19thCenturyIdeologiesThePoliticalSpectrum

PeopleWherewouldthesepeoplefallonthe

PoliticalSpectrum?

CountHenriSaint-Simon (1760-1825)

Ofthemostinfluential thinkersduringthisagewasactuallyanoblemanwhoproclaimedoptimistically proclaimed thetremendous possibilities ofindustrial development. Inhismindthekeytoprogresswaspropersocialorganizationthatrequiredthe“parasites”- thecourt,thearistocracyandchurchmen- togivewaytothe“doers”- theleadingscientists ,engineersandindustrialists. Thedoerswould carefullyplantheeconomy andguideitforwardbyundertaking vastpublicworksprojectsandbuilding investment banks.Healsostressedtheimportancethateverysocialinstitution should haveasitsmaingoalimproved conditions forthepoor.

Louis Blanc

Louis Blanc, French political leader, The Organization of Labor, introduction to the second edition, 1848.

Have we avowed that our goal is to undermine competition, to withdraw industry from the regime of laissez-faire? Most certainly, and far from denying it, we proclaim it aloud. Why? Because we want freedom. But real freedom, freedom for all...We want a strong government because, in the regime of inequality within which we are still vegetating, there are weak persons who need a social force to protect them...We want a government that will intervene in industry because the freedom of the future must be a reality.

Louis Blanc, French political leader, The Organization of Labor, introduction to the second edition, 1848.

Have we avowed that our goal is to undermine competition, to withdraw industry from the regime of laissez-faire? Most certainly, and far from denying it, we proclaim it aloud. Why? Because we want freedom. But real freedom, freedom for all...We want a strong government because, in the regime of inequality within which we are still vegetating, there are weak persons who need a social force to protect them...We want a government that will intervene in industry because the freedom of the future of themust be a reality.

KlemensVonMetternich- AustrianForeignMinister

KlemensVonMetternich,theAustrianforeignminister, tookaprominentpartintheCongress ofVienna anddominatedEuropeanpolitics from1814to1848.Heactedastherestorerofthe'OldRegime'andthereconstructionofEuropeaftertheNapoleonicwars.

TosafeguardthebalanceofpowerMetternichformed a'HolyAlliance'betweenthemonarchies ofAustria, Russia,Prussia andFrance.

CharlesXofFrance:1824-1830

He was king of France from 1824 to 1830. He was also the brother of King Louis XVI and of King Louis XVIII, whom he succeeded. During the reign of Louis XVIII he headed the ultra-royalist opposition. One of his first laws as King of France decreed in 1825 gave land back to the nobles that had been confiscated from them during the French Revolution. In 1829 Charles appointed a chief minister whose aims were to reorganize society, to give back to the clergy their weight in state affairs, and to create a powerful aristocracy and to surround it with privileges.

To divert attention from internal affairs; Polignac (The foreign minister) initiated a French venture in Algeria. When the Parliament objected, Charles X dissolved it. His dissolution in March 1830 of the liberal chamber of deputies and his drastic July Ordinances, that established rigid control of the press, and restricted suffrage were not very popular with the people. The effect was to destroy the constitutional charter set forth by Louis XVIII. Opposition to the Ordinances was immense and Charles X was soon overthrown in the July Revolution of 1830.

GiuseppeMazzini

Inthespringof1834,whileatBerne,MazziniandadozenrefugeesfromItaly,Poland,andGermanyfoundedanewassociationwiththegrandiosenameofYoung Europe. Itsbasic,andequallygrandioseidea,wasthat,astheFrenchRevolutionof1789hadenlargedtheconceptofindividualliberty,another revolutionwouldnowbeneededfornationalliberty;andhisvisionwentfurtherbecausehehoped thatinthenodoubtdistantfuturefreenationsmightcombinetoformalooselyfederalEuropewithsomekindoffederalassemblytoregulatetheircommoninterests.

Hisintentionwasnothinglessthantooverturn theEuropeansettlementagreedin1815bytheCongressofVienna,whichhadreestablishedanoppressivedominanceofafewgreatpowersandblocked theemergenceofsmallernations.Mazzinihoped,butwithoutmuchconfidence, thathisvisionofaleagueor societyofindependentnationswouldberealizedinhisownlifetime.InpracticeYoungEurope lackedthemoneyandpopular support formorethanashort-termexistence.Neverthelesshealwaysremainedfaithfultotheidealofaunitedcontinent forthwhichthecreationofindividualnationswouldbeanindispensablepreliminary.Andrew.

