Plenary Session II. Visual Media in Our Cultures.

The Dramaturgicsof the Newspaper Page

GERT Z NORDSTRÖM

Potentialities, Influences and Perspectives

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A catastrophe can happen more or less sdenly, unexpectedly. The event can alsomore or less accessible to media coveradepending on geography, topography weather conditions. No photographs wetaken of the Titanic when it sank in April1912. Drawings depicted some of the modramatic events. The situation was qudifferent in the case of the explosion of thhelium dirigible Hindenburg at its landingin Lakehurst, New York, in May 1937Twenty-two photographers were on hawhen 36 of the aircraft’s 97 passengers din the flames. Never before had a major acident been so well documented. The neday, the New York Post carried seven pageof pictures, The Daily Mirror nine pages,and the New York World-Telegram had 21photos. This was the first time in journalism history when the story was told (prmarily) in pictures. A similar case was thexplosion of the American space shuttChallenger at its launching in Januar1986, in which the crew of seven astronadied. In this case, the documentation wmainly in moving pictures, transmitte’live’. The dramatic event could be witnessed on television screens the world over.

The sinking of the Baltic ferry, Estonia,in September 1994, was like the sinking the Titanic in that, with one remarkable exception (see Plates 13 and 14), the acciditself was not documented photograph

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cally. The coverage of the rescue operatwas, however, extensively documented. deed, in this respect the Estonia catastrophewas quite incomparable. Eager to the poof giddiness, news media served a shocpublic a kaleidoscopic mixture of cruedeath and heroic rescue, of cynical egoism aselfless solidarity in the desperate struggfor survival. They were quick to spotlighthe heroes and the villains. Re-enactmfollowed upon re-enactment, each versibeing repeated countless times over.

Fiction or Faction?

In his book, Faction as a Mode of Expression (Faktion som udtryksmiddel, 1990Peter Harms Larsen notes that faction, cbe understood in two different ways: (1) fictional content – the product of someone’s imagination – communicated in thform and rhetoric of a non-fictional genror (2) real – true – facts and events commnicated in the form and rhetoric of a fictiogenre.

The first case is hardly applicable herThe Estonia did sink, and hundreds of passengers did die. It is the second meanthat I find relevant, and identifying the fictional elements in the coverage forms important part of my study.

In the following I will use the term ’dis-course’ in the sense of a statement or fo

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mal expression consisting of both text(and illustration(s). A discourse is thus intenally coherent; it has its own grammar, iown expressive norms. It can be a whonewspaper page or a sequence of pagesspreads. Discourses are often construcso as to permit interpretation on multiplevels. In the following will discuss theslevels in terms of three gross alternatives

a) The interpretation is based on the pitures in the discourse. This case is notcommon, but it does occur. Picturehave a fascination of their own and thecall attention to themselves. ThéodoGéricault’s famous painting, The Raft ofthe Medusa, from 1819 continues to attract great numbers of visitors to thLouvre in Paris, even though most them haven’t the faintest idea of thdocumentary background to the motviz., that Géricault rendered a real evethe rescue of survivors of the founderfrigate, La Méduse. The drama as succan be archetypical.

b) The interpretation is based on the pitures and the headlines (plus captions).This is probably the most frequent in thcase of newspapers and materials tare consumed in haste or on a routibasis, such as commuting. Even if omanages to read bits of the stories, tbrowsing reader’s main impression such cases is formed on the basis ohasty interpretation of pictures-andheadline/caption. Could it be that thlevel of interpretation is actually thmost persuasive? Be that as it may, tinfluential potential of the interplay between picture and heading is a cardinprinciple in advertising.

c) The interpretation is based on the dicourse in its entirety, i.e. pictures, head-lines and copy. This in extenso alterntive requires not only commitment o

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the part of the reader, but also time.classic rationale for presenting mixediscourses is that pictures and headlinattract the reader’s attention to the artle, the epic element in the discoursModern newspaper pages would appeto be designed to appeal to readers wuse strategies b) and c), but we shounot exclude the possibility of a), either

The Dramaturgics of the NewspaperPage, or: The Page as Rhetoric

The newspaper page or spread has yet toanalyzed as a drama, as a particular form ovisual and verbal expression. Newspapcontent has been described in its epic foras reportage or narrative, and even in terof didactics, the informative and opinionforming functions. But it has not been coceived of as a stage on which a dramaperformed, in episodes during a given priod of time. It is easy to see why. Tradtionally, newspapers have told their storiin the copy, with pictures, ’art’, playing decidedly subordinate role. Thanks to mdern graphic technology, however, pictorijournalism has undergone a profound tranformation, especially in the tabloid anboulevard press, and especially in coveraof disasters and other sensational events

The dramaturgics of the newspaper pais not the product of individual journalistand photographers who each bring thstraws to the stack in the form of copy a’art’ from different sources and scenes events. It is the creation of a team of editoworking with pictorial editing, layout andheadlines. It is this team which dramatizreality, creating on the basis of the materat hand the dramatic discourse which reaers will partake of. The rationale for considering the discourse a drama lies in tpictures; it is primarily the pictures whicprovide the sensation of being ’a fly on th

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wall’, of being an invisible witness (cfHarms Larsen op. cit., p. 152).

