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PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 IMPRESSUM

IMPRESSUM

PSI Annual Report 2000General Volume

Published byPaul Scherrer Institut, PSI

Concept/Text/EditorDr. Myriam Salzmann

Design and LayoutIrma Herzog

PhotographyArmin Muller

Image ProcessingChristoph Schutz

ProductionLuitgard Adrion

Copying is welcomed,provided the source isacknowledged and anarchive copy sent to PSI

On Internet athttp://www.psi.ch

Available fromPaul Scherrer InstitutInformation ServicesCH-5232 Villigen PSITel:+41 (0)56 310 42 61

In addition to the GeneralVolume of the Annual Report2000, published in Germanand English, "ScientificReports 2000" from the PSIDepartments are also avai-lable, for specialist audiences.

PSI PUBLIC RELATIONSe-mail: [email protected]

SpokesmanMartin jermannTel:+41 (0)56 310 27 18

Information OfficerDr. Myriam SalzmannTel: +41 (0)56 310 26 71

psi forum -The PSI Visitor CentreSandra ZieglerTel:+41 (0)56 310 21 00e-mail: [email protected]://www.psiforum.ch

Paul Scherrer Institut, April 2001 ISSN 1423-7288

Cover photo

Solar furnace at Paul Scherrer Institute. View through theentry port for concentrated solar radiation. In the recyclingreactor the concentrated solar energy converts special wastesinto valuable materials by separating at high temperature mostof the heavy metal from the filter dust.

PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000

Contents

PSI in Brief

Foreword

| Events of 2000

Research 200016 Solids and Materials

23 Particles and Matter

27 Biology and Medicine

30 Energy and Environment

User Laboratory38 Around the Ring Accelerator

40 Injector I

41 Research with Myons

42 The Neutron Source SINQ

44 The Swiss Light Source, SLS

^ g Education andAdvanced Training

Commercializationof Knowledge

62Organisational Structure,Committees and Commissions

PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 PSI IN BRIEF

PSI in Brief

The Paul Scherrer Institute is a centre for multi-disci-plinary research in the natural and engineering sci-ences. It collaborates closely with universities, otherresearch institutions, technical colleges, and industry,both at home and abroad. It is the largest nationalresearch institute with about 1,200 members of staff,and is the only one of its kind in the country. Its par-ticular areas of specialisation are solid-state researchand materials sciences, elementary particle physicsand astrophysics, biology and medicine, and energyand environmental research.

PSI concentrates on those subjects which are at theleading edge of scientific knowledge, which contri-bute to the education of the next generation, andwhich pave the way to a sustainable, environmen-tally-friendly society. It actively pursues the commer-cial exploitation of new discoveries and, as a nationalresearch centre, also offers its services to externalorganisations.

PSI develops, builds, and operates complex, large-scale research facilities, facing up to particularly highdemands in terms of knowledge, experience, and

professionalism. It is one of the world's leading userlaboratories for the national and international scien-tific community. Strengthening this role and expand-ing its research into solid-state physics and mate-rial's sciences is fundamental to the future of PSI, andis particularly important in determining the techno-logical development and competitiveness of Swissindustry. In the biological sciences, PSI is concentrat-ing on the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, withthe help of its unique particle beams and on struc-tural biology. Energy research is focused on projectsrelated to safe, economical, and sustainable suppliesof energy. In particle physics, PSI is making an impor-tant contribution through its function as a base labo-ratory for large-scale experiments conducted by theSwiss universities.

The special atmosphere which exists at PSI createsnew networks of co-operation, reaching across sci-entific specialisations and national borders. Partnersfrom universities and industry can find a platformhere for international, interdisciplinary projects.

1 1

,*«*".,

IV PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 FOREWORD

Foreword

Meinrad K. Eberle, Director of PSI.

The year 2000 was a great success for the Paul Scher-rer Institute (PSI). It was a good year; we achievednearly all our goals and fulfilled the expectations.

PSI has a special role among the research institutes inthe ETH domain, because it has the important func-tion of a user laboratory. This means that it serves anational and international research community- pri-marily in the field of basic research. In the year 2000roughly 800 external researchers made use of ourfacilities; when the Swiss Light Source (SLS) comesinto operation this number will increase to around1500. The facilities designed, built and operated byPSI are of world standing and hence enable researchto be carried out at the highest level. Efficient oper-ation of the installations and their further develop-ment together with competent support for externalusers ask for PSI's in-house research activities. Inorder to reach the necessary standard, PSI must beable to recruit personnel in competition with theuniversities. This also means appropriate flexibilityin terms of salaries. Because of the special care andsupervision offered, to say nothing of the infrastruc-ture and the research facilities, numerous doctoratestudents - in the year 2000 there were 240 - alsomake use of PSI. They normally need close supportfrom the PSI personnel. In this respect PSI has thecharacter of a Graduate School and should be treatedaccordingly - for example it should have the samepriority as the two ETHs as regards resource alloca-tion. When the Swiss Light Source, SLS, is in opera-tion, PSI will disburse more than 60% of its budgeton the operation, maintenance and further devel-opment of the research facilities. And this does notinclude PSi's essential in-house research. The SLS hasbeen primarily built and is operated with resourcesderived from an internal PSI reorganisation. The PSIbudget has tended to diminish year by year, andthis trend must be halted if PSI is to continue itssuccess into the future. Any further economy meas-ures would certainly have adverse repercussions onquality.

PSI engages mainly in large-scale projects with dis-tant time horizons. It is therefore hardly surprisingthat we are at present discussing projects which were

FOREWORD PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000

mooted last year and have now reached a new stageof development. The PSI's activities are so wide-rang-ing that only a few points can be mentioned in thisForeword. Further information will be found in thefollowing sections, and readers with specialist inter-ests can consult the detailed reports published bythe various PSI divisions.

The third stage of the SLS, the storage ring, wascommissioned with great success on 15th December2000. The SLS is the first machine in the intermedi-ate energy range, which generates also hard X-rayswith high brilliance. Until now this was an activityconfined to the existing high energy machines, ofwhich there are only three in the world. The SLShence covers both hard and soft X-ray regions withhigh brilliance. In addition, new concepts guaranteea high stability of the light at the SLS, and one spe-cial feature is the continuous injection of electrons.The high quality of the SLS provides new opportu-nities for top-level research. Thanks to the high bril-liance of the SLS, measurements can be performedon very small samples. For example, this means a def-inite quality advance in the field of protein research,because in this field it is often extremely difficult oreven impossible to grow large crystals. The start-upof the SLS project was personnel-wise not simple.However, we were successful in finding persons whohad high levels of technical and social skills. It ispeople who make all the difference! The fostering ofhuman resources deserves more than mere lip serv-ice. In the year 2001 PSI will lay great emphasis onpersonnel development. The realisation of the SLS isa paradigm for close cooperation of the different PSIdivisions, in which all those involved displayed co-responsibility for the entire project and were readyto give of their best. Rigorous controlling ensuredthat the work was completed on time and met allthe quality standards, thus guaranteeing the mile-stones of the project. Thanks to the sequential com-missioning of the three facilities, technical problemswere recognised at an early stage, and solved. Fur-thermore, a number of new technical concepts havebeen developed for the SLS, and have greatly aidedthe work of bringing the facilities into service.

The year 2000 has also brought good news aboutdemand for and extension of the SINQ neutronsource. There were seven instruments in operation,five of them throughout the entire operating time.The SINQ has thus matured into a neutron sourcewith a full user programme. Two further instrumentshave now reached the phase of commissioning. Inaddition, neutrons were utilised in seven further facil-ities in ways other than the method of neutron scat-tering, e.g., for particle physics and radiography.The spectrometers for neutron scattering were onaverage double overbooked. Roughly half the usersof the SINQ come from Switzerland, while half theremainder of the research applications come fromEuropean countries and the rest from other conti-nents. The neutron flux from the SINQ has beenroughly doubled as compared with the previous

The experimental hail at the SINQ

VI PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 FOREWORD

year. This improvement was achieved by the use of amore efficient target (the material in which the pro-tons release neutrons) made of lead, together withan increase in the primary proton intensity. A fur-ther increase in neutron flux will be realised withthe introduction of the liquid metal target, whichis under development in international collaborationwith numerous partners. The project is also sup-ported by the PSI division "Nuclear Energy andSafety". The reason is that this technique can also beof value in the process of "transmutation", in whichlong-lived isotopes from radioactive wastes can beconverted into other isotopes with shorter half-lives.This is an important subject in the field of nuclearenergy.

Another speciality of PSI is its muon beams. Muonsare elementary particles which are of outstandingvalue as magnetic probes for investigating the inte-rior of materials, for example, for determining mag-netic domains. The demonstration of such domainsin non-magnetic metals such as tin was achievedfor the first time in the report year. These resultshave aroused wide interest, because such unusualquantum effects are still entirely novel. The uniqueexperimental facilities at PSI are used by the world-wide largest muon research community comprising96 institutes and 21 countries.

Optoelectronic elements are essential in the field ofcommunication technology. Present day semicon-ductor technique is based primarily on silicon - it isthe established, cost-advantageous technique. Untilnow, however, it has been impossible to create opti-cal components on a silicon basis. In collaborationwith the ETH Zurich and the University of Neuen-burg, PSI, using an ingenious build-up of nanometer-thin layers of silicon and germanium, has created astructure which emits light when exposed to an elec-trical voltage. This is an important first step towardsthe solid-state laser in silicon technology.

Cancer therapy is - unfortunately - of great socialimportance. PSI has developed a novel treatmenttechnique with protons and up to the end of theyear 2000 72 patients have been treated. The resultsare extremely encouraging and international inter-

The proton therapy installation at PSI using the novel spot-scanning technique.

est in our method of radiotherapy is correspondinglygreat. We have therefore begun the project PRO-SCAN, with the purpose of enlarging proton therapyat PSI. The PSI technique, the so-called spot-scan-ning, is to be developed into a product suitable forhospital use and the PSI facility is to be extended.In this way more patients will be able to profitfrom the method, and research will be intensified.At the moment about a dozen clinics and hospitalsthroughout the world have shown interest in out-technology. To realise the project, PSI needs its ownmedical cyclotron for accelerating protons. However,PSI cannot finance the project from its own budgetresources alone. We hope - and on the basis of cur-rent results we are confident - that a further targetedfund-raising effort will bring in the extra resourcesnecessary.

FOREWORD PSt ANNUAL REPORT 2000 VII

In the year 2000 PSI has also presented new resultsin connection with the holistic view of energy sys-tems. The word holistic means that in life cycle ana-lyses emissions and material flows along the entirepathway must be taken into account. A detailedstudy has shown what the future options for Switzer-land in terms of energy supply are, if greenhouse gasemissions and the annual costs of energy produc-tion are taken into account; nuclear energy must cer-tainly not be neglected as a possible option. Anothermilestone, and one of which PSI can be proud, is themastering of the entire chain of the fuel cell - fromthe renewable fuel to the efficient energy conversionin the fuel cell itself. These projects are making goodprogress, and we are discussing the application ofour technology with partners in industry.

Technology transfer has also made gratifyingadvances at PSI in this report year. Exploitation ofthe technology of the zinc-air battery has been morethoroughly assessed from the economic point ofview. This led to a prize at the Business Plan Compe-tition of Venture 2000 and subsequently to a trans-fer contract with a company. We have also agreedterms for a further transfer in the field of batterytechnology. In the year 2000 we submitted morepatent applications, and we will also offer two SLStechnologies for wider commercial exploitation. Inthe fields of microtechnology and nanotechnologyPSI has entered into its first contract, which suc-cessfully transforms its user laboratory function forindustry - and further contracts will follow. Thanksto industry seminars and our presence at the Hano-ver Fair, many companies have gained access to thepotentialities and skills of PSI. Industry is becomingaware of PSI as a valuable partner. However, the dif-ferences in time horizons create difficulties for us:our research is time-wise intermediate or long-term,whereas industry wants a return on capital as soonas possible. These problems are particularly obviousin the field of sustainable energy supply. Anotherreason why technology transfer is not very simpleis the disparity between cultures. Private industry isinterested primarily in profits, while research is look-ing for new discoveries. The research culture some-times regards profit-orientated industry with suspi-

cion. At PSI, however, we are optimistic that theplanned revision of the ETH law will give us greaterentrepreneurial freedom and improvements in thisaspect.

