POLI 111: INTRODUCTION TO THESTUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

SESSION 4–NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICALSCIENCE

Lecturer: Dr. Evans Aggrey-Darkoh,Department of Political Science

Contact Information: aggreydarkoh@ug.edu.gh

SESSION 4–NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICALSCIENCE

Lecturer: Dr. Evans Aggrey-Darkoh,Department of Political Science

Contact Information: aggreydarkoh@ug.edu.gh

Session Overview

• In this session you will be introduced to thesubject matter of political science and how ourdaily lives depend on the political system

• Increasingly, our lives and welfare depend ondevelopments beyond our national border

• The session offers the varying definitions ofpolitical science, discuss its scope and give thevarious perspectives of the subject

• It also examines the relationship between politicalscience and other academic disciplines

• In this session you will be introduced to thesubject matter of political science and how ourdaily lives depend on the political system

• Increasingly, our lives and welfare depend ondevelopments beyond our national border

• The session offers the varying definitions ofpolitical science, discuss its scope and give thevarious perspectives of the subject

• It also examines the relationship between politicalscience and other academic disciplines

Session Overview (cont’d)

• It further explains the approaches that arenormally used in studying political science andhighlight the importance of studying politicalscience

• The session finally discusses the thorny issue ofwhether political science is a science

• It further explains the approaches that arenormally used in studying political science andhighlight the importance of studying politicalscience

• The session finally discusses the thorny issue ofwhether political science is a science

Reading List• Read Chapter 1 Magstadt T.M. & Schotten P. M.

(1996). Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, andIssues. New York: St. Martin’s Press. pg. 9-13

• Read Chapter 1 of Roskin M.G. et. al. (1991).Political Science: An Introduction 4th Ed. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall International Inc., 1991). pg.12-18

• Heywood, A. (2007). Politics, 3rd Ed. New York:Palgrave Macmillan. pg 13-21

• Read Chapter 1 Magstadt T.M. & Schotten P. M.(1996). Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, andIssues. New York: St. Martin’s Press. pg. 9-13

• Read Chapter 1 of Roskin M.G. et. al. (1991).Political Science: An Introduction 4th Ed. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall International Inc., 1991). pg.12-18

• Heywood, A. (2007). Politics, 3rd Ed. New York:Palgrave Macmillan. pg 13-21

Session Outline

• The topics covered in this session are as follows:– Definition of Political Science– The Scope of Political Science– Relationship between Political Science and other

disciplines– Approaches to the study of Political Science– The importance of studying Political Science– Political Science as a science

• The topics covered in this session are as follows:– Definition of Political Science– The Scope of Political Science– Relationship between Political Science and other

disciplines– Approaches to the study of Political Science– The importance of studying Political Science– Political Science as a science

Topic OneDefinition of Political ScienceTopic OneDefinition of Political Science

Iain Mclean’sDefinition of Political Science

• Iain Maclean defines Political Science as “Thestudy of the state, government and politics”

• This definition is very simple as it recognizes thatpolitical science must concern itself with the statewhich is a distinct set of institutions whose specificconcern is with the organization of domination, inthe name of common interest, within a delimitedterritory, a population, government and issovereign

• The concentration of this definition on the state isimportant because the state is the most centralconcept in the study of politics

• Iain Maclean defines Political Science as “Thestudy of the state, government and politics”

• This definition is very simple as it recognizes thatpolitical science must concern itself with the statewhich is a distinct set of institutions whose specificconcern is with the organization of domination, inthe name of common interest, within a delimitedterritory, a population, government and issovereign

• The concentration of this definition on the state isimportant because the state is the most centralconcept in the study of politics

Iain Mclean’sDefinition of Political Science

(cont’d)• The concentration on the government also

presupposes the study of political institutions likelegislature, the executive, judiciary the media,political parties, the public bureaucracy amongothers

• The definition highlights the importance ofpolitics, that is, the taken of collective decisionsthat affect the generality of the people and theresolution of conflicts

• The concentration on the government alsopresupposes the study of political institutions likelegislature, the executive, judiciary the media,political parties, the public bureaucracy amongothers

• The definition highlights the importance ofpolitics, that is, the taken of collective decisionsthat affect the generality of the people and theresolution of conflicts

Kenneth Godwin and JohnWahlke’s Definition of Political

Science• Kenneth Godwin and John Wahlke (1997) define

political science as “The understanding of howsocieties make choices and an examination of theimpact of those choices”

• This definition is important as it demonstrates thatsocieties make a number of choices

• These choices include the type of political systemto live in, the type of leader to lead the society,the major policies to address the problems of thepeople, the relationship that should exist betweenthe state and the citizens, etc.

