Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized...

2/14/2012

1

LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lectures by

Erin Barley

Kathleen Fitzpatrick

Plant Diversity I: How Plants

Colonized Land

Chapter 29 Overview: The Greening of Earth

• For more than the first 3 billion years of Earth’s

history, the terrestrial surface was lifeless

• Cyanobacteria likely existed on land 1.2 billion

years ago

• Around 500 million years ago, small plants,

fungi, and animals emerged on land


• Since colonizing land, plants have diversified into

roughly 290,000 living species

• Land plants are defined as having terrestrial

ancestors, even though some are now aquatic

• Land plants do not include photosynthetic

protists (algae)

• Plants supply oxygen and are the ultimate

source of most food eaten by land animals


1 m

Figure 29.1

Concept 29.1: Land plants evolved from

green algae

• Green algae called charophytes are the closest

relatives of land plants


Morphological and Molecular Evidence

• Many characteristics of land plants also appear in a variety of algal clades, mainly algae

• However, land plants share four key traits with only charophytes

– Rings of cellulose-synthesizing complexes

– Peroxisome enzymes

– Structure of flagellated sperm

– Formation of a phragmoplast


2/14/2012

2

1 m

Figure 29.2

30 nm

• Comparisons of both nuclear and chloroplast

genes point to charophytes as the closest living

relatives of land plants

• Note that land plants are not descended from

modern charophytes, but share a common

ancestor with modern charophytes


1 m

Figure 29.3

Chara species, a pond organism

Coleochaete orbicularis, a disk-shaped charophyte that also lives in ponds (LM)

40 m

5 mm

1 m

Figure 29.3a

Chara species, a pond organism

5 mm

1 m

Figure 29.3b

Coleochaete orbicularis, a disk-shaped charophyte that lives in ponds (LM)

40 m

Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land

• In charophytes a layer of a durable polymer called

sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from

drying out

• Sporopollenin is also found in plant spore walls

• The movement onto land by charophyte ancestors

provided unfiltered sun, more plentiful CO2,

nutrient-rich soil, and few herbivores or pathogens

• Land presented challenges: a scarcity of water

and lack of structural support


2/14/2012

3

• The accumulation of traits that facilitated survival

on land may have opened the way to its

colonization by plants

• Systematists are currently debating the

boundaries of the plant kingdom

• Some biologists think the plant kingdom should be

expanded to include some or all green algae

• Until this debate is resolved, we define plants as

embryophytes, plants with embryos


1 m

Figure 29.4

Red algae

Chlorophytes

Charophytes

Embryophytes

ANCESTRAL ALGA

Virid

ipla

nta

e Stre

pto

ph

yta

Pla

nta

e

Derived Traits of Plants

• Four key traits appear in nearly all land plants but

are absent in the charophytes

– Alternation of generations and multicellular,

dependent embryos

– Walled spores produced in sporangia

– Multicellular gametangia

– Apical meristems


Alternation of Generations and Multicellular, Dependent Embryos

• Plants alternate between two multicellular stages, a reproductive cycle called alternation of generations

• The gametophyte is haploid and produces haploid gametes by mitosis

• Fusion of the gametes gives rise to the diploid sporophyte, which produces haploid spores by meiosis


• The diploid embryo is retained within the tissue of

the female gametophyte

• Nutrients are transferred from parent to embryo

through placental transfer cells

• Land plants are called embryophytes because of

the dependency of the embryo on the parent


1 m

Figure 29.5a

Gamete from another plant

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Gametophyte (n)

Mitosis Mitosis

Spore Gamete

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Zygote

Mitosis Sporophyte (2n)

Alternation of generations

2n

n

n n

n

2/14/2012

4

1 m

Figure 29.5b

Embryo

Maternal tissue

Embryo (LM) and placental transfer cell (TEM) of Marchantia (a liverwort)

Wall ingrowths

Placental transfer cell (outlined in blue)

10 m

2 m

1 m

Figure 29.5ba

Embryo

Maternal tissue

10 m

1 m

Figure 29.5bb

Wall ingrowths

Placental transfer cell (outlined in blue)