In this research year PSI has also devoted muchthought to the long-term future of the institute. Wesee real prospects, in collaboration with the Law-rence Berkeley National Laboratory and the DESY inHamburg, of extending certain instruments of theSLS into a pulsed light source operating in the femto-second region. This would for example enable us toundertake direct study of the dynamics of fast bio-logical phenomena.

Lastly, just a few words of thanks. First of all, I shouldlike to thank the PSI personnel, without whom PSIwould be unable to announce any successes - every-thing depends on people. Further thanks go to allresearch committees, to the research commissionand to the advisory commission of PSI, as also tothe ETH council and to the Swiss federal parliament,through which we receive the greater part of ourresources.

Meinrad K. Eberle, Director

EVENTS 2000 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000

Events 2000

At the PS! Open Day

PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 EVENTS 2000

Wide Interestin Proton Therapy

The annual press conference of PSI held on

14.11.2000 was devoted to cancer therapy

with protons and aroused wide interest.

Reporters from the media, together with

representatives of the sponsors and the

medical profession, were deeply impressed

with the pioneering work of PSI, and this

was reflected in the favourable response

in the media. PSI has in fact developed

a unique irradiation technique which opti-

mally protects the healthy tissue in the

vicinity of the tumour. Since three years

this method of treatment has been used

with great success, and PSI now intends

to develop it for application in hospitals

so that the largest possible

number of cancer patients

can benefit from it. Special-

ists at PSI therefore have

started the project PRO-

SCAN. Prominent sponsors

have already offered their

support - and PSI hopes to

find others.


The First Light from the SLS

Construction of the Swiss Light Source, SLS, progressed according to plan in the year

2000, and just before Christmas the PSI specialists announced a further triumph. For the

first time, electrons were steered into the storage ring, where they circulated at the very

first attempt, and emitted synchrotron light. This was a magnificent accomplishment by

the PSI personnel; their competence and care ensured that this new complex installation

would be functioning by the end of the year 2000.


Open to All

At the proton therapy installation

. r j

More than 2500 people attended the PSI

Open Day in October 2000 to see the

".Stuff of the Art" at the Swiss Light

Suurcc, SLS, They also took the unique

opportunity of viewing with their own

eyes the installation for treating cancer

vviih protons, and they visited the psi

lunim. For many people this was not

their first visit to

this visitors centre;

improvements and

new features always

offer unexpected at-

tractions.

In the visitors centre psi forum


. * • • >

'itail-,7 •

. J

/n the year 2000 there was once again a wide variety of groups who took the opportunity

of visiting the PSI installations. A questionnaire showed that more than 75% of the visi-

tors were extremely satisfied with what they saw at PSI and that they had enjoyed their

visit.


A New Window Openingon to the Universe

The X-ray satellite XMM-Newton of the

ESA has been orbiting the Earth since the

end of 1999, and thanks to its high energy

resolution and its stability it has provided

unrivalled information about objects in the

universe. PSI made important contribu-

tions to the construction of this unique

space telescope and is now participating

in the research which has already yielded

novel results. The PSI group is interested in

the hot clouds of gas, the coronae, which

surround the stars in the distant universe,

just as the corona surrounds our sun. The

PSI researchers are fascinated by the qual-

ity of the data which XMM-Newton sends

back to Earth.


international Exchanges

in the year 2000 PSI organised an interna-

tional conference at Les Diablerets. It was

devoted to the potentialities of the Swiss

Light Source, SLS, and was the third in a

series which accompanies the construction

of the SLS with a scientific programme, if

research at the SLS is to be worldwide

at a very high level, close international

scientific exchanges, for example at such

conferences, is absolutely necessary. Lead-

ing representatives of various disciplines,

who utilise synchrotron radiation for their

research, reported on their latest results,

and informal conversations were also of

great value.

Participants at the SLS conference

• v—~

;;rJ&}'~£-M


Summer School for NeutronScattering

The eighth summer school in Zuoz was

held under the title "Neutron Scattering

in New Materials". It attracted about 80

participants from 14 countries to the Enga-

dine. The themes were materials research,

biology, magnetism and superconductivity.

Well known scientists presented the results

of neutron scattering and pointed out the

unique opportunities which will be availa-

ble to the user community from the middle

of 2001. By that time PSI will have avail-

able all three mutually complementary

research methods using neutrons, muons

and synchrotron light.


From Research toIndustrial Applications

Industrial Seminars at PSI

The developments achieved by PSI for its

large research installations have found

application in high technology products for

industry and economy. PSI was accordingly

present at the Hanover Fair in March 2000

in conjunction with other institutes of the

ETH domain. As an example, PSI presented

an innovative control of electrical power

supplies, which has been developed for

the magnets - over 600 in number - in

the SLS. This could be of great value in

other fields, for example, precise electric

drives as required by industrial robots,

crane drives and machine tools.

With the seminar series "Developments

and Methods of Interest to Industry", PSI

demonstrated that its installations and

skills can be of great value for industry.

The seminar held on the 3rd November

2000 dealt with surface technology. As at

the first two seminars, most of the rep-

resentatives from industry came from the

research and development departments of

companies and were seeking solutions for

concrete problems or required informa-

tion on novel technologies. These indus-

trial seminars have paved the way to new

possibilities for collaboration.

10 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 EVENTS 2000

Contemporary Music at PSl

Last year, four concerts of contemporary

classical music were held at an unexpected

venue, namely at PSl. The themes were:

"Music in the Digital Era", "Contemporaries

between Tradition and Progress", "The

Original Performance" and "Landscape

with Music from Our Times". These some-

what surprising joint meetings between

musicians and PSl proved of great value

for both sides. They were intended to allow

music and the sciences to unite and inter-

twine. As the audiences confirmed, they

were brilliantly suc-

cessful.

EVENTS 2000 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 11

Guests from the Worldof Politics

PSI had the pleasure of welcome not only

numerous researchers, but also represent-

atives from the world of politics. Some

prominent visitors are shown here:

The British Ambassador

-

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1-1

*

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* *

ii

ii

The representative of the Federal German

Ministry for Education and Research (left)

The Chinese Ambassador (right)

12 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 EVENTS 2000

Team-Work Required

J.

W/t/7 f̂ 7e ffloffo "F/f on the R;Ver" the

sports club and numerous other members

of PSI organised a party for PSI staff in the

year 2000. On the river Aare and around

the personnel restaurant Oase young and

old enjoyed themselves and took part in

imaginative competitions. Prizes were to

be won only by team-work!

?.!,• r :fr,-r

~vA.

*.'"

EVENTS 2000 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 13

More Space for Research

On 23rd August 2000 the foundation stone

for the new building and reconstruction of

a research laboratory was laid at Area East

of PSI. This project was approved in 1999

by the Swiss Federal Council as part of the

building application of the ETH domain. It

is planned to improve the cramped condi-

tions in the offices and laboratories of PSI.

The first stage of the new building had been

almost completed towards the end of 2000

in accordance with plan, and the building

should be ready for users in 2002.

- * *

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£ "• .

RESEARCH 2000 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 15

Research 2000

Solids and Materials

Particles and Matter

Biology and Medicine

Energy and Environment

Research in the Laser Laboratory of PSI

16 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 REASEARCH 2000


Working on Cooling withHigh Pressure

Temperature units:273.16 K (Kelvin) is equiva-lent to 0 °C (Celsius).

Temperaturemeasurement

The temperature of the cooling material is measured witha minute thermocouple while the pressure on the sample isaltered.

CoolingAT[K]

1.0 -

0.5

0.0 -

p=2.6 kbar

16 18 20Temperature T [K]

Measurements on a cooling material (cerium antimonide).When the pressure on the sample (in this case 2.6 kbar) isreleased, the crystal cools abruptly. Depending on the start-ing temperature (horizontal axis) the cooling (vertical axis) willvary; in this case it reaches a maximum of 1 K at around 20 K.

A PSI research group has developed a novel methodof cooling. It is based upon solid materials whichwhen exposed to pressure changes, abruptly altertheir magnetic properties and hence their tempera-ture. Such materials would be desirable for severalreasons: first, the efficiency of conventional coolingmethods, such as a refrigerator, is lower than 40%.Cooling by alterations in magnetism promises a con-siderably higher efficiency level. Secondly, researchfrequently requires very low temperatures (below1.5 K), which demand elaborate techniques withexpensive helium 3 (3He). Alternative methods wouldtherefore be of great interest. But first of all themeasurements provide valuable information regard-ing the magnetic properties of new materials underpressure.

The internal magnetic properties of a material cancertainly be modified by an external magnetic fieldand the material can thereby be cooled (magneto-caloric method). There are already prototypes thatutilise this effect. However, they require super-con-ducting magnets which in turn need cooling. ThePSI specialists have therefore attempted, for the firsttime and with some success, to produce cooling byexternal pressure instead of an external magneticfield (barocaloric method). Using a thermocouple,they make direct measurements of the cooling effectproduced by altering the pressure on the sample.By means of neutron scattering experiments at theSINQ they have also obtained valuable informationregarding the pressure dependence of the mag-netism of potential cooling materials. This mode ofcooling is novel and has been developed at PSIin collaboration with the Nobel Prize winner AlexMiiller. In the year 2000 the PSI research groupfocused on materials for cooling at temperaturesbelow 20 K. They observed such a cooling effect infive different materials, thereby obtaining the nec-essary insight for the search for further compoundswith even greater cooling effects.



How can a Metal Convertinto an Insulator?

Some materials such as ytterbium arsenide not onlyhave an exotic name but are themselves exotic. Atroom temperature this substance is metallic, in otherwords it is a conductor and has a gleaming appear-ance. On cooling it becomes an insulator. No currentflows, and the conduction electrons, so to speak,freeze up. This compound is the counterpart of asuperconductor, in which an electric current flowswithout resistance at low temperatures.

Which electrons contribute to conductivity and whyshould they "disappear" when the material is cooled?These questions have been answered by a researchgroup from PSI, working with this material. And thisis a matter of general interest, because the answerswill help to provide fundamental understanding ofwhat are known as correlated electron systems. Thisin turn is important for research in various fieldsincluding the generation of giant electrical resistancein some materials by an external magnetic field, orin connection with the mechanism of high tempera-ture superconductivity (see the following sections).

In the current report year the PSI group has beenperforming measurements at the ESRF in Grenoble(F) on a minute crystal of ytterbium arsenide (Yb4As3)with edge lengths of only 30 micrometers. Using anovel measuring technique, known as resonant syn-chrotron radiation, they have for the first time stud-ied directly the unfreezing of conductivity electrons,and were able to do this quantitatively and at anatomic level. The results show how many electronsbecome frozen on cooling, and reveal the sites atwhich they "freeze" and what influence this has onthe structure of the crystal. On comparing the meas-urements with two different sets of theoretical calcu-lations, it became clear that a new theory is neces-sary.

The measurements made with synchrotron light for the ma-terial ytterbium arsenide (Yb^Ass) show that at around 120K100% of the conducting electrons are frozen up. At aroundroom temperature all the electrons which are capable of sodoing suddenly begin to hop - the insulator changes into ametal.

Yb3+(A)

Conduction electrons:those electrons which canmove in the material andwhich are therefore responsi-ble for electrical conduction.

ESRF = European Synchro-tron Radiation Facility

Synchrotron radiation:electromagnetic radiationwhich is emitted by fast elec-trons when they fly alongcurved paths.

The structure of the crystalytterbium arsenide (Yb4As3).On cooling the electronsfreeze up, and on warmingthey begin to hop from thered atoms to the blue at-

100-

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40-

20-

—e— Measurement

........ Theory from structure

. - - - Basic Theory

i—|—i—i—i—|—i

120 160 200 240 280

Temperature F K] Room temp



Superconductors: Materialswhich conduct an electriccurrent without resistance.

High temperature super-conductors: Conduct electri-cal current without resistanceat higher temperatures thanordinary superconductors.

Isotopes: The same kind ofelements differing in atomicweight.

On the Trail of theMechanism of High Tempe-rature Superconductivity

Superconductivity depends on the pairing of electri-cal charge carriers in the material. However, special-ists are not yet agreed how this pairing takes placeunder conditions of high temperature superconduc-tivity. Now for the first time, researchers at the neu-tron source SINQ, using the instrument FOCUS havemeasured the so-called isotope effect of pairing ina high temperature superconductor. This effect wasthen the key experiment for the theory of ordinarysuperconductivity. The idea of pairing and of the iso-tope effect are illustrated in the picture of the tram-poline, which of course only shows a single aspect ofa complex reality (see next page).