• Kenneth Godwin and John Wahlke (1997) definepolitical science as “The understanding of howsocieties make choices and an examination of theimpact of those choices”

• This definition is important as it demonstrates thatsocieties make a number of choices

• These choices include the type of political systemto live in, the type of leader to lead the society,the major policies to address the problems of thepeople, the relationship that should exist betweenthe state and the citizens, etc.

Kenneth Godwin and JohnWahlke’s Definition of Political

Science• It is not enough just to study the choices societies

make but a critical examination of the impact ofthose choices is absolutely necessary

• If a particular leader is selected to lead a country,political scientists will want to know how thischoice translates into the formulation andimplementation of specific policies

• It is not enough just to study the choices societiesmake but a critical examination of the impact ofthose choices is absolutely necessary

• If a particular leader is selected to lead a country,political scientists will want to know how thischoice translates into the formulation andimplementation of specific policies

Andrew Heywood’s Definition ofPolitical Science

• To Heywood, Political Science is “An academicdiscipline which undertakes systematically todescribe, analyze, and explain the workings andoperations of government and the relationshipbetween political and non-political institutions andprocesses”

• To Heywood, Political Science is “An academicdiscipline which undertakes systematically todescribe, analyze, and explain the workings andoperations of government and the relationshipbetween political and non-political institutions andprocesses”

Andrew Heywood’s Definition ofPolitical Science (cont’d)

• This definition is important for a number of reasons:– First, it recognizes political science as an academic

discipline– Second, it indicates that the discipline uses systematic

method and not any haphazard means in arriving at itsconclusions

– Third, it highlights that the subject matter of politicalscience is interested in how government works and therelationship that exist between government, political andnon-political institutions

• When understood this way the discipline of politicalscience underscores the relevance of politics to allhuman endeavors

• This definition is important for a number of reasons:– First, it recognizes political science as an academic

discipline– Second, it indicates that the discipline uses systematic

method and not any haphazard means in arriving at itsconclusions

– Third, it highlights that the subject matter of politicalscience is interested in how government works and therelationship that exist between government, political andnon-political institutions

• When understood this way the discipline of politicalscience underscores the relevance of politics to allhuman endeavors

Robert Jackson and Doreen Jackson’sdefinition of Political Science

• Jackson and Jackson define Political Science as “Thestudy of how organized disputes are articulated andthen resolved by the public decisions ofgovernments”

• They posit that political scientists describe andanalyze the institutions and behavior involved in thegovernance of states

• To them, there are also ethical and normativeaspects to political science, which involves thesearch for the proper relationship betweeninstitutional structures and desired ends such asjustice, equality, and liberty

• Jackson and Jackson define Political Science as “Thestudy of how organized disputes are articulated andthen resolved by the public decisions ofgovernments”

• They posit that political scientists describe andanalyze the institutions and behavior involved in thegovernance of states

• To them, there are also ethical and normativeaspects to political science, which involves thesearch for the proper relationship betweeninstitutional structures and desired ends such asjustice, equality, and liberty

TOPIC TWO

The Scope of Political ScienceTOPIC TWO

The Scope of Political Science

The Activities of Political Scientists• Political science has many facets and strands.• In its broadest facets, it involves political

behavior, procedures and policies, includinggovernments, states, international organizations orentities and sub-units of political systems

• Political scientists study Politics• They are also interested in the origins and the

evolutions of governments, the growth and declineof governments, and conflicts among governments

• Political science has many facets and strands.• In its broadest facets, it involves political

behavior, procedures and policies, includinggovernments, states, international organizations orentities and sub-units of political systems

• Political scientists study Politics• They are also interested in the origins and the

evolutions of governments, the growth and declineof governments, and conflicts among governments

The Activitiesof Political Scientists (cont’d)

• Political scientists are also interested in howgovernments make decisions, the policies thatresult from the decisions and the consequences ofthe policies on the entire citizens.