2 m Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia

• The sporophyte produces spores in organs called

sporangia

• Diploid cells called sporocytes undergo meiosis

to generate haploid spores

• Spore walls contain sporopollenin, which makes

them resistant to harsh environments


1 m

Figure 29.5c

Spores

Sporangium

Longitudinal section of Sphagnum sporangium (LM)

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss) 1 m

Figure 29.5ca

Sporangium

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss)

2/14/2012

5

1 m

Figure 29.5cb

Spores

Sporangium

Longitudinal section of Sphagnum sporangium (LM)

Multicellular Gametangia

• Gametes are produced within organs called

gametangia

• Female gametangia, called archegonia, produce

eggs and are the site of fertilization

• Male gametangia, called antheridia, produce and

release sperm


1 m

Figure 29.5d

Female gametophyte

Male gametophyte

Archegonia, each with an egg (yellow)

Antheridia (brown), containing sperm

Archegonia and antheridia of Marchantia (a liverwort)

1 m

Figure 29.5da

Female gametophyte

Male gametophyte

Apical Meristems

• Plants sustain continual growth in their apical

meristems

• Cells from the apical meristems differentiate into

various tissues


1 m

Figure 29.5e

Apical meristem of shoot

Developing leaves

Shoot 100 m 100 m

Root

Apical meristem of root

Apical meristems of plant roots and shoots

2/14/2012

6

1 m

Figure 29.5ea

100 m Root

Apical meristem of root

1 m

Figure 29.5eb

Apical meristem of shoot

Developing leaves

Shoot 100 m

• Additional derived traits include

Cuticle, a waxy covering of the epidermis

Mycorrhizae, symbiotic associations between

fungi and land plants that may have helped plants

without true roots to obtain nutrients

Secondary compounds that deter herbivores and

parasites


The Origin and Diversification of Plants

• Fossil evidence indicates that plants were on land

at least 475 million years ago

• Fossilized spores and tissues have been extracted

from 475-million-year-old rocks


1 m

Figure 29.6

(a) Fossilized spores

Fossilized sporophyte tissue

(b)

Figure 29.6a

(a) Fossilized spores

2/14/2012

7

Figure 29.6b

Fossilized sporophyte tissue

(b)

• Those ancestral species gave rise to a vast

diversity of modern plants


1 m

Figure 29.7

Origin of land plants (about 475 mya)

Origin of vascular plants (about 425 mya)

Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya)

2

1

3

2

1 ANCESTRAL GREEN ALGA

500 450 400 350 300 50 0

Millions of years ago (mya)

Liverworts

Mosses

Hornworts

Lycophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts)

Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns)

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Lan

d p

lan

ts

Vascu

lar p

lan

ts

No

nv

ascu

lar

pla

nts

(b

ryo

ph

yte

s)

Seed

less

vascu

lar

pla

nts

S

eed

pla

nts

3

1 m

Figure 29.7a

Origin of land plants (about 475 mya)

Origin of vascular plants (about 425 mya)

Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya)

3

ANCESTRAL GREEN ALGA

500 450 400 350 300 50 0

Millions of years ago (mya)

Liverworts

Mosses

Hornworts



Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

2

1

1

2

3

1 m

Figure 29.7b

Liverworts

Mosses

Hornworts



Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Lan

d p

lan

ts

Vascu

lar p

lan

ts

No

nv

ascu

lar

pla

nts

(b

ryo

ph

yte

s)

Seed

less

vascu

lar

pla

nts

Seed

pla

nts

• Land plants can be informally grouped based on

the presence or absence of vascular tissue

• Most plants have vascular tissue; these constitute

the vascular plants

• Nonvascular plants are commonly called

bryophytes

• Bryophytes are not a monophyletic group; their

relationships to each other and to vascular plants

is unresolved


2/14/2012

8

• Seedless vascular plants can be divided into

clades

– Lycophytes (club mosses and their relatives)

– Pterophytes (ferns and their relatives)

• Seedless vascular plants are paraphyletic, and are

of the same level of biological organization, or

grade


• A seed is an embryo and nutrients surrounded by

a protective coat

• Seed plants form a clade and can be divided into

further clades

– Gymnosperms, the “naked seed” plants,

including the conifers

– Angiosperms, the flowering plants


1 m

Table 29. 1

Concept 29.2: Mosses and other nonvascular

plants have life cycles dominated by

gametophytes

• Bryophytes are represented today by three phyla of small herbaceous (nonwoody) plants

