown POS (See History). The channel capacity of the East Dry River is adequate for the amount of water it carries, but the large volume of sediments, garbage and debris in the channel reduces the capacity of the channel to accommodate large volumes of water and hence flooding occurs. The sources of the debris and sediments are eroded material from unplanned development of steep slopes and areas upstream of the East Dry River. It is probable that devegeta-tion of the hillsides north of POS are contributing to flooding by: • Accelerating sedimentation in the river channel because of increased erosion. • Increasing volumes of surface water and greater velocity of runoff into the river channel.These activities cannot be directly linked to flooding in the Downtown area and students should be careful about making assertions about the causes of flooding. Pollution in the city’s drains also contributes to flooding.

At locations where the channel gradients become abruptly steep, for example where old land meets more recent-ly reclaimed land, flooding occurs. Wrightson Road and South Quay are included in these areas.

In addition to the direct economic costs associated with flooding incidents, citizens are also increasingly expe-riencing other effects which are less easy to put an economic value to. Hours spent in traffic jams or waiting for public transportation; health implications; days lost from work; and time spent worrying about when and what the next flooding event might bring can all have a significant impact on various aspectsof our well-being, and an increasing number of people are beginning to appreciate these.

PollutionAside from the large number of pedestrians and motorists being generally careless, and dumping their refuse in the streets and on the sidewalks, there exists a larger solid waste problem. It is common practice to put garbage bags into local communal storage bunkers and bins on a daily basis and rubbish may be stockpiled for several days before it is collected. During this time animals and vagrants rummage through the rubbish and spread it about, making collection extremely difficult and aggravating the pollution and health hazards associated withstoring waste that is awaiting collection. 11

Atmospheric pollution is also an issue in POS.It has two main sources:1. Concentration of vehicular emissions due to traffic congestion.2. Fires at the Beetham landfill site create a serious smog problem in POS, especially in the morning.

Discussion How does the storm hydrograph change for natural river channels versus paved river channels? Is flooding on reclaimed land a common problem in other parts of the world? If yes how has it been dealt with?

Discussion How do temperature inversions during the night, playa role in creating smog over POS during the morningperiods? Consider the role of the built environment(buildings, structures etc.) on the climate of cities(urban climates) and air pollution.11 UDeCOTT 2000.

Urban PlanningEffective urban planning is needed in POS to ensure that the issues inherent in being an urban centre have minimal impact on the well-being of humans and on the environment. Urban planning involves coordination of activities, provision and maintenance of infrastructure, and monitoring of existing planning schemes to ensure their efficacy.

In the recent past many studies on urbanisation in POS have been carried out on behalf of the state to identify

problems and suggest solutions. Some of these include:

1. Redevelopment Plan for Port of Spain (1973), Town and Country Planning Division.

2. Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain (2003), 39th ISoCarp Congress.

3. Solid Waste Management in the City of Port of Spain Urban Management Programme

- A Baseline Study (2003), David W. Hinds and M. and D. Flores.

4. Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan (2000), UDeCOTT.

5. East Port of Spain Strategic Development Plan (2007). East Port of Spain Development Company Limited.

6. A Comprehensive Urban Management Plan for the Central Business District of Port of Spain (2008),

Ministry of Local Government, GoRTT.

However, many of the recommendations have not achieved the desired results: while some areas or sections of the country have benefited, others have stagnated or declined. 12 The reasons for the lack of success include:

• At the local level, exclusion of key stakeholders in the planning and implementation of projects affecting

their areas.

• At the municipal corporation level, shortage of resources, including human resources, to play a role in

development planning for their areas.

• At the central government level, unbalanced distribution of limited public sector funds.

It is not possible in this case study to look at every single aspect of urban management in terms of what has been done and what needs to be done. Earlier in the case study some issues relating to POS as an urban centre were identified; some options for dealing with these issues are presented below. These options are drawn from

the GPOSLAP.

12 Ibid

Issue Options

Traffic

! Fully pedestrianize streets with introduction of sidewalk canopies, shade trees, lighting, seating, bins and crossing at street junctions – Frederick Street between

Independence Square and Woodford Square. ! Enhance pedestrian, visual, economic linkages by creating pedestrian priority

route along Independence Square to Waterfront development and Cruise Ship Complex by providing fixed crossing at Wrightson Road City Gateway site.

! Introduce road hierarchy; controlled parking zone; traffic management including on-street parking restriction and enforcement of pedestrian priority.

! Promote office development in Downtown/ Uptown to relieve pressure on Woodbrook.

Flooding

! Prepare a catchment-wide structure plan for drainage; a key aspect of the plan

will be requirements for low-lying areas at South Quay/ Independence Square in relation to the proposed Waterfront Development.

! Identify areas at risk from flooding and capable of being used to store flood water.

! Construct detention ponds to store floodwaters in key locations. These should be identified as part of a catchment-wide drainage structure plan. Detention ponds

should logically be located in areas that already flood frequently or areas immediately upstream of such trouble spots, e.g. in the vicinity of the Queen’s

Park Savannah. ! Drains that are northward of Independence Square should not be allowed to

empty into the South Quay or City Gate drainage complex. Any new development should include a large drain that will channel flood water directly to

the sea. ! Upgrade street drains and install silt traps and trash racks in the drains. Some

drains in POS already have these, but they have been poorly constructed and are not as effective as they could be.