• Political scientists are interested in issues relatingto elections, selections transparency andaccountability

• They are also interested in the promotion of publicinterest

• Political scientists are also interested in howgovernments make decisions, the policies thatresult from the decisions and the consequences ofthe policies on the entire citizens.

• Political scientists are interested in issues relatingto elections, selections transparency andaccountability

• They are also interested in the promotion of publicinterest

The Activitiesof Political Scientists (cont’d)

• Political scientists seek answers to a number of questions– What attitudes and values produce political conflict and dissent?– What political organizations are active in the struggle to achieve

political consensus?– What is the nature of the socio-economic relationships between

states? How adequate are resources to meet needs?– How equitably are resources distributed? and how are material

interests pursued, protected, or changed by the course of publicpolicy?

– What are the constitutional structures and the decision makingprocedures of each nation, and how well suited are they to thatnation’s needs?

– What internal structures and procedures exist for the debate andresolution of problems with other nations?

– What assistance is available from international agencies and theinternational community at large?

• Political scientists seek answers to a number of questions– What attitudes and values produce political conflict and dissent?– What political organizations are active in the struggle to achieve

political consensus?– What is the nature of the socio-economic relationships between

states? How adequate are resources to meet needs?– How equitably are resources distributed? and how are material

interests pursued, protected, or changed by the course of publicpolicy?

– What are the constitutional structures and the decision makingprocedures of each nation, and how well suited are they to thatnation’s needs?

– What internal structures and procedures exist for the debate andresolution of problems with other nations?

– What assistance is available from international agencies and theinternational community at large?

The Sub-Fields of Political SciencePolitical science covers the following seven sub-fields:

• Government and politics concentrates on the studyof the government and politics of a state

• Comparative government and politics is concernedwith contrasting and evaluating governments ofpolitical systems

• International politics deals with the relationshipbetween states

• Public administration is concerned with the studyof public administration by means of institutionaldescription, policy analysis and evaluation andintergovernmental relation analysis

Political science covers the following seven sub-fields:

• Government and politics concentrates on the studyof the government and politics of a state

• Comparative government and politics is concernedwith contrasting and evaluating governments ofpolitical systems

• International politics deals with the relationshipbetween states

• Public administration is concerned with the studyof public administration by means of institutionaldescription, policy analysis and evaluation andintergovernmental relation analysis

The Sub-Fieldsof Political Science (cont’d)

• Political theory is the oldest form of political enquiry.– It dates back to Plato and Aristotle.– Political theory is the centre of the discipline, because it

encompasses the full realm of thought concerning the origin,form, and behavior of the political community

• Political methodology is the study of the methods tobe used in political enquiry– This deals with the tools for empirical investigations and

analysis– The methods used in the study of politics include archival

research, interview- based research, textual and contextualanalysis of the arguments of past thinkers, etc.

• Political theory is the oldest form of political enquiry.– It dates back to Plato and Aristotle.– Political theory is the centre of the discipline, because it

encompasses the full realm of thought concerning the origin,form, and behavior of the political community

• Political methodology is the study of the methods tobe used in political enquiry– This deals with the tools for empirical investigations and

analysis– The methods used in the study of politics include archival

research, interview- based research, textual and contextualanalysis of the arguments of past thinkers, etc.

The Sub-Fieldsof Political Science (cont’d)

• Political economy deals with the parallelexistence and mutual interaction of the state andmarket in the modern world creates politicaleconomy– Political economy looks at the relationship or

the nexus between politics and economics– It is concerned with the public management of

the affairs of the state– Under political economy, the general

assumption is that there is a symbioticrelationship between economics and politics

• Political economy deals with the parallelexistence and mutual interaction of the state andmarket in the modern world creates politicaleconomy– Political economy looks at the relationship or

the nexus between politics and economics– It is concerned with the public management of

the affairs of the state– Under political economy, the general

assumption is that there is a symbioticrelationship between economics and politics