– Liverworts, phylum Hepatophyta

– Hornworts, phylum Anthocerophyta

– Mosses, phylum Bryophyta

• Bryophyte refers to all nonvascular plants, whereas Bryophyta refers only to the phylum of mosses


1 m

Figure 29.UN01

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes)

Seedless vascular plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Bryophyte Gametophytes

• In all three bryophyte phyla, gametophytes are

larger and longer-living than sporophytes

• Sporophytes are typically present only part of the

time


2/14/2012

9

Protonemata (n)

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

“Bud”

“Bud”

Male gametophyte (n)

Gametophore Spores Spore dispersal

Peristome

Female gametophyte (n) Rhizoid

Sporangium Seta

Capsule (sporangium)

Foot

MEIOSIS

Mature sporophytes

2 m

m

Capsule with peristome (LM)

Female gametophytes

1 m

Figure 29.8-1

Protonemata (n)

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

“Bud”

“Bud”


Antheridia Sperm

Egg

Archegonia Gametophore Spores

Spore dispersal

Peristome


FERTILIZATION

(within archegonium) Sporangium Seta


Foot

MEIOSIS

Mature sporophytes

2 m

m


Female gametophytes

1 m

Figure 29.8-2

Protonemata (n)

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

“Bud”

“Bud”


Antheridia Sperm

Egg

Archegonia Gametophore Spores

Spore dispersal

Peristome

Sporangium


FERTILIZATION

(within archegonium) Zygote (2n)

Archegonium

Embryo

Seta


Foot

Young sporophyte (2n)

MEIOSIS

Mature sporophytes

2 m

m


Female gametophytes

1 m

Figure 29.8-3

1 m

Figure 29.8a

2 m

m


• A spore germinates into a gametophyte composed of a protonema and gamete-producing gametophore

• The height of gametophytes is constrained by lack of vascular tissues

• Rhizoids anchor gametophytes to substrate

• Mature gametophytes produce flagellated sperm in antheridia and an egg in each archegonium

• Sperm swim through a film of water to reach and fertilize the egg

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Moss Life Cycle

29_08MossLifeCycle_A.html

2/14/2012

10

Bryophyte Sporophytes

• Bryophyte sporophytes grow out of archegonia,

and are the smallest and simplest sporophytes of

all extant plant groups

• A sporophyte consists of a foot, a seta (stalk),

and a sporangium, also called a capsule, which

discharges spores through a peristome

• Hornwort and moss sporophytes have stomata for

gas exchange; liverworts do not


1 m

Figure 29.9a

Sporophyte

Thallus Gametophore of female gametophyte

Marchantia polymorpha, a “thalloid” liverwort

Marchantia sporophyte (LM)

Foot

Seta


50

0

m

Plagiochila deltoidea, a “leafy” liverwort

1 m

Figure 29.9aa

Thallus Gametophore of female gametophyte

Marchantia polymorpha, a “thalloid” liverwort

1 m

Figure 29.9ab

Marchantia sporophyte (LM)

Foot

Seta


50

0

m

1 m

Figure 29.9ac

Plagiochila deltoidea, a “leafy” liverwort

1 m

Figure 29.9b

An Anthoceros hornwort species

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

2/14/2012

11

1 m

Figure 29.9c

Polytrichum commune, hairy-cap moss

Capsule

Seta

Sporophyte (a sturdy plant that takes months to grow)

Gametophyte

The Ecological and Economic Importance

of Mosses

• Mosses are capable of inhabiting diverse and

sometimes extreme environments, but are

especially common in moist forests and wetlands

• Some mosses might help retain nitrogen in the

soil


1 m

Figure 29.10

With moss Without moss

RESULTS

An

nu

al

nit

rog

en

lo

ss

(k

g/h

a)

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

• Sphagnum, or “peat moss,” forms extensive deposits of partially decayed organic material known as peat

• Peat can be used as a source of fuel

• Sphagnum is an important global reservoir of organic carbon

• Overharvesting of Sphagnum and/or a drop in water level in peatlands could release stored CO2 to the atmosphere


1 m

Figure 29.11

Peat being harvested from a peatland

(a) “Tollund Man,” a bog mummy dating from 405–100 B.C.E.