! Identify areas that need to be protected from erosion. In protecting these areas by slowing down flood flows, substantial detention storage can be achieved – check

dams can be utilised. Check dams are small dams placed in steep gullies to break the speed of water flowing down these gullies in order to break the destructive

force of fast flowing water. Check dams can be vegetated.

Pollution

! To alleviate the problems of storing waste while it is awaiting collection, provide mobile compactor units instead of current metal bins and storage bunkers.

! Revamp proposal for deposits on glass and plastic bottles and an environmental levy on batteries and tyres and other difficult to dispose of or recyclable items.

Draft legislation for this already exists, but there has been resistance to implementation.

! Carry out detailed feasibility study on options for redeveloping the Beetham Landfill site, including low tech/ high tech solutions and site remediation/ after

use possibilities

Box 2: Suggested options for dealing with issues in POS

Note: Many of these issues are not isolated, and so any strategies to deal with issues must be complementary.

Activity Look through past development plans

for POS for proposed strategies for dealing with some of these issues.

Discussion How have past plans addressed some of these issues?Can you make any recommendations for dealing withsome of these issues?

(See Generic Learning Activities: Conducting Surveys)

Objectives:1. To familiarize students with data analysis.2. To make students aware of the importance of public participation in urban planning. Note that it may not be possible to complete an entire exercise in urban planning, and teachers should strive to inform students – in theory – about other aspects of urban planning.

As part of a participatory planning exercise for urban planning, conduct a survey of persons who live, work and commute into and out of POS. Get their opinion on the issues that POS faces as an urban centre, and try to get them to suggest some recommendations for dealing with these issues.

Pool the class data and find an appropriate way to represent the information, such as a bar graph.Use these results as inputs for the urban planning exercise. For example, 43% of the persons working in POS would prefer if Frederick, Henry and Charlotte streets be pedestrianized between 7 am and 7 pm every day. Remember that you are measuring people’s opinions, and it is not always feasible to attempt to meet everyone’s requests. The process must involve prioritising, cost-benefit analysis, and meeting the greater public interest.

Other activities for POS could focus on:• Urban environments and ecosystems. Consider the urban centre as an ecosystem where resources are consumed and wastes are produced. Resources such as food, water and energy may be sourced from areas surrounding the urban centre.• Urban habitats for animals and plants.• Urban climates.• Coastal cities and sea level rise resulting from global climate change.

Suggested Activity

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2003-2007.Case Study - Port of Spain. BIOL 2461,Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of theWest Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Anthony, Michael. 1978. The Making of Port of Spain. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Key CaribbeanPublications.

Araujo, Ralph. 1984. Memoirs of a Belmont Boy. Trinidad: Inprint Caribbean.

Creel, Liz. 2003. Ripple Effects: Population and Coastal Regions. Population Reference Bureau.http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/Rip-pleEffectsPopulationandCoastaRegions.aspx [accessed June 13, 2009]

Dickman, Yvonne R. 1992. An urban historyof Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.Master of Urban Planning Research,McGill University.

Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Urban Planning. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/619445/urban-planning[accessed July 20 2009]

Mohammed, Asad. 2003. Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain. 39th ISoCarp Congress.

Ottley, Carlton Robert. 1962.The story of Port of Spain: capital of Trinidad,West Indies, from the earliest times to the present day. Diego Martin, Trinidad: Crusoe P.

Bibliography

The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009.Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts:A Reference for Teachers and Students.Port of Spain, Trinidad.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2005. Our Human Planet: Summary for Decision Makers/ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.USA: Island Press.

UNEP. 2008. Climate Change in the Caribbean and the Challenge of Adaptation.UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Panama City, Panama.

Urban Development Corporation on Trinidad and Tobago (UDeCOTT). 2000. Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan. Halcrow Group (Trinidad and To-bago) Ltd. for Ministry of Housing and Settlements.

APPENDIX A: Acronyms used in this case study

CBD Central Business District

CSO Central Statistical Office

GPOS Greater Port of Spain

GPOSLAP Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan

ISoCARP International Society of City and Regional Planners

NHA National Housing Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

POS Port of Spain

QPS Queens Park Savannah

UDeCOTT Urban Development Corporation of Trinidad and Tobago

UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

WASA Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Decentralisation The movement of power, professionals and resources from urban cores to surrounding less-urban areas.

Population density The total number of inhabitants per square unit of surface area.

Resident The population which occupies a specific area for a prolonged period of time.population For example, persons living in an area. No period of time has been designated as this term can be used on a relative basis.

Suburb A residential area within the boundaries of a town or a city.

Transient The population that passes through a specific area, or stays in a specific area for a shortpopulation period of time, such as for a workday.

Urban Living in or situated in a town or city.

Urbanization An increase in the proportion of population living in urban areas.

Urban planning The design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities within it.