On28May1834MazziniwasarrestedatSolothurn,andexiledfromSwitzerland.HemovedtoParis,wherehewasagainimprisonedon5July.HewasreleasedonlyafterpromisinghewouldmovetoEngland.

MarxianSocialism (Marxism)

KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelswereheavilyinfluencedbytheearlyFrenchsocialistsofthe1830’sandtogetherwrotetheCommunistManifestoin1848.TheearlyFrenchSocialistsoftenappealedtotheMiddleClasstoprovidecharityandhelptothepoor. MarxandEngelssawthisasridiculousasthegoalsofthemiddleclassandtheworkingclasswerediametricallyopposed. Infact,Marxbelievedthat“thehistoryofallpreviousexistingsocietiesisthehistoryofclassstruggle”.

Justasthemiddleclasshadtriumphedover thenobility,Marxbelieved theworkingclasswouldconquer themiddleclassinrevolution. Healsobelieved thattherewouldbeaportionofthemiddleclass(likehimself)whowouldgo“over”totheworkingclasstoaidtherevolutionastheywould“comprehend thehistoricalmoment”. Hebelievedthatthebourgeoisormiddleclasshadplayedarevolutionary roleduringits100yearruleasithascreatedproductivecapacitybuteventuallyitwouldbetimeforthebourgeoistogivewaytothenextproductiveclass.

Whentheworkingclassorproletariat tookcontrol,adictatorshipwouldformtoreorganizethemeansofproduction. Thenaclasslesssocietywouldemergeandandthestatewouldwitherawaysinceitno longerrepresented theneedsofaparticularclass.Classstrugglewouldendandthesocietywouldbemoreproductiveandincreasewealthforall.

SimonBolivarBy the end of the 18th century, the ideas of the Enlightenment and French and American revolutions were beginning to influence the creole elites (descendants of Europeans who became permanent inhabitants of Latin America) in Latin America. One of these, Simon Bolivar, had attended European universities and imbibed Enlightenment ideals.When Napoleon toppled the monarchies if Spain and Portugal, their authority over the colonies was weakened. Bolivar took this as an opportunity to establish independence and he went on to lead Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia and Peru to independence. He is known as the George Washington of South America. He dreamed of a united South America much like the united states, but this dream never came to fruition.However, even though he brought independence, this did little to change the system where creole elites dominated those of mixed race, Indigenous and African descent. The economies of most South American countries remained run by foreigners.Bolivar himself, while establishing a constitution for his liberated colonies, also established himself as president for life, and gave himself the ability to choose a successor.

EdmundBurke

Asamodernpoliticalphilosophy, conservatismdatesfrom1790,whenEnglishman EdmundBurkewrotehisReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance inreactiontotheFrenchRevolution,especially itsradicalrepublicananddemocraticideas.Burkemaintainedthatsocietywasacontract,butthestatewasinapartnership“...notonlybetweenthosewhoareliving, ...butthosewhoaredeadandthosewhoaretobeborn.” AccordingtoBurke,noonegenerationhastherighttodestroy thispartnershipbuteachgenerationhadarighttopreserve thepartnership andpass itontothenext.Burkewasstrongly opposed toviolent andsuddenchangebutbelieved thatchangecould comeslowly andthroughevolutionaryimprovements.

EventsWherewouldtheseeventsorpoliciesfallonthePoliticalSpectrum?

Nationalism

NationalismhaditsimmediateoriginsintheFrenchRevolutionandNapoleonicWars.TheideaofNationalismisthateachpeoplehaditsowngeniusanditsownspecificunity,whichmanifesteditselfespeciallyinacommonlanguageandhistoryandoftenledtothedesireforanindependentpoliticalstate.

EarlyNationalistsbelievedthateverynation,likeeverycitizenhadtherighttoexistinfreedomandtodevelop itscharacterandspirit.EarlyNationalismalsostressedthedifferencesamongpeopleanddevelopedastrongsenseof“we”and“they”.

Congress ofVienna1814-1815

CongressofVienna1815

TheCreationofTheBurschenschaften 1815

TheBurschenschaftenandKarlsbaddecrees

TheBurschenschaftenwerestudentsocieties atmajorUniversities dedicatedtofosteringthegoalsofafree,unitedGermany.Theirideasandtheirmotto,“Honor,Liberty,Fatherland,”andtheiractionsbetween1817and1819,werealarmingtoGermanofficials.Atanassembly heldattheWartburgCastlein1817,markingthe300thAnniversary ofMartinLuther’s 95Thesesmembersburntbooks fromconservative authorsandaderangedstudentassassinated aconservative playwright.

