Political Discourse AnalysisPolitical Discourse Analysis

Language, Media, and Politics (with a special focus on Language, Media, and Politics (with a special focus on the representation of Islam, in recognition of the the representation of Islam, in recognition of the

University of Essex’s Islamic Awareness Week, 18 – University of Essex’s Islamic Awareness Week, 18 – 22 February 2008) 22 February 2008)

Sociolinguistics LG232Sociolinguistics LG232

The last 5 weeks (Part 1) we have looked at:The last 5 weeks (Part 1) we have looked at: Macro-level: the ways language is politicised by Macro-level: the ways language is politicised by

different groups (language movements, different groups (language movements, governments) to achieve certain aims.governments) to achieve certain aims.

Such as: national unity, regional identity, as a basis Such as: national unity, regional identity, as a basis to claim rights/resources for minority groups.to claim rights/resources for minority groups.

The ways in which multilingualism is managed in The ways in which multilingualism is managed in societies.societies.

And that for power to exist, there must be resistanceAnd that for power to exist, there must be resistance What we haven’t looked at: resistance at the What we haven’t looked at: resistance at the

individual level in terms of use of language (weeks individual level in terms of use of language (weeks 23 – 25)23 – 25)

Or … actual ‘language use’Or … actual ‘language use’

Critical Discourse AnalysisCritical Discourse Analysis Draws heavily on the work of Foucault.Draws heavily on the work of Foucault. Discourse: statements about things, which come to be Discourse: statements about things, which come to be

considered ‘true’considered ‘true’ And which produce ideological positionsAnd which produce ideological positions Discourses on medicine, psychiatry – even languageDiscourses on medicine, psychiatry – even language Also draws on theorists such as BourdieuAlso draws on theorists such as Bourdieu Discourse can also be: conversations, written material (such Discourse can also be: conversations, written material (such

as newspapers, or political speeches)as newspapers, or political speeches) But even these discourses produce concepts and ‘truths’ But even these discourses produce concepts and ‘truths’

and limit what can and cannot be said about a subject in a and limit what can and cannot be said about a subject in a particular contextparticular context

Critical Discourse Analysis looks at ‘real’ natural languageCritical Discourse Analysis looks at ‘real’ natural language (as opposed to, e.g. syntacticians, who look at made-up (as opposed to, e.g. syntacticians, who look at made-up

examples)examples)

Critical Discourse AnalysisCritical Discourse Analysis Sees words, utterances not in isolationSees words, utterances not in isolation But in relation to other utterances, etc.But in relation to other utterances, etc. All discourse seen as TEXTS to be readAll discourse seen as TEXTS to be read In webs or networks of relations of powerIn webs or networks of relations of power Context specificContext specific And the same language or concept can be used And the same language or concept can be used

and interpreted in very different waysand interpreted in very different ways Particularly concerned with language used in Particularly concerned with language used in

political speeches and the mediapolitical speeches and the media So not just context specific, but audience-specificSo not just context specific, but audience-specific Though it has implications for individual language Though it has implications for individual language

use: what words or phrases might we NOT use use: what words or phrases might we NOT use now that were acceptable 30 years ago?now that were acceptable 30 years ago?

E.g. terms considered racially derogatory, E.g. terms considered racially derogatory, homophobic homophobic

Critical Discourse AnalysisCritical Discourse Analysis

Sees language and discourse as social Sees language and discourse as social practicepractice

And as And as productiveproductive of knowledge which of knowledge which maintains powermaintains power

Not just a top-down Not just a top-down operation operation of powerof power Power/KnowledgePower/Knowledge CDA enables resistance by understanding CDA enables resistance by understanding

power relations and their manifestation in power relations and their manifestation in discoursediscourse

Case Study 1: Sharia Law in BritainCase Study 1: Sharia Law in Britain

Sharia law: Islamic / Muslim law which basically (depending on your Sharia law: Islamic / Muslim law which basically (depending on your interpretation) is a moral and criminal codeinterpretation) is a moral and criminal code

Requires giving alms (aid) to the poor as a moral duty; that money loaned Requires giving alms (aid) to the poor as a moral duty; that money loaned should not be subject to interest; that your savings at the end of the year should not be subject to interest; that your savings at the end of the year (not income) should be taxed by 10% for the good of the community(not income) should be taxed by 10% for the good of the community

Northern Rock? Sub-prime credit crisis?Northern Rock? Sub-prime credit crisis? Certain brands of Sharia provide for punishment for e.g. adulteryCertain brands of Sharia provide for punishment for e.g. adultery The most potent symbol of Sharia in British society is states like Sudan, The most potent symbol of Sharia in British society is states like Sudan,

Saudi Arabia (often ‘Western’-backed, with the exception perhaps of Iran) Saudi Arabia (often ‘Western’-backed, with the exception perhaps of Iran) which cut off the hands of thieves, stone adulterers to death.which cut off the hands of thieves, stone adulterers to death.