TOPIC THREE

Relationship of Political Scienceto other Disciplines

TOPIC THREE

Relationship of Political Scienceto other Disciplines

The Origin of Political Science• As a specialized field of study, political science is of

relative recent origin• It is a relatively new subject in universities• Political science was not a separate discipline until the

late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whendepartmental chairs were established in universities

• The first department of political science was established in1880, in the United States at the Columbia University

• Even when it was officially recognized as a distinct field,political science continued to be taught for many years inhistory and economics departments as Political Economy

• Political science therefore developed as a trulyinterdisciplinary field of study

• As a specialized field of study, political science is ofrelative recent origin

• It is a relatively new subject in universities• Political science was not a separate discipline until the

late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whendepartmental chairs were established in universities

• The first department of political science was established in1880, in the United States at the Columbia University

• Even when it was officially recognized as a distinct field,political science continued to be taught for many years inhistory and economics departments as Political Economy

• Political science therefore developed as a trulyinterdisciplinary field of study

The Relevance of Creating SeveralSocial Science Subjects

• Political Science branched off from a number ofsocial science disciplines including law, history,and economics among others

• The social sciences grouped together are devotedto the study of man in society

• The division of social science into severaldisciplines is to facilitate and explain variousneeds and interests of man in society

• Political Science branched off from a number ofsocial science disciplines including law, history,and economics among others

• The social sciences grouped together are devotedto the study of man in society

• The division of social science into severaldisciplines is to facilitate and explain variousneeds and interests of man in society

The Relevance of Creating SeveralSocial Science Subjects (cont’d)

• The advantages of creating several social sciencesubjects include:– The possibility for a higher degree of expertise in a

number of subjects– Increased efficiency through division of labour

• The disadvantages are:– The excessive isolation of related activities, which may

render more difficult the essential borrowing by onescience from others

– Arbitrary divisions between the social sciences– The lack of unifying vehicle to furnish overview or

perspective

• The advantages of creating several social sciencesubjects include:– The possibility for a higher degree of expertise in a

number of subjects– Increased efficiency through division of labour

• The disadvantages are:– The excessive isolation of related activities, which may

render more difficult the essential borrowing by onescience from others

– Arbitrary divisions between the social sciences– The lack of unifying vehicle to furnish overview or

perspective

Political Science and History• History is the systematic record of what men and government

have done in the past and in what perspective presentinstitutions and development stand in relation to the past

• Political science is history in suspended animation, historyarrested, analyzed and sifted for its political content, for itsimperial lessons

• While political scientists see history as a raw material foranalysis, historians see political science as a “wayward child”

• Both political science and history are complementary– Political institutions can be better understood through the

consideration of their historical setting.– Political scientists therefore owe a lot to history in order to

establish the authenticity of and the relevance of the data.

• History is the systematic record of what men and governmenthave done in the past and in what perspective presentinstitutions and development stand in relation to the past

• Political science is history in suspended animation, historyarrested, analyzed and sifted for its political content, for itsimperial lessons

• While political scientists see history as a raw material foranalysis, historians see political science as a “wayward child”

• Both political science and history are complementary– Political institutions can be better understood through the

consideration of their historical setting.– Political scientists therefore owe a lot to history in order to

establish the authenticity of and the relevance of the data.

Political Science and Economics

• Economics is the study of how society chooses toallocate scarce resources which have alternativeuses, to meet the unlimited needs of society nowand the future

• Economics is the study of those individuals and socialactivities involved in the production, distributionand consumption of wealth

• At one time, Political Science and Economics werebound together like Siamese twins and known asPolitical Economy

• Economic factors determine Politics; while politicalforms shape and determine the economic system

• Economics is the study of how society chooses toallocate scarce resources which have alternativeuses, to meet the unlimited needs of society nowand the future

• Economics is the study of those individuals and socialactivities involved in the production, distributionand consumption of wealth

• At one time, Political Science and Economics werebound together like Siamese twins and known asPolitical Economy

• Economic factors determine Politics; while politicalforms shape and determine the economic system

Political Science and Economics

•The interdependence between the two subjects isvery evident in the political importance of a stablemonetary system, taxation, the protection ofproperty, and the enforcement of contractualobligations