KarlsbadDecrees1819

ContemporarylithographmockingtheCarlsbadDecrees

Aseries oflawswithintheGermanConfederation ofStates(writtenmainlybyMetternich)whichrequiredGermanStatestorootoutsubversive ideasintheiruniversities andandnewspapers andorderedtheclosingofalloftheBurschenschaften groupsintheGermanstates .Thedecreesalsoestablished apermanentcommitteewithspies andinformers toinvestigateandpunish anyliberalorradicalorganization.

GreekRevolts1820’s

Sincethe15thCentury theGreekshadbeenlivingundertheruleoftheOttomanEmpire.InspiteofforeignruletheGreekshadretainedacultureandalanguageandinthe18thand19thcenturysawthegrowthofanationalspirit.

LedbyAlexanderYpsilantiaGreekpatriotarevoltagainstOttomanrulebeganin1821.InitiallythischallengedtheidealsoftheCongressofViennabuttheEuropeanpowerswavereddue totheirloveoftheGreekstoryandcultureandtheirgeneralfeelingstowardtheOttomanEmpire.In1827,underpoliticalandmilitarypressurefromtheEuropeanpowers,TheOttomanEmpiresignedapeacetreatywhichgavetheGreekstheirindependence.

Massacre at Chios- Delacroix

IndependenceofBelgium1830

Revolution and independence At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, Belgium (The Southern Netherlands) and the Northern Netherlands (Holland) were united to form one State. This new state was ruled by King William I. Although his policy was beneficial to the Belgian bourgeoisie, there was protest. The Catholics objected against the interference of the protestant king in clerical matters. The Liberals demanded more freedom. In 1828 Catholics and Liberals drew up a concerted programme of demands. The association between Catholics and Liberals was called unionism.

After a series of incidents, the revolution erupted in Brussels in 1830. William I sent in his troops, but they were expelled on September 27th, 1830. The rebels received support from volunteers outside the city. Following this rising Belgium separated from the Northern Netherlands. A provisional government declared independence on October 4th, 1830. On November 3th of the same year, a National Congress was elected by an electorate of 30,000 men, who paid a given level of taxes or who had special qualifications. On February 7th, 1831 the national congress adopted a constitution which, for its time, was very progressive.

1830 to 1908A diplomatic conference on the future of Belgium opened in London on the November 4th. The great powers of the time recognised the secession of Belgium from the (Northern) Netherlands. Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg became the first King of the Belgians (1831 - 1865). In 1865 he was succeeded by his son Leopold II (1865 - 1909). Under their reign Belgium became the second most important industrial power.

FrenchRevolutionof1830

Eugene Delacroix: Lady Leading Liberty 1830

RrgThe Revolutionary Era of the 1830’s started in France, prompted by Charles X’s publication on July 26 of four ordinances dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press, modifying the electoral laws so that three-fourths of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new elections to the Chamber in September. In essence, Charles X eradicated the Constitution that had been put in place in 1814 when Louis XVIII was placed on the throne. Strikes and protests were followed by armed confrontations.

The royal forces were unable to contain the insurrection; and, after three days of fighting (July 27–29), Charles abdicated the throne and soon afterward fled to England.

The radicals wanted to establish a republic, and the aristocracy were loyal to Charles, but the upper-middle class were victorious in their decision to offer the crown to the Duke of Orléans,Louis-Philippe, who had fought for the French Republic in 1792. Louis-Philippe agreed to be “King of the French.”

When the “July Revolution” was over, the Chamber of Peers had been transformed from a hereditary body into a nominated house, special tribunals were abolished, the alliance of the monarchy and the Roman Catholic church was ended, and the white flag of the Bourbons was replaced by the tricolour.

WhyNotEngland?WhyNotRussia?

Twoplaceswerenotthreatenedbyrevolution– WHY???

WhynotEngland?WhynotRussia?

WewilluseinfofromyourHWandthepackettofillinthesheetasawholeclass.

NovemberUprising:Poland 1830

The November Uprising (1830–31), Polish–Russian War 1830–31[3] also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire.

The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress Poland's military academy revolted, led by lieutenant Piotr Wysocki. They were soon joined by large segments of Polish society, and the insurrection spread to the territories of Lithuania, western Belarus, and the right-bank of Ukraine.

Despite some local successes, the uprising was eventually crushed by a numerically superior Imperial Russian Army. Czar Nicholas I decreed that henceforth Poland was an integral part of Russia, with Warsaw little more than a military garrison, its university closed and the hope of a Constitution in the Polish lands was dismissed.

DecembristRevolution: Russia1825

The Decembrist Revolt was undertaken on December 26, 1825 to protest the ascension of Tsar Nicholas I to the throne after the death of his father Alexander I.

Under Alexander I the Russians hoped to find liberal reforms under his rule, At first, but as time went on he felt that Russia was not ready and that a return to conservative authoritarian rule was the standard policy. Repression of groups espousing liberal ideas was carried out by the Tsar’s secret police. This caused the officers to become even more radical in response.

The Decembrist Revolt was not a single event so much as a reaction to the post-Napoleonic war situation in Russia. For years, few Russians traveled abroad they only knew the system that was authoritarian, with supreme power held by the Tsar. They also knew a world where serfdom was the norm. When Russian troops chased Napoleon all the way to France, they began to notice that their world was an anomaly and that the outside world had a lot more to offer than Russia. The Decembrist movement was born out of this awakening.The Decembrist movement may have failed but it began the rumbling of society that would eventually lead to the Russian Revolution in 1917.

ThePeterlooMassacreandtheSixActs

60,000 people gathered in Manchester England in 1819 to protest the rising price of food as a result of the Corn Laws. Government cavalry officers attacked the crowd and killed 11 protesters.

In response to the PeterlooMassacre the British government imposed a series of strict reforms known as the Six Acts. The government restricted large meetings public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets of information to the poor.

TheCorn Laws1815

The British government’s response to falling grain prices was the Corn Law of 1815, a measure that imposed extraordinarily

high tariffs on foreign imports of grain. Those the tariffs benefited the landowners, the price of bread rose substantially, making conditions for the

working classes more difficult.

RepealoftheCornLaws1848SirRobertPeel

Scholars have advanced several explanations to resolve the puzzle of why Peel made the seemingly irrational decision to sacrifice his Conservative government to repeal the Corn Laws, a policy which he had long opposed. Many argued that his actions were sensible when considered in the context of his concern for preserving aristocratic government and a limited franchise in the face of threats from popular unrest.

Peel was concerned primarily with preserving the institutions of government, and he considered reform as an occasional necessary evil to preclude the possibility of much more radical or tumultuous actions. He acted to check the expansion of democracy by diminishing conditions which could provoke democratic unrest. He also took care to ensure that the concessions would represent no threat to the British constitution.

The potato crop failure of 1845-46 indicated a disastrous fall in food supplies. Conservative Prime Minister Peel called for repeal despite the opposition of most of his Conservative Party.

On 27 January 1846, Peel gave his government's plan. He said that the Corn Laws would be abolished on 1 February 1849 after three years of gradual reductions of the tariff, leaving only a 1 shilling duty per quarter

TheReformActs:GreatBritain1832,1867and1884

The three Reform Acts, of 1832, 1867, and 1884, all extended voting rights to previously disfranchised citizens. The first act, which was themost controversial, reapportioned representation in Parliament in a way fairer to the cities of the industrial north, which had experiencedtremendous growth, and did away with "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs like Old Sarum, which with only seven voters (all controlled by thelocal squire) was still sending two members to Parliament. This act not only re-apportioned representation in Parliament, thus making thatbody more accurately represent the citizens of the country, but also gave the power of voting to those lower in the social and economicscale, for the act extended the right to vote to any man owning a household worth £10, adding 217,000 voters to an electorateof 435,000.Approximately oneman in fivenow had the right to vote.

For many conservatives, this effect of the bill, which allowed themiddle classes to share power with theupper classes, was revolutionary inits import. Some historians argue that this transference of power achieved in England what the French Revolution achieved eventually inFrance. Therefore, the agitation preceding (and following) the first Reform Act, which Dickens observed at first hand as a shorthandParliamentary reporter, made many people consider fundamental issues of society and politics.

The 1867 Reform Act extended the right to vote still further down the class ladder, adding just short of a million voters — including manyworkingmen — and doubling the electorate, to almost two million in England and Wales. It, too, created major shock waves incontemporary British culture, some of which appear in works such as Arnold's Culture and Anarchy and Ruskin's Crown of Wild Olive, asauthors debated whether this shift of power would createdemocracy that would, in turn, destroy high culture.

The 1884 bill and the1885 Redistribution Act tripled theelectorate again, giving the vote to most agricultural laborers. By this time, votingwas becoming a right rather than the property of the privileged. However, women were not granted voting rights until the Act of 1918,which enfranchised all men over 21 and women over thirty. This last bit of discrimination was eliminated 10 years later (in 1928) by theEqual Franchise Act.

Englandstrugglesbetweenconservatismandliberalism….• WhydoesEnglandNOThavearevolutionin1848?