The picture not only creates a sensepresence, but also imparts facts. We readare served a factual account, though it mbe scanty, of what has happened or is hpening. This conveys prestige on the dcourse as a whole, but it does not precluthe creation of fictions through contexAided and abetted, for example, by healines, copy or reconstructing illustrations.is these hybrid forms which make up thcategory, ’faction’.

Television has long been seen to prduce factional content. I think it is important that we examine newspapers, especly the tabloids, in this light, as well. I havefor example, classified the ’art’ I have colected on the Estonia catastrophe accordinto a classic Aristotelian typology: dramatic,epic and didactic discourses. Under the influence of Renaissance philosophers I haalso tried to identify a lyrical mode of ex-pression used in discourses which conv’atmosphere’ and various emotional cmates in connection with funerals and othcommemorative ceremonies.

Catastrophes of the magnitude of tsinking of the Estonia always give rise totrauma, to a collective state of shock, whihas to be processed. One should see theties of the mass media to portray events –dramatize, mythologize, and reconstruand otherwise convey the details of maevents and the feelings they arouse – in tlight. People need to partake of commetary to still their anxiety and to counter thinevitable suspicions. They need to be towhy the accident occurred, the sequenceevents, how the event was dealt with, athey need to identify possible heroes, psons in positions of responsibility, as weas culprits, if any.

In the case of the Estonia, the mediawere quick, perhaps too quick, to fulfi

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their audiences’ needs. In their ambition be first with pictures some newspapers denitely ran afoul of their ethical codes. Thfront page of Stockholm tabloid, Expressen29 September 1994, which carried portraof several of the passengers is a flagrcase in point. At the time the pictures weprinted the newspaper had no knowledgeto which of the passengers pictured hgone down with the ship, which weramong the recovered dead, and which hbeen saved. Publishing the portraits wclearly a faux pas. At the same time, wmust recognize that many of the dramaand lyrical discourses in the press after tdisaster were touching and thought-provking. Again, I especially have in mind thtabloid press, which dares use headlinesthe hilt to set the scene, letting blow-ucarry on a dialogue, while they also acount for the visual appeal of the reportagpage after page, spread after spread. search to date has tended to dismiss the loids as sensation-hungry commerc’rags’. That they, too, have ambitions is mde clear time and again in their coveragethe Estonia catastrophe. Their ambitionconcern primarily the dramatic and lyricadiscourses, whereas the more ’serious’ pers, with their relative emphasis on textthe expense of ’art’, provide the epic andidactic discourses.

Four Modes of Representation

The photos and graphics from the Estoniacatastrophe exceed all previous Swedmedia coverage of such events, both qutitatively and qualitively. The pictures relate or explain all the phases of the dramsave the foundering itself – albeit two amteur photographs capture that, as well (sPlates 13 and 14).

As noted above, Swedish tabloids prsented the story in such a way as to all

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readers a free choice regarding the leveinterpretation: e.g., picture + headlines the entire discourse, including copy.

All news stories are epical in the senthat there is a narrator – one or more jonalists – who relates something to the reder. As a reader of epical journalism, I aprecisely as close to or distant from thevent as the journalist/narrator. In a drmatic presentation the situation is differenThere is no intermediary; I become ’winess’ to the event. Eye-witness photograpimpart this sense of presence, backed upthe accompanying headlines and captioThey seem to speak to the reader direcfrom the scene, rather than having been ranged after the fact. The function of thheadline is not to provide structure or pespective on the event, but to put the reaon the scene. Captions, too, can be usethe same end.

Most of what has been said about tdramatic mode is true of the lyrical modas well. Here, too, I can , unmediated, immerse myself in the pictures and headlinWhereas the dramatic mode expressed tion. motion, conflict and dialogue, lyricapresentations evoke calm, quiet, unisoand inviolability. The lyrical image strivefor harmony, and accompanying headlinand captions enhance this striving. Funtional headlines toward these ends are only tautological, they also defuse elemenin the picture which might detract from ocontradict the intended mood or ’atmophere’.

Modes of presentation may also be dcussed in terms of planes of expressioDramatic and lyrical modes require onlysingle plane, namely, the scene on whithe event transpires, is portrayed, acted oand so forth. The epic mode involves a scond plane, as well: that of the narratoWhen a team of editors use pictures, helines and layout to achieve these du

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planes, it is then up to the reader to decwhich of the discourses is relevant.

The didactic mode, like the epic, hatwo planes: the scene of the event and narrator’s vantage point. But in the didactmode the narrator is not so much a narraas a pedagogue, a teacher. This impliedifferent, more demanding role for threader/viewer than in the case of epic mdes. The reader must be willing to assuthe role of pupil: to respond critically tpropositions of various kinds, to pondanalyses and logical arguments. This difrence has brought some researchers infield of dramaturgics to speak of a thirplane in the case of didactic presentatioI, for my part am not convinced. Whatevthe case, the important thing is not homany planes there may or may not be, bsimply that we are aware of the differenbetween epic and didactic presentatioand that we realize that the receiver asmes different roles in the respective case

The newspaper coverage of the Estoniadisaster includes a good number of esstially didactic presentations. Interestinglsome of them are non-textual. Maps dscribe wind speeds and directions and location of the vessel; sequences of draings show the ferry in cross-section, howgradually filled with water, listed more anmore, and finally foundered. Many pictureof a didactic nature concern the much-dcussed bow visor, and how one might about salvaging the wreck.

The plan in the initial phase of the studwas to let the four modes of expressiform thematic categories and apply themthe newspaper ’art’ in the Estonia cove-rage. Fairly early on in the work, howeverfound it necessary to add two additionthemes: one for the pictures of the ship afoundered, and another for the picturtaken of the wreck on the bottom of the seThus, the material has been organized

cording to six themes: 1. Pictures of thesinking ferry, 2. Dramatic presentations, 3.Lyrical presentations, 4. Epic presenta-

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tions, 5. Didactic presentations, and 6. Pic-tures of the wreck.

Dramatic Discourse I

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Expressen, pp. 16-17, Wednesday, 2September 1994: By means of a giant illustration (drawn by Helén Rasmussen) shoing the Estonia as the life-boats are beinset afloat, the Stockholm tabloid attempto visualize the catastrophe. The hea

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headline, MAY DAY, ESTONIA! height-ens the sense of emergency and the neeimmediate assistance. The lesser headlAnd then not a sound..., indicates that thehelp that might have saved the ship catoo late.

Dramatic Discourse II

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Aftonbladet, pp. 14-15, Wednesday, 28September 1994: ”It was Hell” , the Stock-holm tabloid quotes helicopter pilot RonnLarsson as saying. And he adds (in tlesser headline): ”Bodies were floating inthe water everywhere.” Despite 30-foot

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waves and 60-mile-an-hour winds (27 m/Larsson managed to rescue six survivoout of the water. The main picture in thdiscourse (a photo taken by Björn Elstrand) is reminiscent of a classic Christipietà (the mourning of Christ on Golgatha

Lyrical Discourse I

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The centre spread in Aftonbladet, Sunday6th November 1994: 950 candles for thoseclaimed by the sea, proclaims the headlineaccompanying a black-framed photo froGrisslehamn. Bibbi Johansson’s evocati

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photo, in which the glimmer of memoriacandles puts a small crucifix pendant in fcus, shows only one of about one-hundrpeople who attended a memorial ceremosix weeks after the catastrophe.

Lyrical Discourse II

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Aftonbladet, pp. 8-9, Monday, 3rd Octob1994: The theme of this and the precedinspread (pp. 6-7) is memorial services apeople in mourning. One of the four pictures in the discourse is from a chapel on Finnish island of Utö [closest to the sceof the catastrophe] and another is fromchurch in the Estonian capital, Tallin. A tein the lower right-hand corner instructs re

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ders to continue on to the next page: ”Sil-via in tears. P.T.O.” Here we see the royacouple, Queen Silvia crying openly. Thphoto in the middle to the right showCrown Princess Victoria, who also reprsented the royal family at the memorial sevice held in the cathedral adjoining Stocholm Palace.

Epic Discourse I

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This spread from Aftonbladet, 30th September, is a typical example of how pictureheadlines, captions and magnified excerfrom the article can be used to create a leof interpretation that expresses the meanof the story without the reader having read it from beginning to end. Kent’s injured right hand which he displays to th

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photographer evokes the life-and-deastruggle which took place in a life-boaonly six of sixteen on board survived. Onof the excerpts exclaims ”We clung toeach other every minute of the five hourswe sat in that boat.” The headline, ”Theygave each other a promise for life” sig-nals ”To be continued...”.

Epic Discourse II

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It was not the following week, but morthan three weeks later that the world-fmous rendez-vous of survivors Sara Hednius (aged 20) and Kent Härstedt (29) toplace. The supper tête-à-tête, which was

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Aftonbladet exclusive, took place in the prvacy of a luxurious suite in the Grand HôtSaltsjöbaden, near Stockholm. (Aftonbla-det, 22nd October 1994)

Epic Discourse III

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10th November, Aftonbladet declares: [Theship’s] Speed sank the Estonia. The bigpicture shows Captain Aarvo Andressoclosest to the camera. The caption explai”Captain Aarvo Andresson, pictured hewith helmsman Avo Piht on the bridge, waupset that the Estonia was behind schedule.” When the same photo was first pubshed two weeks earlier in Expressen (23rd

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October), journalist Thomas Mattsson rported a rumour current in Estonia that thehelmsman was alive, but had been hiddaway by the Swedish management of tshipping line. Estonian seamen were repted to have recognized Piht in Rostock; hname also initially appeared on the list survivors.

Epic Discourse IV

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Under the headline, Why didn’t you dosomething? Aftonbladet (5th October1996) takes the Director-General and Drector of Safety of the National Administration of Shipping and Navigation to taskNiklas Modig’s photo of Director-GeneraStenmark is at once provocative and hero

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Stenmark accepts the challenge and posminuscule in relation to an enormous fobow, on a quay in Värtahamn (StockholmHe rejects all criticism concerning prioproblems with ferries’ bow visor. His gazfixed on the horizon, Stenmark declare”No one to blame for the catastrophe”.

Didactic Discourse I

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Expressen, pp. 12-13, Friday, 30th Septeber 1994: A version of the salvaging themeThe lead paragraph states: ”... Expressenoutlines how the mystery of the Estonia canbe solved. From localizing the wreck on thbottom of the sea to salvaging it.” Aroundlarge drawing of the wreck of the Estonialying at the bottom of the sea, the pape

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-graphical team outlines the five measurthat would have to be taken in order bring the wreck up to the surface and todry dock. The discourse, composed of pture and text, is clearly formulated and weexecuted. For that reason it is likely to hafired the hopes of next of kin that the shwould be salvaged.

Didactic Discourse II

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Aftonbladet, p. 10, Sunday, 2nd Octob1994: First picture of the fatal ferry iswhat the paper calls an image of the wretaken with sonar equipment on board tresearch vessel, Suunta. The wreck lies onits starboard side at a depth of roughly

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m. ’Balloon captions’ around the diffuseshadowy image indicate the aft, the smokstack and the fore, with the bow port mising. The discourse is didactic, as the illutration to the lower right confirms.

From the Sunken Ferry I

The front page of Aftonbladet, 27th April 1995.

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From the Sunken Ferry II

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Aftonbladet, pp. 6-7, Thursday, 27th Ap1995: All five pictures in the discourse arphotographs taken of a transmission TV4 earlier the same day. The programmshowed footage from a video film from inside the wreck made by divers from thBritish firm, Rockwater. The footage wataken in early December 1994. The captiunder the main picture reads: ”Divers fountotal devastation inside the vessel. Thhad to break in doors and cut through meplate to make their way through the chao

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In the course of their perilous investigatiodivers estimated that between 100 and 3corpses might be brought up to the suface...” There was no sign of devastationchaos in the footage shown on TV4. Th”mystery hand” appearing in the photo Aftonbladet belongs to a diver, not a corps– a matter hotly debated in the media afpublication. The video recording in its entirety (eight hours of tape) convinced gvernment officials not to try to salvage thvessel.

The Sinking Ferry I

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The front page of Dagens Nyheter, Sunda6th November 1994: The gigantic picture,which covers six of the paper’s seven clumns, was taken by Mikael Öun with aOlympus snapshot camera just as the Esto-nia was sinking. A few days after the picture was published the person seated toright, wearing a double life-jacket, waidentified as Jannu Aser of Tallinn. Thsmall drawing under the photo shows hlocation on board when the picture w

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taken. Under the headline, The last picturefrom ”Estonia” Dagens Nyheter’s journal-ist, Anders Hellberg, relates the picturehistory. Among other things, he notes ththe splotches are due to water in the camand the white flecks are drops of water. Halso notes that all but two of Öun’s picturwere ruined. This picture, perhaps the prephoto of the century, was taken by an amteur with no intention of documenting thevent per se.

The Sinking Ferry II

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Expressen, pp. 6-7, Thursday, 10th Noveber 1994: The epical sequence of photostypical of Expressen. Here we are presentewith what might be called a meta-discourse, i.e., a discourse that depicts (speaks) another discourse. As for the pture – which appears again on the righhand side of the spread – it can be analyon yet another level, a meta-level: Level The original photo, Level 2. The photo

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graphing of the photo together with thphotographer Mikael Öun and, finallyLevel 3: The photographing of the photgraphing of the original photo, togethewith Jannu Aser, the man identified in thphoto after its publication. The history othe photo is virtually pounded into threader’s consciousness. It is, to my tasttoo explicit, too heavy-handedly rhetorica