•In recent years one of the most hotly contestedissues is the extent to which government must getinvolved in the economic system of the country

•The interdependence between the two subjects isvery evident in the political importance of a stablemonetary system, taxation, the protection ofproperty, and the enforcement of contractualobligations

•In recent years one of the most hotly contestedissues is the extent to which government must getinvolved in the economic system of the country

Political Science and Sociology

• Sociology is a specialized study of social behavior andhuman interaction

• It provides information on social customs and cultureswhich bear significantly on political development andpolitical institutions

• It was the study of electorates and their motives whichled to the conceptualization of political culture

• The use of sociological methods also helps politicalscientists to understand political socialization

• Comparative studies of families, clans, tribes, classes,and races, and their interrelationships provide thepolitical scientists with a better understanding of thenature of various communities and their problems

• Sociology is a specialized study of social behavior andhuman interaction

• It provides information on social customs and cultureswhich bear significantly on political development andpolitical institutions

• It was the study of electorates and their motives whichled to the conceptualization of political culture

• The use of sociological methods also helps politicalscientists to understand political socialization

• Comparative studies of families, clans, tribes, classes,and races, and their interrelationships provide thepolitical scientists with a better understanding of thenature of various communities and their problems

Political Science and Psychology• Psychology is regarded by behaviorists as the basis

of Political Science• Both individual and social psychology are seen as

providing very important contributions to theunderstanding of politics

• Fundamental human instinct for self-preservation,the desire for development and the pursuit offreedom are not only used to explain politicalphenomena but also can be developed intotheories and laws of politics

• Through psychological studies answers can befound as to why individuals vote the way they do,why certain political developments occur, and whycertain leaders attain and maintain power

• Psychology is regarded by behaviorists as the basisof Political Science

• Both individual and social psychology are seen asproviding very important contributions to theunderstanding of politics

• Fundamental human instinct for self-preservation,the desire for development and the pursuit offreedom are not only used to explain politicalphenomena but also can be developed intotheories and laws of politics

• Through psychological studies answers can befound as to why individuals vote the way they do,why certain political developments occur, and whycertain leaders attain and maintain power

Topic Four

Approaches to the Studyof Political Science

Topic Four

Approaches to the Studyof Political Science

What is an Approach?

• An approach is the means by which something isreached

• An approach to a discipline is the particularorientation that one adopts when addressing thesubject

• An approach provides a guide for selecting factsand organizing them in a meaningful way

• Politics today embraces a variety of theoreticalapproaches from a variety of sources which hasmade the field very fertile and versatile

• An approach is the means by which something isreached

• An approach to a discipline is the particularorientation that one adopts when addressing thesubject

• An approach provides a guide for selecting factsand organizing them in a meaningful way

• Politics today embraces a variety of theoreticalapproaches from a variety of sources which hasmade the field very fertile and versatile

The Philosophical Approach• This approach dates back to the ancient Greeks and

it was usually referred to as political philosophy• It was mainly concerned with ethical issues,

prescriptive issues, and normative questions• The question that engaged their attention included;

– What ought to be– What should be– What must be

• This approach is mainly concerned with theexamination of what the major thinkers said, howthey developed or justified their views, and theintellectual context within which they worked

• This approach dates back to the ancient Greeks andit was usually referred to as political philosophy

• It was mainly concerned with ethical issues,prescriptive issues, and normative questions

• The question that engaged their attention included;– What ought to be– What should be– What must be

• This approach is mainly concerned with theexamination of what the major thinkers said, howthey developed or justified their views, and theintellectual context within which they worked

The Empirical Tradition• Empirical knowledge in derived from sense data

and experience• Empirical or descriptive tradition can also be

traced to the earliest days of political thought.• It manifested itself in the following:

– Aristotle’s attempt to classify constitutions– Machiavelli’s realistic account of statecraft in his book

The Prince, which discussed how political power isacquired, maintained, and expanded

– Montesquieu’s sociological theory of government andlaw which resulted in the development of the conceptof separation of powers

• Empirical knowledge in derived from sense dataand experience

• Empirical or descriptive tradition can also betraced to the earliest days of political thought.