Because all high temperature superconductors con-tain as their essential elements oxygen and copper,the PSI researchers took such a material and replacedthe oxygen 16 by the heavier oxygen 18, and like-wise copper 63 by copper 65. They then measuredthe temperature at which pairing took place in eachmaterial. With the material containing the heavieratoms this in fact ensued at a higher temperature,but the effect was ten times stronger than expected!In the case of oxygen the pairing temperature roseby 50 °C, and in the case of copper by 25 "C.

These new results underpin the theoretical modelswhich in principle underlie the discovery of hightemperature superconductors by the Nobel Prizewinners Muller and Bednortz.

Wiring of the FOCUS neutron spectrometer, with which novelmeasurements can be performed, measurements which arepossible only at the SINQ neutron source.


Measurements of the isotopeeffect on pairing in a hightemperature superconductor.Replacement of copper 63by the heavier copper 65 dis-plays the effect very clearly,and the effect of oxygen iseven greater.

50 100: 150 200 250

Temperature [K]

300 350 400

As on a trampoline:pairing and isotope effect in superconductors

When a person steps on to a trampoline, the tensionedelastic sheet sinks down, and a second person of thesame weight will produce the :same effect at anothersite (a and b). However, if both persons position them-selves close together as a pair (c) the elastic sheet willbe more severely deformed, and the pair will sink deep-er down. Expressed in physical terms: the conditionbrought about b*y.\pairing is more, stable. This is whathappens in superconductivity by the pairing of electri-cal charge carriers:ithe elastic sheet corresponds to theframework of the atoms and the persons correspondtOithe charge carriers, if the elastic sheet is displacedso that it undergoes oscillations of sufficient magnitude(dj« the pairs will be separately flung away. Somethingsimilar happens with the charge carriers in a supercon-ductor.: C3nly at lowsterriperatures are they paired. Atthe so-called "spring" temperature the pairing disap-pears. If the elastic sheet is less elastic and thereforeoscillates less freely, the pairs will tend to remain to-gether. In the atomic framework of a superconductingmaterial itliiscan be achieved, for example, by replace-ment of atoms by the same but heavier atoms (iso-topes). The material will then be less elastic and thepairing willpersist even up to higher temperatures: thisis the isotope effect.



Nanostructures: StableMagnetic Storage Devices?

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state-

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Transition stale

ii

short

lonrj

End state

Magnetisation reversal in magnetic nanostructures. In suffici-ently thin magnetic nanowires, magnetisation varies only alongthe wire. By applying an external magnetic field, the initial sta-te (left) - e.g. "0"~ is transformed into the end state - e.g. " 1 " .Thermal fluctuations may also cause spontaneous magnetisa-tion reversal, because the transition state arising in long wires(soliton-antisoliton pairs) is not uniform and has a low energybarrier.

Magnetic data storage is omnipresent; we need it forstoring a document on the hard disk or for calling upa website. The items of information are stored in theorientation of magnetised volume elements, and intoday's data storage devices each of these containsroughly 100 million atoms. The two opposed orien-tations of magnetisation are separated by an energybarrier and correspond to the logical zeros and ones(bits). Attempts to reduce the size of data storagedevices have now encountered a limit: the smallerthe volume of the individual bit, the lower is the bar-rier. If it contains only about one thousand atoms,because of temperature induced fluctuations, themagnetisation will flip spontaneously between thetwo bit states - a catastrophe for data storage.

New ideas are now focusing on materials in whichthe bits are stored in individual nanoparticles (onenanometer = one millionth of a millimetre). Toachieve maximum density and a maximum barrierbetween the bit states, magnetisation within anindividual particle should be uniform. It is thereforeimportant to know, when the magnetisation in theelongated nanoparticles will remain uniform or whenchanging domain structures will appear during mag-netisation reversal. Calculation of the relevant energybarriers in nanoparticles is exceedingly complicated.The solid state physics theory group of PSI hasnevertheless for the first time successfully performedanalytical calculations on this topic. These show, forexample, that in elongated nanoparticles fluctuatingdomain walls with low barriers will appear. Elongatednanoparticles are therefore less stable than those ofother shapes, e.g., spheroidal. Numerical simulationsby a group at the University of Duisburg have con-firmed the analytical theory of the PSI group.

Simulations of magnetisation. The theoretical predictions ofthe PSI research group have been substantiated by directsimulations of magnetisation dynamics. This illustration of thenon-uniform magnetisation in an elongated nanoparticle wasmade available by courtesy of D. Hinzke and U. Nowak of theUniversity of Duisburg.



Giant Resistanceby Magnetic Fields

Manganese oxides have been attractive subjects forresearch, evoking great interest for several years. Thereason is the gigantic and sudden change in resist-ance which occurs in some compounds of man-ganese oxide when an external magnetic field isapplied. Researchers are seeking explanations forthis effect. First, it could become of great impor-tance for industrial applications, because suchmaterials might for example be of greatvalue in the readout of magnetic stor-age devices or for the switching ofelectrical signals. Secondly, experi-mental work with such materialshas provided fundamental, andaccording to specialists even spec-tacular, new discoveries regard-ing the connections betweenmagnetisation, crystal structuresand transport properties.

120

14.5 14.5

Using both synchrotron light atthe ESRF and neutrons at ILL, one group at PSI haspainstakingly studied the structural and magneticproperties of a material (Ndo.7Cao.3MnC>3), which inview of its composition is a potential candidate fora giant resistance change in response to an externalmagnetic field. Yet the material showed no effect ofthat kind. Even down to extremely low temperaturesit remained an insulator. Synchrotron light makespossible an especially good angular resolution andhence the measurement of very small irregularitiesand changes in the material structures. And the spe-cialists have found minute alterations of the scatterpattern during the course of irradiation with syn-chrotron light, from which they conclude that a cer-tain structure in the material under examination hasdisintegrated. This phenomenon is highly tempera-ture-dependent and occurs only below 30 K. Sometime previously, it was measured in other manganeseoxide compounds and was explained in terms of thesimultaneous existence of an insulating state and ametallic state. However, this model is not applicableto the material under examination, and a search forexplanations is still in progress.

15.7 16.3 16.9 17.5 18.1

Scattering angle 2Q [°]

18.7

These measurements show the changes in the scattering pat-tern in a sample of Ndo.7Cao.3Mn03 during the course of irra-diation with synchrotron light. It is only by the unusually goodangular resolution that the changes in the scattering patternsof synchrotron light become recognisable.

, '•}r ^



A Milestone on the Roadto the Silicon Laser

The semiconductor group of PSI has succeeded infabricating alternating structures, exactly adaptedon one another, from layers of silicon and silicon/germanium; these emit light when exposed to elec-trical stimulation. In this way, the researchers havefor the first time applied the concept of so-calledquantum cascades (see diagram) to silicon. This isa fundamental milestone on the road to a siliconlaser, a milestone which attracted worldwide atten-tion and opened the possibility of fabricating minutelasers based on silicon. This is of crucial importancefor the further development of microelectronics andcould revolutionise modern communications tech-nology. There are, of course, already laser diodes ofother materials, but the achievement of the researchgroup at PSI could be the key to a silicon semicon-ductor technique with optically active elements such

as light-emitting diodes and lasers. In this way itmight be possible to integrate microelectronic con-trols and light sources on the same chip.

These novel light-active elements, developed by thePSI group together with researchers from the Uni-versity of Neuenburg and the ETH Zurich, are basedon the fact that structures of nanometer dimensions(one nanometer = 1 millionth of a millimetre) displaytotally different behaviour from that of larger struc-tures: quantum effects come into play and activatedcharge carriers will hence emit light. Many problemsstill remain to be solved, but the specialists considerthat the nanostructures fabricated at PSI point to apracticable route to the first quantum cascade laserbased on silicon.

>=—$!>- current flowquantum transition

* quantum barrier emitted photons

Quantum cascades. The photograph of a transmission electron micro-scope (right) shows the layer structure of silicon and silicon/germanium.They form a series of so-cailed quantum pots - a quantum cascade(above). The charge carriers (electrons or "holes") are enclosed in thequantum pots by barriers. On application of an electrical field, how-ever, they pass from one pot into the other. They then change theirstate in quantum leaps, thereby emitting the desired light in well de-fined portions - in light quanta.

reco

Si

SiSi

Si

Si

Photo left: In the Laboratory for Micro- and Nanostructures of PSI



The End of the KARMENParticle

Pion: elementary particlewith medium mass; belongsto the mesons

Myon: elementary particlevery similar to the electronbut heavier

KARMEN =KArlsruhe-Butherford-Medium-Energy-Neutrino-detector

Neutrino: an uncharged andperhaps massless elementaryparticle

Energy units:1 eV = 1 electron Voltis that energy which an elec-tron acquires when it passesthrough a potential differenceof! Volt.1 keV = 1000 eV1 MeV= 1000 keV1 GeV = 1000 MeV

The experimental apparatus at PSI for the search for the KAR-MEN particle. Below left the figure shows the beamline for thedecay of the pion and above right the apparatus for the studyof the myons.

* *\ K ^ v X V'-1 •

'-*- it ' ' . S

-*r<

Using a refined experimental idea and a highlyingenious piece of apparatus, a PSI research grouphas achieved a result of high precision concerninga hypothetical elementary particle. They carefullymeasured the decay of positively charged pions, inthis way discovering besides the myon a possible newparticle - or excluding its existence. The KARMENgroup at the Rutherford Laboratory in England pos-tulated such an elementary particle a few years agowhen they obtained unexpected results from neutri-nos with their giant experimental apparatus. Theyexplained these by assuming that the pion very occa-sionally decays into a myon and the hypotheticalKARMEN particle, and that the latter has a mass of33.9 MeV, and is electrically neutral and unstable.

And it was just the mass of this postulated particlewhich puzzled the researchers at PSI. They hadindeed previously measured the mass differencebetween pion and myon to a high degree of accu-racy-and found that this amounts to 33.91157 MeV,this being practically identical with the postulatedmass. This offered a unique experimental possibilityby which they could find the new particle or excludeits existence with a high degree of probability. Intheir experiment the PSI group made optimal useof this peculiarity of the mass of the hypotheticalparticle. Their measurements have now been evalu-ated, and the results rebut with great precision the

hypothesis that the KARMEN particleexists: according to the findings ofthe PSI researchers, the probabilitythat the decay of the pion will giverise to a myon and a KARMEN particleis vanishingly small, namely less than6x10"10 (60 billionths) - which maywell mean the end for that particle.

In a theoretical study, the same PSIgroup has found and recently pub-lished a plausible explanation for whatwas observed at the Rutherford Labo-ratory in England.

. . •" tun



Magnetic Domains inNonmagnetic Metals

Nonmagnetic metals such as silver, beryllium or tincan develop macroscopic magnetic areas, so-calleddomains, in their interior. For this to happen theymust be of high purity and must be in the form of asingle crystal. Furthermore, the effect occurs only atextremely low temperatures of less than 1 K (-272°C)and in very strong magnetic fields of 2 to 3 tesla.The reason for this is the quantum effects and reso-nance phenomena of the movements of electrons inthe metal, which so to speak freeze.

Even though this does not at present seem to offerany direct practical applications, the scientists wantto understand this magnetisation in the interior ofmetals. The properties of these unique quantumphenomena - although of great interest to basicresearch - are totally unknown in detail. The tem-peratures and magnetic fields at which the domainsemerge will also provide valuable new informationregarding the structure of the electrons of metals.Magnetic domains are even under consideration inconnection with stellar magnetic fields.

For the study of these magnetic domains withinmetals, the only experimental method offering anyprospect of success seems to be the performanceof measurements with myons as magnetic probes -myon spectroscopy. Using beryllium in this way, aPSI research group has already succeeded not onlyin demonstrating domains, but also in studying theproperties and modes of behaviour of the materialover a wide range of temperatures and magneticfields. The PSI group has now for the first timeobserved the formations of domains in tin. The resultshows a domain structure with two different internalmagnetic fields.

Myons can measure the magnetic fields in the interior of a ma-terial. The new result for the metal tin (Sn) shows that undera defined external field (horizontal axis) there are two valuesfor the internal magnetic field (vertical axis). The diagram onthe right depicts the corresponding structure of the magneticdomains.

One of the PSI installations for experiments with the techniqueof myon spectroscopy



Results of Proton Therapyat PSI

Since November 1996 72 patients with deep-seatedtumours have been irradiated with protons by thespot-scanning method on the gantry of the PSI.

In 60 of these 72 patients the PSI specialists gavecurative treatment, i.e., treatment with the intentionto cure. As regards the types of tumours and the sitesof their occurrence, the largest group comprised 24tumours of the skull base, the vertebral column andthe sacrum. These were tumours of the kind whicharise from connective tissue such as bone or carti-lage cells, the so-called chordomas and chondro-sarcomas. These tumours require a high radiationdose, and it has to be administered with great pre-cision. Protons are therefore the preferred mode of

Transverse section at the level of the eyes, showing the tumourand the planned distribution of the therapeutic dose. This pa-tient had become almost totally blind, but she was referred toPSI for proton therapy with the spot-scanning technique andhas regained almost normal vision.

irradiation. There were 15 patients who were suf-fering from meningiomas, these being tumours ofthe membranes surrounding the brain which canlead to serious symptoms such as loss of vision. Inone case, now 18 months after irradiation, a mostimpressive response to therapy can be reported. Afemale patient with almost total loss of vision dueto a large meningioma between the eyes now hasalmost normal visual acuity. Twenty-one patientshave been irradiated with protons for tumours of thebrain, soft tissues (sarcomas), the paranasal sinuses,the head and neck region, and the prostate. In 59out of 60 patients local control of the tumour hasbeen achieved.

During the year 2000, in the OPTIS programme,236 patients have been irradiated at PSI for tumoursof the eye. The excellent results of proton therapyfor melanomas of the choroid located at the opticfundus are yet another highlight in cancer therapy:98 % tumour control is a result equal to the bestthat can nowadays be achieved in the fight againstcancer.

At this Gantry the first 72 patients received their proton thera-py with the Spot-Scanning method of PSI.



Ready for Clinical Trial

Model of a neurotensin derivative into which a technetiumatom (violet) has been incorporated. The dark grey spheresrepresent carbon atoms, the red are oxygen, the light blueare hydrogen and the dark blue are nitrogen. The histidinealso bound to the technetium is essential for the stable linkageof the technetium, while the remaining components (aminoacids) serve to bind the neurotensin to the tumour cell.

The studies of the radiopharmaceutical departmentat PSI are directed towards clinical applications.Their objective is the diagnosis and treatment ofijumours, and in particular of metastatic cancers. Intheir approach, which has already been developedfor tumours of various kinds, the PSI specialists intro-duce a radioactive atom into an appropriate biolo-gical moiecule, in this instance technetium for diag-nosis and rhenium for the treatment of cancer. Thebiomolecule, for example an antibody or an anti-body fragment, functions as a vehicle which couplesselectively with the tumour cells. When the radioac-tive atom decays, it emits a signal which can be usedfor diagnostic purposes, or in the case of therapy itwill destroy the tumour cell.

The latest results concern the diagnosis and subse-quently the therapy of cancer of the pancreas. ThePSI research group utilises a substance known as neu-rotensin as the vehicle, and has successfully incorpo-rated technetium into it for diagnostic use. Nativeneurotensin is an unstable molecule which couplesto specific receptors. Roughly 70 % of patients withpancreatic carcinoma possess the receptor for neuro-tensin. Over the last few years the PSI specialists haveprogressively improved the stability and other char-acteristics of neurotensin by making targeted modi-fications. Matters have now reached the stage whereclinical trials in patients can commence at the begin-ning of 2001.

The PSI research group is the first in the world toundertake clinical trials with this product for diag-nostic purposes. If these are successful, rhenium willbe incorporated into neurotensin for the treatmentof pancreatic carcinoma.

With the aid of this modern equipment, the PSI research grouphas been able to investigate the stability of various neurotensinderivatives. The results provided a crucial criterion for the de-velopment of a good radioactive preparation. The radioactivecompound is located within the lead shielding, coloured red.The chemist prepares the injection of a nonradioactive refer-ence solution, so as to check that the apparatus is functioningfaultlessly.



Why go Fishing for IndividualMolecules?

Coordination of living organisms,for example the regulation ofmetabolism, the communicationof cells with one another, orimmune reactions, are based onthe lock-and-key principle. Thatmeans, so-called receptors recog-nise their complementary part-ners (ligands) bind them andform a complex. For example,our immune system producesspecial proteins known as anti-bodies, which bind selectivelyforeign molecules entering thebody (antigens) and render themharmless. The fundamental un-derstanding of such interactionswith all the human proteins sofar known - and they amount toseveral tenthousands - is crucialfor medicine, pharmacy and bio-chemistry.

For this reason PSI researchers, in cooperation withgroups from the universities of Zurich and Basel,have developed a unique research method. Theymeasure the force required to break one individualcomplex. For this purpose they anchor moleculeson a surface and the complementary partners areimmobilized on a microscopically small fishing rod,namely at the apex of a scanning (electron) micro-scope. When this tip comes close to the surface it willfind the partner molecules and bind them. By tearingit off, the researcher can measure the force requiredto separate them. For the first time, the group hasdirectly demonstrated that the disruptive forces areprogressively higher in complexes with larger lifetimes. This discovery is new and the method isunique. Measurement of the disruptive force hasmade possible some fundamental experiments, andthese studies have proven, that individual moleculescan not only be manipulated but also quantitativelymeasured. This is important for examination of struc-tures in nanotechnology.

Illustration showing the unique method of fishing for individualmolecules and thus measuring the binding forces directly.(Picture: H.R. Bramaz)



More Climate-Friendly intothe Future?

Greenhouse gas emissions in Mio. tonsCO2-equivalent per year

40

35

30-

25-

20-

15

1 fossil

2 nuclear3 fossil/economy

State of 1990 , . „ measures— — — - j a f * ^ " " ; —Goal Kyoto 2010 H+ ' • - -« -

4 nuclear/economy measures/renewable ^

12,5 13,0 13,5 14,0 14,5 15,0 15,5 16,0Costs per year in Mia. CHF

Costs and greenhouse gas emissions in the year 2030 forvarious scenarios for energy supply in Switzerland.The letters A to I within the four option groups signify differingproportions of the various energy techniques.

For further information: www.psi.ch/gabe.From: "Energiespiegel No. 2/March 2000". Published by andavailable from: Paul Scherrer Institute

If Switzerland wants sustainable supplies of electricalenergy and heat in accordance with the Kyotoconvention, hydraulic power and other renewableenergy sources will not be sufficient. A team from PSIhas therefore put various energy supply scenariosfor the year 2030 under the microscope, and hasalso investigated the use of heat pumps, combinedheat and power plants and combined power sta-tions. The scenarios have been summarised in fouroptions, differing in terms of greenhouse gas emis-sions and annual costs.

These studies show that none of the options is freefrom disadvantages. In considering ways of reduc-ing greenhouse gas emissions we must also take intoaccount all other domains, especially traffic, which inSwitzerland is responsible for about one-third of CO2emissions.

Option 1: If we abandonnuclear energy and Sup-plement hydraulic pow-er by predominantly fos-sil fuels, the supplies willbe cost effective, butas compared with 1990there will be a dramaticincrease in greenhousegas emissions.

Option 2: Even if wecontinue with more orless the current mix ofhydraulic power and nu-clear: energy, because:of the forecast 1 1 % in-crease in heat demandand 30% increase indemand•:•'•• for electricity,greenhouse gas emis-sions will increase slightlyas compared with 1990,

Option 3: If heating re-quirements, thanks: toeconomy measures, were10% smaller than in1990, if demand for elec-tricity remained at thepresent level and thecontribution made bynew sources of renewa-ble energy was markedlyhigher, greenhouse; gasemissions would evenfall slightly below thelevel of 1990; even ifwe abandoned nuclearenergy and generated alarge part of our require-ments from fossil fuels.However, costs would beconsiderably higher.

Option 4: A large re-duction in greenhousegas emissions could beachieved by option 4, us-ing nuclear power gener-ation combined with thesame economy meas-ures and renewable ̂ en-ergy sources as in option3. Costs would adrnit-tedlyibje;still higher.



A Good Idea for MoreEfficient Cooling

Neutron sources such as the SINQ at PSI contain aso-called target, in other words, a material in whichthe protons from the accelerator are stopped andneutrons are released. Optimal cooling is essential.Concepts based on a liquid metal target are nowa-days favoured, because it does not require any addi-tional coolant which would reduce the neutron yield.Liquid metal targets made of a lead-bismuth alloyhave attracted great international interest. Thesewould make it possible not only to increase the neu-tron flux at the SINQ, but could also be applied ininternational projects like Accelerator Driven Systems(ADS) for the transmutation of Actinides.

In collaboration with around ten other research cen-tres, PSI is carrying out the project MECAPIE for thispurpose. The objective is to use the high intensityproton beam of PSI in the SINQ to demonstrate thata liquid target of lead and bismuth is feasible. Thereare plans for it to be incorporated in the SINQ in theyear 2004, and this will increase the neutron flux byaround 50% compared to now.

To visualise how such a target will look and whetherthe cooling will function, PSI specialists are per-forming highly complex calculations of fluid dynam-ics (diagram). As the effect of the intenseproton beam cannot be prospectively sim-ulated in an experiment, this calculationwill have to be exceedingly trustworthyand nothing of the kind has so far beenattempted. Cooling is particularly critical atthe point where the proton beam impingeson the window. The idea conceived bythe PSI researchers to solve this problem isbased on an asymmetrical arrangement ofthe inputs (bypass). Results of the calcula-tions in the previous year have shown thatthis will in fact lead to more effective cool-ing. Thanks to the appropriate asymmetry,there will no longer be any congestion atthe lowest window margin, but instead aneffective crossflow.

MEGAPIE = MEGAwattPilot Experiment;

ADS (Accelerator DrivenSystem):a reactor for transmutation ofactinides or for energy pro-duction which is driven by aproton accelerator and henceoperates without a self sup-porting chain reaction.

Transmutation ofActinides: Transmutation oflong-lived radioactive wastesinto shorter-lived elements.

The proton beam impingesfrom below on to the win-dow of the target vessel.An asymmetrical circulationthrough a bypass (left) willhave great advantages. Ascompared with a symmetri-cal design (right), the arrowsrepresenting the velocity ofthe liquid in the lowest re-gion of the window are larg-er and are directed obliquely,i.e., the liquid will flow fasterand will hence cool more ef-fectively.



How Rapidly do CorrosionCracks grow?

Envelope of all datasec disposition line

U

10-5

10-6

10"? •

10-8 .

1 0 -9 •

0- . llWnff » ,ffl».ff°1 . , . i . i .

10"

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

[MPa • mVq

Rates of crack growth in reactor pressure vessel steels at stresscorrosion cracking (sec). These data were obtained under theconditions existing in a light water reactor and depend on themechanical loading at the crack apex (horizontal axis). Thegreen disposition line is upon the new qualified experimentsunder quasi-operating conditions, especially under controlledcooling water chemistry.

During the operation of a nuclear power stationcracks might be initiated and grow in the compo-nents of the primary circulation (crack corrosion).These are due to the influence of the cooling liquidand the thermal and mechanical stresses. Unlessthese cracks are detected in good time by regularchecks, they may have catastrophic consequences.

However, of all the various ageing mechanisms, crackcorrosion is the one least well understood. A researchgroup at PSI is therefore seeking answers to ques-tions such as: Under what conditions will cracks ariseand grow? How quickly will they extend? Do theyendanger the safety e.g. of the reactor pressurevessel? Are the safety margins adequate? Working aspart of an international team, the PSI group has stud-ied the growth of corrosion cracks in steel samples inhot water circuits; this has been done under condi-tions close to those existing in light water reactors(LWR), as operated in Switzerland.

This work has led to the world's most extensiveexperimental database on crack growth in the steelsused for reactor pressure vessels. From the results thePSI specialists conclude that in LWR during continu-ous operation there are no hazards from stress corro-sion cracking, provided all the directives are adheredto. These results also fit in with the new dispositionline for stress corrosion cracking (diagram) and willrectify uncertainties in earlier measurements. Thesestudies at PSI will give the supervisory authorities abasis for assessing the safety and for appraising theintervals between periodical checks, and will in thisway contribute to the safer operation of the Swissnuclear power stations.

RESEARCH 2000 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000


Aerosol Measurements onthe jungfraujoch

Working at the Jungfraujoch high altitude researchstation, the PSI measured the effect of the finest dustparticles, so-called aerosol particles, on the earth'sclimate. These aerosol particles are less than a 1000th

of a miilimetre in size and are nowadays at the fore-front of climate research, because they might con-ceivably counteract the greenhouse effect. Little isyet known about these correlations. This research isbeing carried out under the auspices of the GlobalAtmosphere Watch Programme (GAW) of the WorldMeteorological Organisation.

This research activity comprises two areas. Since1995 various aerosol properties have been continu-ously recorded at closely defined time intervals, so asto detect any long term trends. Secondly, intensivemeasurement campaigns are in progress using themost modern methods to study the aerosol particlesand their implication on the climate. For example, inspring 2000 one of the research projects was basedupon a unique piece of apparatus developed by thePSI group, the first of its kind in the world. This

was used for the first time to measure condensationof water on aerosol particles at temperatures belowzero degrees Centigrade.

The research projects at the jungfraujoch have con-firmed that aerosol particles have repercussions onthe climate. Fine soot particles, though water repel-lant at low altitudes, behave differently at the Jung-fraujoch. They obviously undergo enormous chemi-cal and physical changes during their journey fromlow levels to high altitudes - a journey that maytake several hours to several days. Above all, atthese altitudes they become much more wettableby water and can hence act as condensation nucleifor cloud droplets. Additional condensation nucleiproduce more numerous but smaller cloud dropletsand hence, so to speak, more compact clouds. Thisin turn has effects on the radiation economy of theearth, the reason being that such clouds scatter moresunlight into space and cause local cooling of theatmosphere.

These researchers are installing an apparatus on the jungfraujoch with which they are able to meas-ure the differing sizes of aerosol particles.



How can Diesel Engines beMade Cleaner?

Acetal: an oxygen-contain-ing diesel fuel additive

lxlO'13 seconds = 1/10"' ofa millionth of a millionth ofa second

Ji Tf

Methylal is a good candidate as a fuel additive in diesel en-gines. However, detailed studies and more exact knowledgewill be necessary before such acetals can be optimally utilisedand made available for everyday use. This scientist is studyingthese questions in the PSI laser laboratory.

So as to improve the environmental aspects of adiesel engine, various modifications will be neces-sary, among them a massive reduction in the sootcomponent of the exhaust gases. One possibility isthe admixture of oxygen-containing substances, theso-called acetals (e.g., methylal) to the diesel fuel.These substances break down into highly reactivecomponents (e.g. radicals) which are responsible forthe ignition of the flame, and if this occurs rapidlyenough - i.e., before the commencement of dieselcombustion - their oxygen will be available for bettercombustion. This will mean less soot formation, pro-vided the correct radicals predominate. Such mecha-nisms are not yet fully understood, although numer-ous research groups are working on this topic, andmotor manufacturers and fuel suppliers are highlyinterested.

Working in close conjunction, specialists from PSIand the ETH Zurich are therefore investigating oxy-gen-containing fuel additives in various ways: directlyin the diesel engine, in a high pressure combustioncell, in a flame and in a beam of molecules. OnePSI group, for example, is studying the complicatedsequences and the breakdown of individual mole-cules using laser measurement methods. They wantto know why and how acetals can minimise sootemissions from a diesel engine. But why chose acetalssuch as methylal? Because these could be used evenin existing diesel engines, they are nontoxic andhave an environmentally friendly profile. Further-more, methylal can relatively easily be manufacturedfrom renewable sources (biomass).

The group has now shown that methylal decom-poses promptly, and the formaldehyde intermediateis formed within 10"13 seconds at most. To observesuch rapid processes is a unique achievement, andfor the first time has provided direct confirmation ofthe surmise that less soot will be formed in the pres-ence of a high formaldehyde content in the combus-tion mixture.



Oxides of Nitrogen fromTraffic: Poisons or Fertilisers?

How much nitrogen do plants take up from the airthrough their leaves and how much from the soil?What are the effects on the plants? How far shall wehave to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions from trafficand industry if they are to be made tolerable for theenvironment? These questions are under study by aresearch group of PSI. In the year 2000 it has furtherdeveloped the assay methods used for analysing thestable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen insamples from plants and air.

They have shown for the first time that gaseousoxides of nitrogen from the air do indeed have a fer-tilizing effect on plants just as efficient as nitrogenfrom the soil. However, water loss from the plants isconsiderably less when they take up nitrogen in gas-eous form. More oxides of nitrogen therefore meanimprovement or optimisation of carbon-water bal-ance! This confirms, then, the growth of biomassinduced by nitrogen oxides, and at first sight thiswould seem highly favourable. However, in responseto extra nitrogen uptake via the leaves, the over-ground parts of the plant will grow more vigorously

Stable isotopes: stablevariants of the same element,but differing in atomicweight.

than the roots, and the outcome can be that theplant will suffer from water and nutrient deficiencies.Furthermore, its anchorage in the soil may be weak-ened.

Nitrogen from the air therefore has direct implicationfor the growth and water metabolism of the plantsand can lead to diminished cooling of the atmos-phere due to decreased evaporation. In combina-tion with the increasing atmospheric CO2 concentra-tion, however, the long-term consequences are stilllargely unknown. To assess the long-term effects ofvarious environmental factors on plant metabolisms,the PSI group has developed a concept based on theobservation of isotope ratios. Such appraisals haveup to now been feasible only within very narrowlimits.

NO,N i l

•« ( ) ,

NO.

' • " '

• • • O , Along the A1 autobahn, Bernto Zurich, scientists from PSIand the University of Bernexamined plant samples andfound that the trees takeup oxides of nitrogen (NOX)emitted by road traffic, andthat this has effects on plantmetabolism.

PSI: THE USER LABORATORY PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 37

PSI: theUser Laboratory

Around the Ring Accelerator

Injector I

Research with Myons

The Neutron Source SINQ

The Swiss Light Source, SLS

Services at the PSI accelerators

38 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 PSI: THE USER LABORATORY


Reliability Takes First Place

Proton beam intensity: isexpressed as current: 2mA(milliamperes) are equivalentto around 1.3 1016 protonsper second.

Myon: heavy electron

Pion: an elementary particleof intermediate mass.

In the year 2000 PSI received approval to operatethe ring accelerator at a new maximum proton beamintensity of 2 mA. Thanks to its wide experiencegained during previous intensity increases, the teamwas now ready to follow the road towards furtherworld records of power. During these developments,great skill is required to keep losses of protons, andhence activation of the components, to a minimum.As early as the summer of 2000 the team was ableto operate the accelerator routinely at 1.8 mA. Thehigh point was a week in which the availability ofthe proton beam for experiments was 97%, and inwhich the total proton number was equal to thatdelivered in the entire year of 1978. Also in summer2000 the team was successful in a second step,reaching a short-term intensity of 2.0 mA, once againa world record. To ensure reliability, however, theaccelerator was then operated at around 1.7 mA.

The availability of the ring accelerator and the mean intensityof the proton beam for each operating week in 2000.

• mean time availability % i mean using availability % mean current

100-

90-

80-

70-

60-

50-

40-

30-

20-

10-

0-14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 •

week42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

mA

- 1.8

- 1.7

• 1.6

- 1.5

- 1.4

• 1.3

- 1.2

r 1 . 1

[ 1.0Lo.9-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

uO.1

0



Particle Physics: Bigger andBigger Experiments

The number of experiments in elementary particlephysics performed with the PSI accelerator is nowa-days smaller, but each separate experiment is moreextensive. Roughly 20 to 25 physicists from all partsof the world take part in an experiment, and theactual duration of measurements extends from oneto several months. In this report year some of theseresearch groups have been highly successful in datataking and have completed their measurements. Oneexample is the group which is searching for the for-bidden decay of the myon into an electron, whileanother group is studying the decay of the chargedpion into the neutral pion. After years of preparingwork, other research groups have also completedtheir studies with highly successful measurements inthe year 2000. The researchers are now analysingtheir data, and we can therefore expect that the year2001 will bring a series of important research resultsin particle physics.

~--37% Switzerland""-- (of which 13% PSI)

21 % other European states*"- 21 % USA/Canada" - -12% Russia*>• 9% japan

At the present time thereare 202 physicists engagedin experimental work onparticle physics at PSI.

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Careful work on the development and maintenance of com-ponents is an essential precondition for the peak quality of thePSI accelerator.


Injector I

A Useful Tool for Physics orChemistry

The Iniektor I

Set-up on Injector I, used to determine the structures of inter-mediate-mass atomic nuclei. This apparatus - a spectrometer-can measure the energy of electrons. Specially shaped coilsgenerate a magnetic field which focuses the emitted electronsmuch more effectively.

Injector I is an accelerator with diverseapplications. Here are a few questionsand answers of the research commu-nity of Injector I:

In nuclei having three building blocks(nucleons), is there any special forcethat comes into play only when thethird particle is present? Experimentswith Injector I have not only con-firmed that this force plays an impor-tant role, but have also provided dataof such high quality that they can beused to test theoretical models. Do

intermediate-mass atomic nuclei look more like acigar or like a plate? The structure and hence thegeometric shape of the nuclei can be determinedwith the aid of a highly sensitive apparatus whichmeasures the energy of the electrons emitted (spec-trometer). Can the structures of intermediate-massnuclei be correctly predicted from considerations ofsymmetry? Detailed measurements with Injector Ihave for the first time contributed to a coherentpicture of certain platinum and gold nuclei. And ithas now become perfectly clear that a symmetrymodel correctly reproduces the nuclear structures.Do newly discovered heavy elements fit into theperiodic table? Experiments performed on Injector Iconfirm this. Heavy nuclei of this kind can be gen-erated and observed only under exceptional con-ditions, and this work demands unique equipmentand detectors. These measurements have to be per-formed on individual atoms, because only a few suchnuclei are generated every week.


Research with Myons

PSI instruments in Interna-tional Demand

Research with myon beams and the special equip-ment of PSI - using the uSR method - was onceagain in great demand in the year 2000. Sixty-fiveout of the 84 approved experiments were allottedmeasurement time on a myon beam line. Around220 researchers from 96 institutes and 21 countriesparticipated in these measurements. At the presenttime most of the experiments are concerned withthe study of magnetism (71 %) and superconduc-tivity (25%). In the year 2000 researchers of theuSR user community once again published interest-ing results in the fields of high temperature super-conductors, semiconductors, magnetism and chem-istry.

Twenty-one of the experiments are new, in otherwords they were approved by the uSR research com-mittee at the user meeting in 1999. In 95 % of casesthe research groups used one of the five uSR instru-ments of PSI, only a few bringing their own equip-ment with them. In the year 2000, the groups whoseexperiments were approved applied for a total of135 weeks time on the various instruments, but theuSR research committee was able to allocate only91 weeks. The instrument in greatest demand wasavailable for only 70% of the desired time.

Myon: heavy electron

}iSR: myon spin spectroscopyis a measuring method onwhich myons are used asminute magnetic probes toprovide information regard-ing the interior of a material.

Superconductors: materialswhich conduct an electriccurrent without resistance.

High temperature super-conductors: conduct electriccurrent without resistanceat higher temperatures thanordinary superconductors.

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At the annual user meetingof the international researchcommunity for myon spinspectroscopy (uSR), the re-sults are discussed and newexperimental proposals areput forward.



Progress in the Fourth Yearof Operation

SINQ: PSI Neutron Source

Target: Material in whichthe penetrating protons liber-ate neutrons.

Proton current: A measureof the intensity of theprotons. Proton intensity isexpressed as current; 2 mA(milliamperes) are equivalentto approximately 1.3 10'6

protons per second.

Proton charge: This is theproton current, summated overa time interval, e.g., one year.

In the fourth operating year of SINQ a target con-sisting of steel-canned lead rods was used for thefirst time, and thanks to experience with the previ-ous target it was successfully operated. In this waythe SINQ team was able to increase the yield ofneutrons by about 44 %. Thanks to improvements ofthe accelerator, increasing the maximum proton cur-rent to about 1.2 mA, in conjunction with the newkind of target practically doubled the peak neutronflux. Because the SINQ was not subject to any sig-nificant interruptions of service, its availability in theyear 2000 was a unique 98%. As compared with1997, the first year of operation, the neutron flux wasaround 2.7 times higher and the number of neutronsproduced per year was about 15 times greater.

Long-term irradiation with protons at a currentof 1.2 mA produces valuable information on thebehaviour of the target. The latter once againcontained numerous thermoelements and testrods of various materials, important also in a viewof a possible liquid metal target. For beams ofso-called cold (slow) neutrons of the SINQ, work

'• is in progress to improve the design in order togive a further increase in neutron yield of around30% to 100%.

The neutron source SINQ. The blue block (right) contains the actualtarget in which the proton beam releases the neutrons. Numerousexperimental instruments are arranged around this target block.

Comparison of SINQ neutron production over the firstfour operating years shows the improvement.

i annual proton charge [Ah] on SINQi annual neutron production (1997:i proton charge used at SiNQ [Ah]

%

I

-1000 §

i10 1

I-600 |

z

-400

-700

0



More Neutrons for Research

In the year 2000 five out of the seven instrumentsfor neutron scattering at the SINQ were in use forexperiments throughout the entire operating time;the operation of two of them was interrupted byabout two months due to detector problems. Twofurther instruments, "AMOR" and "POLDI", finishedtheir installation phase and will come to operation inthe year 2001. A large new measuring instrument,"MARS", is in the planning stage.

The user community for neutron scattering at theSINQ was more than doubled compared to the pre-vious year. 306 researchers from 20 different coun-tries performed about 230 minor or major experi-ments, and this amounts totally to approximately1320 experiment days. Representation of the variousresearch fields was somewhat disparate: Supercon-ductivity occupied 11 %, magnetism 47%, structuraland nanostructural research 32% and so-called softmatter, e.g., biological samples, 10% of the experi-ment days.

As regards the intensity of the neutron beams, theusers were pleased by an increase by a factor ofabout two. However, they hope for further increasesfrom further developments at the ring accelerator,from a new SINQ targetas well as from the .».- ~i ,v».planned improvements ".of the instruments. In T r"

this way it might be pos-sible for them to con-duct their experiments inshorter times or in betterquality, and new types ofexperiments might be-come feasible.

£ > 44% Switzerland (of which 13.7% PSI)~-^ 9,5% Germany*>- 9,1 % Russia*-- 7,2% japanf > 5,9% USA"*"- 5,6% Austria""--3,9% Great Britain"-- 3,3% Italy*"•"- 2,9% Frankreich'— 1,6% Poland"***• 1.3% Hungary| ! > 1.3% IsraelS ^ 1 % India£ > 1,8% Australia, Danemark, Ukraine (0,6% each)-*- 1,2% China, Netherland, Norway, Spain (0,3% each)

Distribution by country of origin of the researchers performingneutron scattering experiments at the SINQ.

The instruments at the SINQ gave reliable service throughoutthe year 2000.

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The Swiss Light Source (SLS)/;at';BSl;will be::aunique instrume'hUavailablesfqrSresearch :ofuniversities and industry. The first two stagesof the;SLS,;the linear accelerator (LINAC) andthe main ^accelerator (booster) bring elec-trons almost to the speed of light. Theseelectrons: are then steered into the thirdstage/the storage ring, where they circulatefor hours. In special magnets known as vyig-glers and undulators, they generate intenseX-rays. The strong focusing and the spectralpurity of the SLS light will make a newcategory of experiments possible.

Successfully commissioned in the year 2000: right, the boosteron the tunnel wall, and left, the storage ring mounted on ex-tremely stable supports.


The SLS on the HomeStraight

Highly successful progress was made in the construc-tion of the SLS in the year 2000. The LINAC cameinto operation in April and the booster in September(see next page). Towards the end of 2000 the lastvalves on the vacuum chamber of the storage ringwere opened, and the segments were connected toform a single ring. This opened the pathway to steerthe accelerated electrons into the SLS storage ring

and to store them there,i.e., to allow them tocirculate. The SLS groupachieved this by the endof 2000, and they wereable to generate the firstsynchrotron light fromthe SLS practically at thefirst attempt. Thanks tothe idea of bringing theaccelerators into opera-tion in steps, the SLSspecialists were able toaccumulate experienceat an early stage, andthis experience was then

also helpful for the work on the storage ring. Further-more, when storage ring operation started, both theLINAC and the booster had already been carefullyoptimised, and were operating reliably. This reliabil-ity not only facilitated the start-up, but is indispen-sable for the high quality of the SLS. To generate syn-chrotron light at high energy, the magnet elements,the undulators, require very small gaps and becauseelectrons will be scattered by the residual gas, someof them will be lost, particularly at these small aper-tures. The team of the SLS has therefore developed aunique mode of operation in which the preaccelera-tors continuously supplie further electrons.

The accelerators will be optimised for routine opera-tion during the first half of the next year, and the firstexperiments will begin in August 2001.

December 2000 - the great event: the first light was generatedfrom the storage ring of the Swiss Light Source, SLS.



Successful Acceleration

The preaccelerator LINAC, the main acceleratorbooster and their connecting lines were ready accord-ing to plan, and it was possible to bring the storagering into operation at an early stage. In the springof 2000 the LINAC, an electron accelerator approxi-mately 12 m in length, was brought into operation.At the end of this first stage the electrons havealready reached an impressive velocity: in a race witha beam of light from Zurich to Bern the electronswould be only one metre behind the light! Thanksto careful optimizations, the quality of the electronbeam - a factor of great importance for a loss freeinjection into the subsequent booster - has evenexceeded the specialists expectations.

The booster start up was in July 2000, exactly inaccordance with planning. Soon its novel measuringsystem had detected the first turns of the electronsin the booster. This provided confirmation that all

Working at the storage ring.

Energy units: 1 eV = 1 elec-tron Volt; this is the energythai: an electron acquireswhen it transverses a poten-tial difference of I Volt,1 keV = WOO eV1 MeV = 1000 keV1 GeV = WOO MeV

Images generated by syn-chrotron light in the boost-er. The vertical light stripsare reflections on the vacu-um chamber.

U

the components were functioning correctly and thatthey had been positioned to within 0.5 mm by thesurvey and alignment teams - something not to betaken for granted in a circumference of 270 m! ByJuly 2000 the electrons in the booster had attainedthe energy of 2.4 CeV. This represents a velocityof the electrons so great that in a race with lightall around the earth they would be only less thanone metre behind. The SLS team was fascinated toobserve the synchrotron radiation produced in thebooster and saw how the beam diameter becamesmaller and smaller as the velocity of the electronsincreased (top figures).

The SLS team had thus achieved the most impor-tant objectives for the year 2000: the electron beam,at the energy of 2.4 GeV had been extracted outof the booster and injected into the storage ring.And thanks to the adequate beam intensity in thebooster, the storage ring will be filled within 2 to 3minutes.


1

This special magnet is called an undulator. It is built into thestorage ring and forces the circulating electrons into slalomcurves; the result is that they emit synchrotron light of out-standingly high quality.

imr.

-- a i . - iIn these hutches around the SLS tunnel the researchers willstudy such subjects as proteins and the arrangement of atomson catalyst surfaces, or will take microscopic pictures of mag-netic storage devices and of bone structures.

r


Ready for Synchrotron Light

Because the SLS will be a synchrotron light sourceof the highest quality, the researchers have takenevery measure to ensure that their experiments willbe able to make the best possible use of these advan-tages. For this purpose they are installing ingeniousbeam lines, which will bend and focus the synchro-tron light and conduct it to the measurement sta-tions. However, it is far from simple to fabricate ele-ments for X-rays which will work in the same wayas a glass lens works for visible light (see also nextpage). Yet another challenge is the selection of asingle wave length from the broad spectrum of syn-chrotron light while keeping the beam stable. Notleast, the experimental stations themselves will beequipped with the most advanced instruments.

In this report year the SLS team has made greatprogress in the construction of the first four beamlines and measuring instruments. They will be readyin August 2001 and will, for example, make it pos-sible to investigate novel materials or thin films, andto study surfaces or proteins. Further equipment isin the planning phase. A special magnet, a so-calledundulator, which will generate synchrotron light forresearch on proteins, has been delivered on loanfrom SPring-8 (japan) to PSI in December 2000 (topfigure). Various optical components are also ready,the hutches in which the experimental equipmentwill be housed have been built and some instrumentshave already been installed (lower figures).

The future users of the SLS were once again invitedto various meetings, to discuss the new researchfacilities at the SLS. The annual workshop with inter-national experts and future SLS researchers also founda large favourable response.

An instrument has already been installed at this measurementpoint, and will be used for the microscopic study of surfacesand boundary layers.



Made-to-Measure Lenses forthe SLS

Modern synchrotron light sources such as the SLSprovide researchers with the opportunity to performmaterials studies with the use of coherent X-raybeams. One can think of holography in the sameway as is practiced in visible light optics. However,the corresponding optical components for X-rays,such as lenses or beam splitters, which would pre-serve the high degree of coherence, are still largelylacking.

PSI specialists have therefore developed diffractionlenses with which they can focus X-rays. These areelements which consist of made-to-measure patternsof nanostructures. Out of a source such as the SLS,they will guide as much as possible of the correctX-rays on to the correct point. Because of the multi-tude of demands made on such lenses it has provedof unique advantage that at PSI there is an extremelywell equipped laboratory for nanostructure fabrica-tion and a synchrotron light source with outstandingattributes, the SLS, both in the same place.

A PSI group has now for the first time created suchelements for high energy X-rays. The group hassuccessfully tested and used them at the ESRF in Gre-

Coherence: in coherent lightall the waves are fixed inrelation to one another inspace and in time. Onlylight, of a single wave length(monochromatic) can becoherent. Laser light is anexample.

ESRF = European Synchro-tron Radiation Facility

1 Nanometer •••- 1 millionthof a millimetre

noble. The tests showed that the lenses focus 50times more synchrotron light on the specimen! In aresearch project it was possible to examine in detailthe changes in structure occurring in thin liquid filmsbetween two bounding surfaces. In this way theresearchers were able to understand better why thelubricant properties of a material decrease as theymake the film progressively thinner.

Diffraction lens for focusing high energy X-rays. As shown here, such lenses must display structures that are very tali and at the sametime very narrow. The silicon structures shown here are 13 micrometers tall and 0.3 micrometers broad.

V 4

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EDUCATION AND ADVANCED TRAINING PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 49

Educationand AdvancedTrainingDoctorate Candidates

The PSI and the Technical Colleges

Trained Vocationals Left,

New Apprentices Came

The PSI Autumn School

Gaining practical experiences at the PSI Autumn School

50 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 EDUCATION AND ADVANCED TRAINING

Working in the laboratory for microstructures and nanostructures, these young scientists are engaged indoctorate theses on topics of great importance for modern technologies.


Doctorate Candidates

Some 240 students are working for their doctoratesin various parts of PSI, and are supervised by PSIstaff together with external university professors. Thethemes of the doctorate theses in progress at PSIcomprise physics, biology and medicine, chemistryand engineering. As regards their places of origin,the number of students from ETH Lausanne hasincreased by about 6% as compared with the previ-ous year, and the number from the ETH Zurich hasdecreased by about 5%. In the year 2000 twenty-four male candidates and two female candidatescompleted their doctorates at PSI.

I.5> ETHZ, 54%

•*&> EPFL, 11%

"-» UNI BE/BS/ZH, 23%

£> UNI GE/NE, 2%

i1*1*- Other Swiss, 2%

p> Abroad, 8%

Origins of the students using installations at PSI.

The PSI and theTechnical Colleges

One of PSI's initiatives in the year 2000 opened upnew possibilities for cooperation with Aargau Techni-cal College. One of the projects is concerned withaerosol research. PSI is investigating the influenceof aerosol particles on the climate. These minutedust particles, smaller than one 1000th of a millime-tre in diameter, are nowadays at the forefront of cli-mate research because they might perhaps do some-thing to mitigate the greenhouse effect. However,this topic has so far been little studied. In conjunc-tion with Aargau Technical College, PSI specialistsare now developing an instrument which will meas-ure the growth of aerosol particles into cloud drop-lets under selected conditions, thus making possiblesystematic investigations of the influence of theseminute particles on cloud formation.

Another field in which PSI is collaborating withAargau Technical College is direct training by meansof practical work at PSI. In the year 2000, for exam-ple, two classes of electrotechnical diploma studentscarried out an experiment with pions with the goalof checking the Special Theory of Relativity. And asthe theory predicts, their measurements showed thatparticles travelling at high velocities live longer thanparticles at rest. To put it in other words: in objectsmoving at high speeds the clocks do in fact run moreslowly.