(b)

1 m

Figure 29.11a

(a) Peat being harvested from a peatland

2/14/2012

12

1 m

Figure 29.11b

“Tollund Man,” a bog mummy dating from 405–100 B.C.E.

(b)

Concept 29.3: Ferns and other seedless

vascular plants were the first plants to

grow tall

• Bryophytes and bryophyte-like plants were the prevalent vegetation during the first 100 million years of plant evolution

• Vascular plants began to diversify during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods

• Vascular tissue allowed these plants to grow tall

• Seedless vascular plants have flagellated sperm and are usually restricted to moist environments


1 m

Figure 29.UN03

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes)

Seedless vascular plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants

• Fossils of the forerunners of vascular plants date

back about 425 million years

• These early tiny plants had independent,

branching sporophytes

• Living vascular plants are characterized by

Life cycles with dominant sporophytes

Vascular tissues called xylem and phloem

Well-developed roots and leaves


1 m

Figure 29.12

Sporangia

Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes

• In contrast with bryophytes, sporophytes of

seedless vascular plants are the larger generation,

as in familiar ferns

• The gametophytes are tiny plants that grow on or

below the soil surface


Animation: Fern Life Cycle

29_13FernLifeCycle_A.html

2/14/2012

13

1 m

Figure 29.13-1

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

MEIOSIS Spore dispersal

Mature sporophyte (2n)

Fiddlehead (young leaf)

Sporangium

Sorus

Sporangium

1 m

Figure 29.13-2

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)


Spore (n)

Young gametophyte

Rhizoid

Underside of mature gametophyte (n)

Antheridium

Sperm

Archegonium

Egg

FERTILIZATION



Sporangium

Sorus

Sporangium

1 m

Figure 29.13-3

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)


Spore (n)

Young gametophyte

Rhizoid

Underside of mature gametophyte (n)

Antheridium

Sperm

Archegonium

Egg

FERTILIZATION Zygote (2n)

Gametophyte

New sporophyte



Sporangium

Sorus

Sporangium

Transport in Xylem and Phloem

• Vascular plants have two types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem

• Xylem conducts most of the water and minerals and includes dead cells called tracheids

• Water-conducting cells are strengthened by lignin and provide structural support

• Phloem consists of living cells and distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products

• Vascular tissue allowed for increased height, which provided an evolutionary advantage


Evolution of Roots

• Roots are organs that anchor vascular plants

• They enable vascular plants to absorb water and

nutrients from the soil

• Roots may have evolved from subterranean stems


Evolution of Leaves

• Leaves are organs that increase the surface area

of vascular plants, thereby capturing more solar

energy that is used for photosynthesis

• Leaves are categorized by two types

Microphylls, leaves with a single vein

Megaphylls, leaves with a highly branched

vascular system


2/14/2012

14

• According to one model of evolution, microphylls

evolved as outgrowths of stems

• Megaphylls may have evolved as webbing

between flattened branches


1 m

Figure 29.14

Vascular tissue Sporangia Microphyll

(a) Microphylls (b) Megaphylls

Overtopping growth

Megaphyll

Other stems become reduced and flattened.

Webbing develops.

1 m

Figure 29.14a

Vascular tissue Sporangia Microphyll

(a) Microphylls

1 m

Figure 29.14b

(b) Megaphylls

Overtopping growth

Megaphyll

Other stems become reduced and flattened.

Webbing develops.