• It manifested itself in the following:– Aristotle’s attempt to classify constitutions– Machiavelli’s realistic account of statecraft in his book

The Prince, which discussed how political power isacquired, maintained, and expanded

– Montesquieu’s sociological theory of government andlaw which resulted in the development of the conceptof separation of powers

The Scientific Tradition• Karl Marx was the first theorist to attempt to

describe politics in scientist terms• He made predictions about the future based upon

laws that had the same status in terms of proof aslaws in the natural sciences

• The scientific study of politics became veryfashionable in the nineteenth century, with theintroduction of the study of Political Science in1870s in Columbia, Oxford and Paris

• The enthusiasm with the science of politics peakedin the 1950s and 1960s with the analysis of politicalphenomenon that relied extensively onbehavioralism

• Karl Marx was the first theorist to attempt todescribe politics in scientist terms

• He made predictions about the future based uponlaws that had the same status in terms of proof aslaws in the natural sciences

• The scientific study of politics became veryfashionable in the nineteenth century, with theintroduction of the study of Political Science in1870s in Columbia, Oxford and Paris

• The enthusiasm with the science of politics peakedin the 1950s and 1960s with the analysis of politicalphenomenon that relied extensively onbehavioralism

Topic FiveThe Importanceof Studying Political Science

Topic FiveThe Importanceof Studying Political Science

Why Study Political Science?

Political Science is studied for the followingreasons:

• Self-interest• Self-improvement• Self-knowledge• Career Development• Development of analytical skills• Promotion of good governance

Political Science is studied for the followingreasons:

• Self-interest• Self-improvement• Self-knowledge• Career Development• Development of analytical skills• Promotion of good governance

Topic Six

Political Science as a ScienceTopic Six

Political Science as a Science

What is Science?• The word ‘science’ comes from the Latin word

‘scientia,’ which means knowledge• Science is a field of study that aims at developing

reliable explanation of phenomena throughrepeatable experiments, observation anddeductions

• Scientific knowledge is also seen as anybody ofsystematic knowledge based upon observation andexperience

• Fundamentally science involves a method, someassumptions and certain goals

• It is a means of study which involves precision,rigor, and systematic way of proceeding

• The word ‘science’ comes from the Latin word‘scientia,’ which means knowledge

• Science is a field of study that aims at developingreliable explanation of phenomena throughrepeatable experiments, observation anddeductions

• Scientific knowledge is also seen as anybody ofsystematic knowledge based upon observation andexperience

• Fundamentally science involves a method, someassumptions and certain goals

• It is a means of study which involves precision,rigor, and systematic way of proceeding

Assumptionsof Scientific Knowledge

The key assumptions of scientific knowledgeare as follows:

• Patterns of behavior• Empiricism• Inter-subjectivity• Objectivity or value-free analysis• Systematization• Universal laws or generalization• High-level theory

The key assumptions of scientific knowledgeare as follows:

• Patterns of behavior• Empiricism• Inter-subjectivity• Objectivity or value-free analysis• Systematization• Universal laws or generalization• High-level theory

Arguments Againstthe Science of Politics

The problems which hamper the total and completeuse of the scientific method by political scientistsinclude:

•The problem of data•There are difficulties the stem from theexistence of human values

•There is also the myth of neutrality

The problems which hamper the total and completeuse of the scientific method by political scientistsinclude:

•The problem of data•There are difficulties the stem from theexistence of human values

•There is also the myth of neutrality

Arguments inFavor of the Science of Politics

• Political science is essentially empirical,claiming to describe, analyze, and explaingovernment and other political institutions in arigorous and impartial manner

• In political science, we can accumulatequantifiable data

• The study reasoned (logical coherence)• Balanced-bias is minimize by acknowledging

that there are other ways of looking at politicaltopics

• The work is supported by evidence

• Political science is essentially empirical,claiming to describe, analyze, and explaingovernment and other political institutions in arigorous and impartial manner

• In political science, we can accumulatequantifiable data

• The study reasoned (logical coherence)• Balanced-bias is minimize by acknowledging

that there are other ways of looking at politicaltopics

• The work is supported by evidence