Though most scholars would agree that this is not the true intention of Though most scholars would agree that this is not the true intention of Sharia law, and is simply an authoritarian political system or state Sharia law, and is simply an authoritarian political system or state misusing the tenets of Sharia for social controlmisusing the tenets of Sharia for social control

And … the Arabic proverb ‘ta’bash fi el’beit el’aumi, shauf’ (the weak And … the Arabic proverb ‘ta’bash fi el’beit el’aumi, shauf’ (the weak sighted man in the house of the blind is he who sees best) – emblematic sighted man in the house of the blind is he who sees best) – emblematic of Foucault’s riposte to the criticism that ‘no-one is outside discourse’ of Foucault’s riposte to the criticism that ‘no-one is outside discourse’ allowing for power/resistance within the confines of structure/agencyallowing for power/resistance within the confines of structure/agency

‘‘Makes the people accountable to Allah through the Government, rather Makes the people accountable to Allah through the Government, rather than the Government accountable to the people.’ (Price, field notes 2000)than the Government accountable to the people.’ (Price, field notes 2000)

Claim it is based on the Koran … but don’t forget the Christian Old Claim it is based on the Koran … but don’t forget the Christian Old Testament is full of smiting and stoning – ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a Testament is full of smiting and stoning – ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth.’tooth.’

And: Tower of Babel … punishment for monolingualismAnd: Tower of Babel … punishment for monolingualism

What the Archbishop SaidWhat the Archbishop Said

From the text of Archbishop Williams’ lecture:From the text of Archbishop Williams’ lecture:

‘‘Among the manifold anxieties that haunt the discussion of the place of Muslims in Among the manifold anxieties that haunt the discussion of the place of Muslims in British society, one of the strongest, reinforced from time to time by the sensational British society, one of the strongest, reinforced from time to time by the sensational reporting of opinion polls, is that Muslim communities in this country seek the freedom reporting of opinion polls, is that Muslim communities in this country seek the freedom to live under to live under shariasharia law.  And what most people think they know of law.  And what most people think they know of shariasharia is that it is is that it is repressive towards women and wedded to archaic and brutal physical punishments; ‘repressive towards women and wedded to archaic and brutal physical punishments; ‘

‘‘This lecture will not attempt a detailed discussion of the nature of This lecture will not attempt a detailed discussion of the nature of shariasharia, which would , which would be far beyond my competence; my aim is only, as I have said, to tease out some of the be far beyond my competence; my aim is only, as I have said, to tease out some of the broader issues around the rights of religious groups within a secular state, with a few broader issues around the rights of religious groups within a secular state, with a few thought about what might be entailed in crafting a just and constructive relationship thought about what might be entailed in crafting a just and constructive relationship between Islamic law and the statutory law of the United Kingdom.’between Islamic law and the statutory law of the United Kingdom.’

‘‘In this sense, while (as I have said) we are not talking about two rival systems on the In this sense, while (as I have said) we are not talking about two rival systems on the same level, there is some community of understanding between Islamic social thinking same level, there is some community of understanding between Islamic social thinking and the categories we might turn to in the non-Muslim world for the understanding of and the categories we might turn to in the non-Muslim world for the understanding of law in the most general context.  There is a recognition that law in the most general context.  There is a recognition that our social identities are our social identities are not constituted by one exclusive set of relations or mode of belonging’not constituted by one exclusive set of relations or mode of belonging’

‘‘Our social identities are not constituted by one exclusive set of relations or mode of Our social identities are not constituted by one exclusive set of relations or mode of belonging’ –belonging’ –almost Foucauldian or post-structrualist in its construction. almost Foucauldian or post-structrualist in its construction.

http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/1575http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/1575

What the media said he said What the media said he said ……

The Sun: Williams had "handed al-Qaida a victory“The Sun: Williams had "handed al-Qaida a victory“ The Express: he had "surrendered to fanatics" The Express: he had "surrendered to fanatics" Interesting use of Interesting use of metaphor:metaphor: ‘‘Victory’ … ‘Surrender’: metaphor of battle/war … why?Victory’ … ‘Surrender’: metaphor of battle/war … why? Implicitly: Al Qaida – adversary in the ‘war on terror’Implicitly: Al Qaida – adversary in the ‘war on terror’ Muslim ‘fanatics’ but British/US soldiers in Iraq = ‘Our Muslim ‘fanatics’ but British/US soldiers in Iraq = ‘Our

Boys.’Boys.’ The Daily Mail: ‘Ayatollah of Canterbury’ – suggesting The Daily Mail: ‘Ayatollah of Canterbury’ – suggesting

‘divided loyalties’ ‘divided loyalties’ = traitor?= traitor? Archbishop Williams’ clearly did not propose the kind of Archbishop Williams’ clearly did not propose the kind of

dualism (duel-ism) which would form the basis of a ‘battle’dualism (duel-ism) which would form the basis of a ‘battle’

Anchoring: using text with imageFraming: distorting what was said … in order to make it unassailable

• Why was this picture NOT on the first page?

•Why is he described as being in ‘his pomp’?

•How can we read this choice of picture in terms of Archbishop Williams smiling, and in clearly religious dress?

Use Sharia law on bike thieves, says Use Sharia law on bike thieves, says MP BorisMP Boris

First it was Liverpudlians, then Papua New Guineans and First it was Liverpudlians, then Papua New Guineans and then Jamie Oliver. Now Boris Johnson has a new target in then Jamie Oliver. Now Boris Johnson has a new target in his sights - bicycle thieves. Fed up with having his bike his sights - bicycle thieves. Fed up with having his bike stolen and wheel nuts taken, the outspoken Tory MP and stolen and wheel nuts taken, the outspoken Tory MP and cycling enthusiast wants to get tough on bike thieves.cycling enthusiast wants to get tough on bike thieves.

"I think these people deserve punishment and I'm calling "I think these people deserve punishment and I'm calling for Sharia law for bicycle thieves." for Sharia law for bicycle thieves."

In the past, Johnson has accused Liverpool residents of In the past, Johnson has accused Liverpool residents of 'wallowing' in grief after the death of Iraq hostage Ken 'wallowing' in grief after the death of Iraq hostage Ken Bigley, linked Papua New Guineans to cannibalism and said Bigley, linked Papua New Guineans to cannibalism and said he would "get rid of celebrity chef Jamie Oliver" if he ever he would "get rid of celebrity chef Jamie Oliver" if he ever ran the country.ran the country.

(Daily Mail - 16th March 2007) (Daily Mail - 16th March 2007)

Case Study 2: Terrorists, Terrorism, and the Case Study 2: Terrorists, Terrorism, and the War on TerrorWar on Terror

the problem of extradition of terrorists has given us much anxiety. It has imposed the problem of extradition of terrorists has given us much anxiety. It has imposed constraints on the work of our Security Forces and courts in the United Kingdomconstraints on the work of our Security Forces and courts in the United Kingdom

There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries … They will hand There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries … They will hand over the terrorists, or they will share in their fate. These terrorists kill not merely to over the terrorists, or they will share in their fate. These terrorists kill not merely to end lives, but to disrupt and end a way of life. With every atrocity, they hope that end lives, but to disrupt and end a way of life. With every atrocity, they hope that America grows fearful, retreating from the world and forsaking our friends … They America grows fearful, retreating from the world and forsaking our friends … They stand against us, because we stand in their way ... We are not deceived by their stand against us, because we stand in their way ... We are not deceived by their pretenses to piety. We have seen their kind before. They are the heirs of all the pretenses to piety. We have seen their kind before. They are the heirs of all the murderous ideologies of the 20th century. By sacrificing human life to serve their murderous ideologies of the 20th century. By sacrificing human life to serve their radical visions -- by abandoning every value except the radical visions -- by abandoning every value except the will to powerwill to power -- they follow in -- they follow in the path of fascism, and Nazism, and totalitarianism. the path of fascism, and Nazism, and totalitarianism.

What we witnessed in London last Thursday week was not an aberrant act. It was not What we witnessed in London last Thursday week was not an aberrant act. It was not random. It was not a product of particular local circumstances in West Yorkshire … random. It was not a product of particular local circumstances in West Yorkshire … What we are confronting here is an evil ideology. It is not a clash of civilisations - all What we are confronting here is an evil ideology. It is not a clash of civilisations - all civilised people, Muslim or other, feel revulsion at it. But it is a global struggle and it civilised people, Muslim or other, feel revulsion at it. But it is a global struggle and it is a battle of ideas, hearts and minds, both within Islam and outside it …is a battle of ideas, hearts and minds, both within Islam and outside it …

Who are the terrorists here? Who are the terrorists here? Thatcher, 1978Thatcher, 1978 Bush, 2001Bush, 2001 Blair, 2005Blair, 2005 (And how do/can we read this slide as a text?)(And how do/can we read this slide as a text?)

More stuff …More stuff …

Bush after 9/11Bush after 9/11

Bush and Steve BridgesBush and Steve Bridges

SummarySummary PDA / CDA … Overtly political in terms of its aims (Kress, 1990) About framing of specific issues within specific discourses Concerned with ‘representation’ of people, concepts, ideas

(Stuart Hall ref) in particular ways that maintain (or challenge) asymmetrical power relations in society

Sees texts not just as individual words (and not even just words – pictures and symbols too) but as whole bodies of information which have internal power relations, as well as power relations with external texts and discourses

We can use CDA to identify the ways in which ideologies of hatred and prejudice are perpetuated

Thus, as individuals, we can formulate strategies of resistance!