52 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 EDUCATION AND ADVANCED TRAINING

fit

An ambitious independent work. This apprentice constructedan exhibit intended to give visitors better insight into neutronscattering. The neutrons are represented by microwaves whichare scattered by a grid of metal spheres, and superimposedwaves are measured from various angles.

Trained Vocational Left,New Apprentices Came

At the beginning of August 2000 twenty youngpeople took up their new training posts at PSI. Six-teen apprentices successfully completed their train-ing at PSI - seven of them with vocational collegecertificates. This brings the number of PSI appren-tices up to 74. For PSI the high quality of trainingis just as important as the numerical increase. Thetraining posts on offer are adapted to its specialistknowledge and include training as chemical labora-tory technicians, physics laboratory technicians, elec-tronics technicians, machine draftsmen, mechanics,sales assistants, cooks or informatics experts. As amulti-disciplinary research institute with wide-rang-ing functions, PSI is well equipped to provide acomprehensive vocational training. In addition, itcan give young technicians capabilities extendingbeyond their professional competence.

These young people proudly accept their voca-tional diplomas from the PSI director.


The PSI Autumn School

The autumn school for high school graduates washeld for the seventh time in October 2000. It wasin fact held twice: in German with seven girls andeight boys from the cantons of Aargau, Solothum,Graubiinden and Bern, and in French with four girlsand nine boys from the cantons of Freiburg, Waadtand Wallis. The motto for the week was "complexsystems in nature and technology", because of thefascinating developments which are taking place inthis field. The subjects ranged from the influence ofair pollution on trees to gene technology, protontherapy and novel ideas in the field of automobileengineering and fuel cells. Visits to young companiesand a tour of the SLS gave these young people someidea of what it means to advance into new dimen-sions.

Working in the laboratories, these young people had the op-portunity of gaining practical experience in experimental work,for example, in research on the effects of toxic substances onplants, or on gene transfer in living cells. They were highly mo-tivated and found that this week was thoroughly worthwhile.

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COMMERCIALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 55

Commerciali-zation ofKnowledge

Patent applications 2000

From special wastes tovaluable materials

Zinc-air battery: the best valuehigh energy accumulator

Waste incineration without specialwaste production?

Commercialization of theProton Therapy

Preparatory work for the extension of the PSl proton therapy

56 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 COMMERCIALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Patent Applications 2000

This is an op-tical element(Fresnel lens)for focusingsynchrotronlight, it hasbeen fabri-cated by anovel methoddevelopedat PSI, anda patentapplicationhas beensubmitted.

During the year 2000 the PSI has patented or appliedfor patents for some of its research results:

One invention is concerned with the processingof heavy-metal-containing waste products from theincineration of municipal waste. Using this method,materials such as domestic waste, sewage sludgeor electronic scrap can be separated into reusablemetallic and mineral fractions. Another patent appli-cation deals with a chemical reactor with catalyti-cally coated plates; an internal heat recovery systempermits the more efficient conversion of methanolinto hydrogen. PSI specialists have developed a novelcarbon electrode for the lithium ion battery and haveapplied for a patent. In connection with precisiontumour therapy with protons, a set-up has beeninvented at PSI to enable positions to be determinedin the interior of the body. In addition, a sensor ele-ment necessary for this purpose has been patented.

So as to focus X-rays, as for example the synchrotronlight on the SLS, PSI researchers have developed so-called X-ray lenses, fabricated them and applied fora patent (figure). Experiments with synchrotron lightand more generally with X-rays have led to an inven-tion which can be used to detect the position, theprofile and the intensity of the beam, and makespossible a differentiated adjustment of its properties.


From Special Wastes toValuable Materials

Soiar furnace at PSI

Special wastes:filter dust containingabout 50% of toxicmetals (38% zinc,10% lead, 2% others)

Useful materials:zinc-lead mixture,CO gas

Residue with less than4% of toxic metals

The reactor after an experiment: a view through theentry port for concentrated solar radiation

The principle of the recycling process in the PSI solar furnace. The concentratedsolar radiation heats the filter dust from arc furnaces to the necessary temperature

in the recycling reactor. The reactor is mounted at the focus level of thePSI parabolic mirror. The special waste is transformed into a metallic 7inc-lead

mixture and a residue which contains only small amounts of heavy metals.

The industrial countries of the West have to cope

every year with roughly 1.6 million tons of filtereddust arising from the smelting of scrap metal in arcfurnaces. This filtered dust contains roughly 50% oftoxic metals, of which 10% is lead and 38% zinc.It is either dumped as special waste in suitable sitesor processed by conventional methods. But the latterconsume large amounts of energy, which has to besupplied by burning fossil fuels which pollute theenvironment.

To contribute to a reduction in the output of toxicsubstances and the recovery of useful materials fromthese special wastes, a PSI group in conjunction witha partner from industry has developed a recyclingreactor which is heated by concentrated solar radia-tion instead of fossil fuels. The team first successfullytested the reactor in the solar furnace of PSI in April2000. This work showed that heavy-metal-contain-

ing special wastes such as filter dusts can be recycledwith the aid of solar energy, and valuable materialssuch as metals can be recovered. The use of concen-trated solar radiation for process heating for such ahigh temperature chemical process is unique. ThePSI group is the first in the world to succeed in sepa-rating lead oxide and zinc oxide at 1200 to 1300°Cfrom filter dust by this method. As reaction productsthey obtain a metallic lead-zinc mixture and a resi-due containing much less toxic metals, as the initialconcentration of 50% has been reduced to lessthan 4%. The recycling reactor is primarily suitablefor research in the PSI solar furnace, and will alsomeet the requirements of industrial use. The proc-ess has also proved to be robust towards fluctuatingheat performance, in other words towards short-term obscuration of the sun by clouds.

58 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 COMMERCIALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Zinc-Air Battery:the Best Value High EnergyAccumulator

Presentation of the prize for "Venture 2000" to the PSI teamand the firm ChemTEK GmbH for their business idea "Zinc/AirFuture" - a commercially viable high energy accumulator.

All over the world, attempts are being made todevelop battery systems with higher energy density.They are nowadays in great demand especially forelectric vehicles, for storing energy from photovoltaicinstallations and for operating portable electricalequipment.

With this objective, a PSI group has worked over thelast seven years to research and develop recharge-able zinc-air batteries, some of this work being donein close collaboration with Swiss industry (ElectronaS.A. Boudry and Larag AG, Wil). The development ofnew components has led to a demonstration batteryof 12V/20Ah with a high energy density of 100 to150 watt hours (Wh) per kilogram. In terms of equalamounts of energy stored, it is three times lighterthan a lead accumulator. For commercial success theprice per kWh is also crucial. On the basis of the PSIdevelopments, cost-advantageous components andmethods are now available, and an economical bat-tery is therefore feasible.

These zinc-air batteries are not yet commerciallyavailable, although an excellent market is open forsuch applications as the electroscooter, mobile emer-gency power supplies and the mobile Global Posi-tioning System (GPS). And the current state of thePSI work will enable its knowledge to be applied tothe design of a battery suitable for industrial pro-duction. In conjunction with the company ChemTEKGmbH (D), the PSI was therefore devising a commer-cial idea and working out a business plan which wasreceived very positively within the report of "Ven-ture 2000", a competition for the encouragementof entrepreneurial thinking. Further endeavours totransfer the results of PSI research to industry haveborne fruit in the year 2000; for example, licensingnegotiations with the same firm have been success-fully concluded.

The zinc-air battery of PSI.


Waste Incineration withoutSpecial Waste Production?

The Swiss guidelines for waste management of 1985postulate that the process of waste treatment shouldonly generate materials which were reusable or suit-able for final deposition - in other words no hazard-ous waste would be produced. This is an ambitioustarget, particularly for the processing of domesticwaste, and the methods developed or tested sincethat time have so far not succeeded on the market.There are various reasons for this, for exampleunsolved technical problems or unduly high costs.

Working in conjunction with three firms engaged inwaste management, PSI has developed a concept formunicipal solid waste incinerators (MSWI) which areintended to generate exclusively secondary productswhich will be reusable or suitable for final storage -and all this at lower costs! Key components of thisconcept have already been tried out in practice. Acomplete plant is still awaiting realisation.

The motivation of the specialists involved in this workis their conviction that waste disposal sites must beavoided altogether and that materials of potentialvalue must be recovered. A unique feature is the col-laboration between highly disparate partners withskills that complement one another most success-fully. This opens the way to new solutions withwider acceptance and easier transfer to practice. Thecommon objective unites the powers which the part-ners, thanks to many years of specific experience,have at their disposal.

In the year 2000 the team presented its concept tothe authorities and to those responsible for the plan-ning and construction of waste treatment plants.And there are good prospects that it will succeed.The chances for the realisation of a pilot project hasimproved considerably over the past year, and a patentapplication for the process has been submitted.

The principle of economic waste treatment without hazardous waste production. The metal separation is realised in a conventionalwaste incineration plant in an innovative way by, a two-stage incineration, a mechanical separation of metals and bottom ash, andthe thermal treatment and recycling of filter ash.

• • Depleted Filter Ash

Heavy Metals Concentrate

Bottom AshMechanical Separation

Mineral MaterialsMetals

&*:•• & I


Commercializationof the proton therapy

The novel technique for irradiating deep-seatedtumours with protons developed at PSI has arousedgreat interest throughout the world. In the PSI spot-scanning technique, individual spots of protons aresteered with magnets and placed within the tumourto be irradiated. This has the advantage that healthytissue adjacent to the tumour is optimally protected.The PSI technique is internationally regarded as a pio-neering programme. Hospitals at home and abroadare keen to adopt the PSI method, and PSI hastherefore decided to develop the treatment instal-lation with the gantry so that it can be made suit-able for routine hospital use. For this purpose a sepa-rate small cyclotron will be procured at PSI, and thegantry with spot-scanning will be further developedand optimized. These extensions will enable PSI toachieve optimal international technology transfer,and to cooperate in the training of the personnelfor such installations. PSI thus has the function of aresearch and technology base for proton therapy. Atpresent PSI is involved with its spot-scanning tech-nique in roughly ten projects. Partners in industry athome and abroad wish to adopt the technique withthe object of transferring it to hospitals and clinics.

Preparatory work for the extension of proton therapy at PSIwas started in the year 2000.

Working in the experimental hall of the accelerators

r •*

PSI ANNUAL REPORT 63

PSI in Figures

OrganizationalStructure

Committees andCommissions

In the Electronics Laboratory

64 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 PSI IN FIGURES

PSI in Figures

In the last reporting year PSI spent 259.3 millionSwiss Francs on research, on development, construc-tion and operation of research facilities and on otherinfrastructure and service costs. The Swiss FederalGovernment contributed 229.2 million Swiss Francs.As for the third-party funding, 60 percent camefrom private industry and one-quarter from Federalresearch promotion programmes (Swiss NationalFoundation, Swiss Department of Energy). 10 per-cent of the third-party funding are connected withEU Programmes. In the year 2000 somewhat morethan 70 million Swiss Francs of the total PSI budgetwere invested, a large part of that for construction ofthe SLS. Personnel costs made up about 55 percentof PSI's total expenditure in 2000.

More than 60 percent of the expenditure in theyear 2000 went towards the user laboratory functionof PSI. In future years this proportion will increasestill further; this means that PSI's own research activ-ities will diminish if the resources from the Swiss

Federal Government are reduced. This will mainlyaffect those research topics which have only limitedconnections with the user laboratory function of PSI(e.g., certain sections of energy research). The exter-nal users of our research facilities can receive opti-mal help and support only if PSI's own research atthe installations remains adequately competent andattractive.

At the end of the year 2000 some 1200 persons inall were employed at PSI. These include over 110doctorate students who are employed by PSI, and74 apprentices who receive vocational training atPSI. More than 100 additional doctoral students areinvolved in research projects at PSI, though theyhave contracts of employment with a university orwith one of the two ETHs. They also benefit from theresearch facilities at PSI. Twenty-six of the doctoratecandidates employed at PSI successfully completedtheir doctorate theses in the year 2000.

Allocation of Resources in 2000,incl. Third-Party Funding

SLS, 22%

Solid-State Researchand MaterialsSciences, 21 %(of which SINQ, 5%)

Particle andAstrophysics, 11 %

Nuclear EnergyResearch, 19%

General EnergyResearch, 15%

Life Sciences, 12%

• "•?M$iL...,,,

PSI Personnel Structure

Sciences, Medicine,Pharmacy, 34%

EngineeringSciences, 8%

HTL, 10%

TechnicalPersonnel, 45%

Administration, 3%

The distribution of the total resources according to PSI priorityareas (product groups). The research equipment - in particularthe accelerator facilities and SINQ - are allocated to the prior-ity areas; the SLS is separately presented, and in the year 2000required 2 2 % of the overall budget of PSI.

The personnel structure clearly demonstrates that PSI takes itsfunction as a User-Lab seriously: The large facilities and thecomplex instruments for research demand a large number oftechnical personnel.

Organizational StructurePaul Scherrer Institut 1.2.2001 iRdesrsl. Coitvrvl'e-?

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Project

Swiss LightSource (SLS)

¥v'rulichA.KDr.

MachineWrulich A. F Dr. i.P.

Usersvan tier Veen J.F, Prof. Dr.

RiiijHinn

Janzi G.

Research Department

Particles andMatter (TEM)

Eichler R. Prof. Dr.

Particle PhysicsGabathuler K. Dr.

AstrophysicsZehnder A. Dr,

SpectroscopyHerlach D. Dr.

Micro and NanoTechnologyGobrecht j . Dr.

RadiochemistryGSggeler H. Prof. Dr.

Ion Beam PhysicsSufer M. Prof. Dr.

Research Department

Life Sciences(BIO)

WinkterF. Prof.Dr.

Radiation Medicine- Proton Therapy

Goitein 6.- Tumor Therapy

EvaluationBlattmann H. Dr,

Center forRadtopharmaceuticalScienceSchubigerP.A. Prof. Dr,

Institute of MedicalRadiation Biology (IMR)Jiricny J. Prof. Dr.

Structural BioloayWinkler F. Prof. Dr.I.P.

Research Department

Condensed MatterResearch withNeutrons (FUN)

Fischer W. Dr.

Condensed MatterTheoryMori R. Dr.

Neutron ScatteringFurrerA, Prof. Dr.

Low TemperatureFacilitiesMango S. Dr.

Research Department

Nuclear Energyand Safety (NES)

KrogerW. Prof.Dr.

Reactor Physics andSystems BehaviourChawla R. Prof. Dr.

TtiermohydrasiiicsDreier J. Dr.

Materials BehaviourBart G. Dr.

Waste ManagementHadermann J. Dr.

Research Department

General Energy(ENE)

Wokaun A. Prof. Dr.

Energy andMaterials Cycles

' Stucki S. Dr.

Solar TechnologyPalumbo R, Prof, Dr.

Combustion ResearchBoulouchos K. Prof, Dr,

ElectrochemistryHaas 0. Dr.

Atmospheric ChemistryBattensperger U..PD Dr.

Department

Large ResearchFacilities (GFA)

Steiner E. Dr.

Accelerator Physicsand DevelopmentSchmelzbach P.-A. Dr.

Experimental FacilitiesSteiner E. Dr. a.i.

Spallatton NeutronSourceBauer C-. Dr.

Technical Supportand Co-ordinationDuppich J.

Department

Logistics andMarketing (LOG)

Pritzker A. Dr.

Administration andServicesPrsfzkerA.Dr. i.P.

Infrastructure SystemsBoksbergerH.U.

MechanicalEngineeringUlrich J.

Information Technolc.;EgJiStDr.

Radiation Protection,Safety and Radioacti1

Waste TreatmentAndres R. Dr.

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66 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 COMMITTEES

Research Committees

Particles and Matter (JEM)Experiments at the Ring CyclotronProf. Dr. P. Truol, PresidentProf. Dr. A. BlondelDr. D. BrymanProf. Dr. C. HoffmanProf. Dr. M. PendleburyProf. Dr. L TauseherProf. Dr. G.J. WagnerProf. Dr. D.Wyler

Experiments at thePhilips Cyclotron (Injector 1)Prof. Dr. J:V. Kratz, PresidentProf. Dr. j . DeutschProf. Dr. j.C. DousseProf. Dr. A. FasslerProf. Dr. G. KraftProf. Dr. P.U. SauerProf. Dr. I. Sick

Muon-Spin SpectroscopyProf. Dr. H. Keller, PresidentProf. Dr. A. BaldereschiDr. M. FahnleDr. P. FischerProf. Dr. E. M. ForganProf. Dr. J.J.M. FranseProf. Dr. F. J. LitterstProf. Dr. P.W. PercivalDr. F. Pratt

University of Zurich, CHUniversity of Geneva, CHTRIUMF, Vancouver, CDNLAMPF, Los Alamos, USAUniversity of Sussex, GBUniversity of Basle, CHUniversity of Tubingen, DEUniversity of Zurich, CH

University of Mainz, DECatholic Univ. of Louvain-la-Neuve, BEUniversity of Fribourg, CHUniversity of Tubingen, DESociety for Heavy-Ion Research, Darmstadt, DEUniversity of Hanover, DEUniversity of Basle, CH

University of Zurich, CHEPF Lausanne, CHMPI, Stuttgart, DEETH Zurich, CHUniversity of Brimingham, UKVan der Waals-Zeeman Laboratory, Amsterdam, NLIMNF, TU Braunschweig, DESimon Fraser University, Burnaby, CDNRIKEN-RAL/Oxford University, GB

Life Sciences (BIO)

Prof. Dr. B. Hirt, PresidentProf. Dr. H. H. CoenenProf. Dr. H. HengartnerProf. Dr. j . A. HubbellProf. Dr. C. KuenzleProf. Dr. D. Moras

Prof. Dr. H. Mohler

ISREC, Epalinges, CHForschungszentrum Julich, DEUniversity of Zurich, CHETH Zurich and University of Zurich, CHUniversity of Zurich, CHUPR de Biologie Structural IGBMC,Illkirch-Strasbourg, FRETH Zurich and University of Zurich, CH

COMMITTEES: PSt ANNUAL REPORT 2000 67

Solid-State Researchwith Neutrons (FUN)

S1NQ Scientific CommitteeProf. Dr. P. Schurtenberger, PresidentProf. Dr. P. BoniProf. Dr. B. DornerProf. Dr. P. FratzlProf. Dr. H-.U. Glide! •Prof. Dr. R. HempelmannProf. Dr. G. KostorzProf. Dr. D. SchwarzenbachProf. Dr. W. SteurerProf. Dr. H. Stuhrmann

University of Fribourg, CHTU Mnich, DEILL Grenoble, FRErich-Schmid-lnstitut, Leoben, ATUniversity of Berne, CHUniversity of Saarbrucken, DEETH Zurich, CHUniversity of Lausanne, CHETH Zurich and University of Zurich, CHResearch Centre Geesthacht, DE

Nuclear Energy andSafety (NES)

Dipl. Ing. P.U. Fischer, PresidentL. de FaveriDr. H. FuchsProf. Dr. M. GiotW. JeschkiDr. Ch. McCombieDr. M. SalvatoresProf. Dr. E. Tenckhoff

EGL, Laufenburg, CHBBW, Bern, CHAare-Tessin AG, Olten, CHUniversite Catholique de Louvain/SCK-CEN, BEHSK, Wurenlingen, CHGipf-Oberfrick, CHDept. of Reactor Studies, CEA, FRSiemens KWU Erlangen, DE

General Energy (ENE)

Prof. Dr. A. Zehnder, PresidentDr. P. JansohnProf. T. PeterProf. Dr. A. RellerDr. M. SchaubH.U. ScharerProf. Dr. L. SchlapbachProf. Dr. A. Voss

EAWAG, Dubendorf, CHAlstom Power, Dattwil, CHETH Zurich, CHUniversity of Augsburg, DECT Umwelttechnik AG, Wintherthur, CHBFE, Bern, CHUniversity of Fribourg, CHUniversity of Stuttgart, DE

68 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 COMMITTEES

SLS Committees

SLS Guiding Group

Prof. Dr. M. K. Eberle (Chairman)

Dr. S. Bieri

Prof. Dr. P. MartinolR

Prof. Dr. K.Muller

Dr. H. Rohrer

H. R. Wasmer

F. Swoboda

Director, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen, CH

Delegate and Vice-President of the ETH Board,Zurich, CH

University of Neuchatel, CH

Hoffmann-La Roche AG, Basle, CH

Bach, CH

Deputy Director, EAWAG, Dubendorf, CH

ETH Board Staff, Zurich, CH

Machine Advisory Committee(MAC)

Prof.Dr. M. Eriksson (Chairman)

Dr. A. Hofmann

Dr. A. Hutton

Prof. Dr. E. Jaeschke

Dr. R.Walker

Max Laboratory, University of Lund, SE

CERN, Geneva, CH

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility,Newport News, USA

BESSY, Berlin, DE

Sincrotrone Trieste, Trieste, IT

Scientific Advisory Committee(SAC)

Prof. Dr. P. Wyder (Chairman)

Dr. M. Altarelli

Prof. Dr. Y. Baer

Prof. Dr. K. Branden

Prof. Dr. F. J. Himpsei

Prof. Dr. G. Margaritondo

Prof. Dr. G. Materlik

Prof. Dr. Drv h.cmult. K. A. Muller

Prof. Dr. T. Richmond

Max Planck Institute, Grenoble, FR

Sincrotrone Trieste, Trieste, IT

University of Neuchatel, CH

Microbiologie & Tumorbiologie Center, Stockholm, S

University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

EPF, Lausanne, CH

Hasylab DESY, Hamburg, DE

Hedingen, CH

ETH Zurich, CH

COMMISSIONS PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 69

Advisory Commission

Prof. Dr. G.zu Putlitz/ President

Dr. E. Kiener

Prof. Dr. P. Martinoli

Prof. Dr. K. Muller

Dipl. ing. j.-L. Pfaeffii

Dr. iur. M. Reimann

Dipl. Ing. O.K. Ronner

Prof. Dr. A. Waldvogel

Dr. P. Zinsli

Institute of Physics, University of Heidelberg

Director BFE

Institute of Physics,University of Neuchatel

F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, Basle

SA I'Energie de I'Ouest-Suisse

Swiss Senator, Gipf-Oberfrick

President, Siemens Building Technologies AG, Zurich

Vice-President for Research, ETH Zurich

Deputy Director, Federal Office ofEducation and Science

Dr. S. Bieri Delegate and Vice-President of the ETH Board

Prof. Dr. M.K. Eberle

Dipl. Phys. M Jermann, Secretary

Director, Paul Scherrer Institut

Head Directorate Staff, Paul Scherrer Institut

70 PSI ANNUAL REPORT 2000 'COMMISSIONS'

PSI Research Commission

External MembersProf. Dr. H.-R. Ott, President

Prof. Dr. U. Amaldi

Dr. B. Barre

Prof. Dr. W. Baumeister

Prof. Dr. 0 . Fischer

Prof. Dr. K. H'einloth

Prof. Dr. B. Johannsen

Dr. D;E. Moncton

Prof. Dr. D. Richter

Prof.Dr. J.W. Tester

Prof. Dr. U. Wagner

Prof. Dr. P. Zerwas

Internal MembersDr. K. Ballmer

Dr. j . Hadermann

Dr. R. Henneck

Dr. P. Hosemann

Dr. R. Morf

Dr. G. Scherer

Dr. N. Schlumpf

Dr. L. Simons

Dr. W. Wagner

Dr. P. Hasler, Secretary

Permanent GuestProf. Dr. H. Hennecke

Laboratory for Solid-State Physics, ETH Zurich, CH

University of Milano Bicocca, Mailand, IT

COGEMA, Velizy, FR

Max-Planck-lnsitut fur Biochemie,Martinsried b. Miinchen, DE

Dept. of Condensed Matter,University of Geneva, CH

Institute of Physics, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms University, Bonn, DE

Institute of Bioanorganic and RadiopharmaceuticalChemistry, Rossendorf, DE

Advanced Photon Source, Argonne NationalLaboratory, Argonne, USA

Institute for Neutron Scattering at theInstitute of Solid-State Research, jiilich, DE

Energy Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, Cambridge, USA

Energiewirtschaft und Anwendungstechnik,TU Munchen, DE

DESY, Hamburg, DE

Life Sciences

Nuclear Energy and Safety


Nuclear Energy and Safety

Solid-State Research with Neutrons

General Energy

Logistics and Marketing


Research with Large Facilities

Life Sciences

(President of the ETH Zurich Research Commission)

Institute for Microbiology, ETH Zurich, CH

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