Sporophylls and Spore Variations

• Sporophylls are modified leaves with sporangia

• Sori are clusters of sporangia on the undersides

of sporophylls

• Strobili are cone-like structures formed from

groups of sporophylls


• Most seedless vascular plants are homosporous, producing one type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte

• All seed plants and some seedless vascular plants are heterosporous

• Heterosporous species produce megaspores, which give rise to female gametophytes, and microspores, which give rise to male gametophytes


2/14/2012

15

Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants

• There are two phyla of seedless vascular plants

– Phylum Lycophyta includes club mosses, spike

mosses, and quillworts

– Phylum Pterophyta includes ferns, horsetails, and

whisk ferns and their relatives


1 m

Figure 29.15a

Selaginella moellendorffii, a spike moss

Isoetes gunnii, a quillwort

Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss

Strobili (clusters of sporophylls)

2.5 cm

1 c

m

1 m

Figure 29.15aa Selaginella moellendorffii, a spike moss

1 c

m

1 m

Figure 29.15ab

Isoetes gunnii, a quillwort

1 m

Figure 29.15ac

Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss

Strobili (clusters of sporophylls)

2.5 cm

1 m

Figure 29.15b

Athyrium

filix-femina,

lady fern

Equisetum arvense,

field horsetail

Vegetative stem

Strobilus on

fertile stem

Psilotum

nudum,

a whisk

fern

4 c

m

25 c

m

1.5

cm

2/14/2012

16

1 m

Figure 29.15ba

Athyrium filix-femina, lady fern

25

cm

1 m

Figure 29.15bb

Equisetum arvense,

field horsetail

Vegetative stem

Strobilus on

fertile stem

1.5

cm

1 m

Figure 29.15bc

Psilotum

nudum,

a whisk

fern

4 c

m

Phylum Lycophyta: Club Mosses, Spike

Mosses, and Quillworts

• Giant lycophytes trees thrived for millions of years

in moist swamps

• Surviving species are small herbaceous plants

• Club mosses and spike mosses have vascular

tissues and are not true mosses


Phylum Pterophyta: Ferns, Horsetails, and

Whisk Ferns and Relatives

• Ferns are the most diverse seedless vascular

plants, with more than 12,000 species

• They are most diverse in the tropics but also thrive

in temperate forests

• Horsetails were diverse during the Carboniferous

period, but are now restricted to the genus

Equisetum

• Whisk ferns resemble ancestral vascular plants

but are closely related to modern ferns


The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants

• The ancestors of modern lycophytes, horsetails,

and ferns grew to great heights during the

Devonian and Carboniferous, forming the first

forests

• Increased growth and photosynthesis removed

CO2 from the atmosphere and may have

contributed to global cooling at the end of the

Carboniferous period

• The decaying plants of these Carboniferous

forests eventually became coal


2/14/2012

17

Fern Lycophyte trees Horsetail

Tree trunk

covered with

small leaves

Lycophyte tree

reproductive

structures

1 m

Figure 29.16

1 m

Figure 29.UN02

1 m

Figure 29.UN04

Homosporous spore production

Heterosporous spore production

Sporangium

on sporophyll Single

type of spore

Typically a

bisexual

gametophyte

Eggs

Sperm

Megasporangium

on megasporophyll Megaspore Female

gametophyte

Male

gametophyte

Eggs

Sperm Microspore Microsporangium

on microsporophyll

Gametophyte

Mitosis Mitosis

Spore Gamete


Zygote

Mitosis

Sporophyte

Haploid

Diploid

Alternation of generations

4

2 1

3

Apical meristem

of shoot

Developing

leaves

Apical meristems

Archegonium

with egg Antheridium

with sperm

Sporangium Spores

Multicellular gametangia Walled spores in sporangia

n

n n

n

2n

1 m

Figure 29.UN05

1 m

Figure 29.UN05a

Gametophyte

Mitosis Mitosis

Spore Gamete


Zygote

Mitosis

Sporophyte

Haploid

Diploid

Alternation of generations 1

n

n n

n

2n

1 m

Figure 29.UN05b

Apical meristem

of shoot

Developing

leaves

Apical meristems

2

2/14/2012

18

1 m

Figure 29.UN05c

Archegonium

with egg Antheridium

with sperm

Multicellular gametangia 3

1 m

Figure 29.UN05d

Sporangium Spores

Walled spores in sporangia 4

1 m

Figure 29.UN06

1 m

Figure 29.UN07

1 m

Figure 29.UN08

1 m

Figure 29.UN09

2/14/2012

19

1 m

Figure 29.UN10

Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized...

Documents

Transcript of Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized...