Planned obsolescence From Wikipedia.docx

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Planned obsolescence From Wikipedia,

Planned obsolescence orbuilt-in obsolescence[1]in industrial design is a policy of planningor designing aproductwith a limited useful life, so it will becomeobsolete, that is,

unfashionable or no longer functional after a certain period of time.[1]

Planned obsolescencehas potential benefits for aproducerbecause to obtain continuing use of the product theconsumer is under pressure to purchase again, whether from the same manufacturer (areplacement part or a newer model), or from acompetitorwhich might also rely on plannedobsolescence.[1]

For an industry, planned obsolescence stimulates demand by encouraging purchasers to buysooner if they still want a functioning product. Planned obsolescence is common in manydifferent products, including but not limited towheeled can openers,screws,ear protectors,headphones,shoes,book bindings,automobile batteries, andbicycle tires. There is howeverthe potential backlash of consumers who learn that the manufacturer invested money to make

the product obsolete faster; such consumers might turn to a producer (if any exists) that offersa more durable alternative.

Estimates of planned obsolescence can influence a company's decisions aboutproductengineering. Therefore, the company can use the least expensive components that satisfy

product lifetimeprojections. Such decisions are part of a broader discipline known asvalueengineering.

Origins of the phrase

Origins ofplanned obsolescence go back at least as far as 1932 withBernard London'spamphlet Ending the Depression Through Planned Obsolescence.[2]The essence of London'splan would have the government impose a legal obsolescence on consumer articles, tostimulate and perpetuate consumption.

However, the phrase was first popularized in 1954 byBrooks Stevens, an American industrialdesigner. Stevens was due to give a talk at an advertising conference inMinneapolisin 1954.Without giving it much thought, he used the term as the title of his talk. From that point on,"planned obsolescence" became Stevens' catchphrase. By his definition, plannedobsolescence was "Instilling in the buyer the desire to own something a little newer, a little

better, a little sooner than is necessary."

The phrase was quickly taken up by others, but Stevens' definition was challenged. By thelate 1950s,planned obsolescence had become a commonly used term for products designedto break easily or to quickly go out of style. In fact, the concept was so widely recognizedthat in 1959Volkswagenmocked it in an advertising campaign. While acknowledging thewidespread use of planned obsolescence among automobile manufacturers, Volkswagen

pitched itself as an alternative. "We do not believe in planned obsolescence", the adssuggested. "We don't change a car for the sake of change."
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In 1960, cultural criticVance PackardpublishedThe Waste Makers, promoted as an exposof "the systematic attempt of business to make us wasteful, debt-ridden, permanentlydiscontented individuals".

Packard divided planned obsolescence into two sub categories: obsolescence of desirability

and obsolescence of function. "Obsolescence of desirability", also called "psychologicalobsolescence", referred to marketers' attempts to wear out a product in the owner's mind.Packard quoted industrial designerGeorge Nelson, who wrote: "Design... is an attempt tomake a contribution through change. When no contribution is made or can be made, the only

process available for giving the illusion of change is 'styling!'"

The rationale behind the strategy is to generate long-term sales volume by reducing the timebetween repeat purchases, (referred to as shortening the replacement cycle). Firms that pursuethis strategy believe that the additional sales revenue it creates more than offsets theadditional costs of research and development andopportunity costsof existing product linecannibalization. The rewards are by no means certain: In a competitive industry, this can be a

risky strategy because consumers may decide to buy from competitors.

Shortening the replacement cycle has many critics as well as supporters. Critics such asVance Packardclaim the process wastes and exploits customers. Resources are used upmaking changes, often cosmetic changes, that are not of great value to the customer.Supporters claim it drives technological advances and contributes to material well-being.They claim that a market structure of planned obsolescence and rapid innovation may be

preferred to long-lasting products and slow innovation. In a fast-paced competitive industrymarket success requires that products are made obsolete by actively developing replacements.Waiting for a competitor to make products obsolete is a sure guarantee of future demise.

The main concern of the opponents of planned obsolescence is not the existence of theprocess, but its possible postponement. They are concerned that technological improvementsare not introduced even though they could be. They are worried that marketers will refrainfrom developing new products, or postpone their introduction because of productcannibalization issues. For example, if the payback period for a product is five years, a firmmight refrain from introducing a new product for at least five years even though it may be

possible for them to launch in three years. This postponement is only feasible in monopolisticmarkets. In more competitive markets rival firms will take advantage of the postponementand launch their own products. However, if a firm develops a product improvement but keepsthat improvement secret, that firm effectively maintains a monopoly on that improvement,

unless and until another firm independently develops the same product improvement, whichis unlikely if it is a particularly innovative or creative one.

Types of obsolescence

Technical or functional obsolescence

A common method of planned obsolescence is to use inferior materials that are prone toeventually breaking or otherwise becoming damaged. In the case of wheeled can openers,colluding manufacturers make the can opener's teeth out of relatively soft metal that is prone

to deformation (and consequent malfunction due to flattening of the teeth) after using theopener for a while. Some can opener manufacturers make one-wheeled 'butterfly' can openers
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with a rotating axis piece made of poor-quality plastic that is very prone to breakage.Similarly, some manufacturers of ear protectors use poor-quality plastic that is prone toembrittlement and breakage. Screws are often made with a combination of relatively softmetal and an opening that is too shallow to grip the screwdriver head well, such thatdeformation of the metal gripping the screwdriver head (and consequent malfunction due to

the inability of the screwdriver head to grip the screw) is highly likely.

Planned obsolescence is made more likely by making the cost ofrepairscomparable to thereplacement cost, or by refusing to provide service or parts any longer. A product might evennever have been serviceable. Creating new lines of products that do not interoperate witholder products can also make an older model quickly obsolete, forcing replacement.Examples include change of formats and peripheral devices in computers, change of formatsin home audio recordings and movies (gramophone recordtoMagnetic tape sound recordingsto CDs and VHS video to DVDs toBlu-ray).

Some products are powered by a battery (cell) that issolderedinto the circuitry or enclosed in

a sealed housing, instead of being easily replaceable by a new battery. Although the productowner could resolder in a new battery, most owners will not bother or do not have therequired skills. Some products containrechargeable batteriesthat are not user-replaceableafter they have worn down, so that consumers are required to pay for a service of batteryreplacement or to buy a new product.

Planned functional obsolescence is a type of technical obsolescence in which companiesintroduce new technology which replaces the old. The old products do not have the samecapabilities or functionality as the new ones. For example a company that sold consumervideo tape decks while they were developing DVD recorders was engaging in plannedobsolescence. They were actively planning to make their existing product (video tape)obsolete by developing asubstitute product(recordable DVD) with greater functionality(better recording quality). Associated products that arecomplementsto the old products also

become obsolete with the introduction of new products. An example of this is video tapeholders which became obsolete when video tapes and video tape decks became obsolete.

Systemic obsolescence

Planned systemic obsolescence is the deliberate attempt to make a product obsolete byaltering the system in which it is used in such a way as to make its continued use difficult.

New software is frequently introduced that is not compatible with older software. This makes

the older software largely obsolete. Even though an older version of a word processingprogram is operating correctly, it might not be able to read data saved by newer versions. Thesame thing may be said of printers and refill cartridges, for example.

Another way of introducing systemic obsolescence is to eliminate service and maintenancefor a product. If a product fails, the user is forced to purchase a new one. This strategyseldom works because there are typically third parties that are prepared to perform the serviceif parts are still available. To combat this third party repairingsay in the case of replacing alaser assembly in a DVD drivesoldered points are on the printed circuit board withoutexplanation so, unless the user knows which ones to remove, the item cannot be repaired. Inturn, third parties can overcome this byreverse-engineering(a legal practice), but at added

expense which may drive up the price of third-party repair to the point that it is economicallyunattractive to consumers.
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Style obsolescence

Marketing may be driven primarily by aesthetic design. Product categories in this casedisplay a fashion cycle. By continually introducing new designs, and retargeting ordiscontinuing others, a manufacturer can "ride the fashion cycle". Such product categories

include automobiles (style obsolescence), with a strict yearly schedule of new models; thealmost entirely style-driven clothing industry (riding the fashion cycle); and the mobile phoneindustries with constant minor feature enhancements and restyling.

Planned style obsolescence occurs when marketers change the styling of products socustomers will purchase products more frequently. The style changes are designed to makeowners of the old model feel out of date.

Notification obsolescence

Some companies have developed a version of obsolescence in which the product informs theuser when it is time to buy a replacement. Examples of this include water filters that display areplacement notice after a predefined time and disposable razors that have a strip that changescolor. Whether the user is notified before the product has actually deteriorated or the productsimply deteriorates more quickly than is necessary, planned obsolescence is the result. In thisway planned obsolescence may be introduced without the company going to the expense ofdeveloping a "more up to date" replacement model.

In some cases, notification may be combined with the deliberate disabling of a product toprevent it from working, thus requiring the buyer to purchase a replacement. Inkjet printermanufacturers who employ smart chips in their ink cartridges to prevent them from being

used after a certain threshold (number of pages, time, etc.), even though the cartridge maystill contain usable ink or could be refilled. This constitutesprogrammed obsolescence, inthat there is no random component to the decline in function.

Obsolescence by depletion

When a product consumes a resource, as when a computer printer consumes ink and paper, itis generally understood that this is unavoidable. But some products also consume relatedresources that need not be consumed. For example, a 4-colour inkjet printer that is usedmostly for printing in gray scale and seldom in colour may be pre-programmed to depletecolour inks while printing black, so that the colour cartridge(s) must be replaced more

often.[3]

Economics of planned obsolescence

Planned obsolescence tends to work best when a producer has at least an oligopoly.[4]Beforeintroducing a planned obsolescence, the producer has to know that the consumer is at leastsomewhat likely to buy a replacement from them. In these cases of planned obsolescence,there is aninformation asymmetrybetween the producerwho knows how long the productwas designed to lastand the consumer, who does not. When a market becomes morecompetitive, product lifespans tend to increase.[citation needed] When Japanese vehicles with

longer lifespans entered the American market in the 1960s and 1970s, American carmakerswere forced to respond by building more durable products. [5]
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While planned obsolescence is appealing to producers, there can also be significant harm tosociety in the form of negativeexternalities. Continuously replacing, rather than repairing,

products creates more waste, pollution, uses more natural resources, and results in moreconsumer spending. One workaround for these setbacks can involve a consumer getting moretech-savvy about them so they canjury-rigthem to work with newer equipment similar to a

MacGyverism; andupcyclingthe resources can offset the budget for home projects, whereasdowncycling allows for more generalized purposes to live on. And those consumer strategiescan counter the setbacks.

Others have defended planned obsolescence as a necessary driving force behind innovationand economic growth.

Obsolescence and durability

If marketers expect a product to become obsolete, they can design it to last for a specific

lifetime. If a product will be technically or stylistically obsolete in five years, many marketerswill design the product so it will only last for that time. This is done through a technicalprocess called value engineering. An example is home entertainment electronics which tendto be designed and built with moving components like motors and gears that last untiltechnical or stylistic innovations make them obsolete.

These products could be built with higher-grade components, but they are not because thiswould impose an unnecessary cost on the purchaserseeoverengineering. Value engineeringwill reduce the cost of making the product and lower the price to consumers. A company willtypically use the least expensive components that satisfy the product's lifetime projections.

The use of value engineering techniques have led to planned obsolescence being associatedwith product deterioration and inferior quality. Vance Packard claimed that this could giveengineering a bad name, because it directed creative engineering energies toward short-termmarket ends rather than more lofty and ambitious engineering goals.

Planned obsolescence in software

Software companies are sometimes thought to deliberately drop support for oldertechnologies as a calculated attempt to force users to purchase new products to replace thosemade obsolete.[6]Mostproprietary software will ultimately reach an end-of-life point, at

which the manufacturer will cease updates and support. As open source software can alwaysbe updated and maintained, the user is not at the sole mercy of a proprietary vendor.[7]Software which is abandoned by the manufacturer support-wise is sometimes called

Abandonware.

It may sometimes be economically infeasible to offer perpetual support for software. Thisespecially applies to network-related software, where continued development work may benecessary to close new entry points for malicious attackers and malicious software. Coveringthese costs would either require a continual maintenance fee or a much higher upfront cost.Thus network-related software may reach an actual end-of-life, where support has beenwithdrawn from the provider and continued use of the software would yield an unacceptable

security risk to the customer.
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Ethics and consequences of planned obsolescence

Planned obsolescence has these consequences:

A harm to the environment, due to more pollution caused by more resource extractionand by more manufacturing of products.

A harm to the environment, due to more waste generation. An increase in living costs, as products must be bought multiple times. Repeated spending just to keep up with fashion or design or technology changes that

might be irrelevant to an owner of an older model. Time and money spent on replacing the item and adjusting to the new model.

Article : Ending the Depression Through Planned

Obsolescence (1932)

By Bernard London

Frank V. Vanderlip, former President of the National City Bank, of New York,characterized this as a stupid depression. He emphasized the fact that millions weresuffering amidst glutted markets and surpluses.

The new paradox of plenty constitutes a challenge to revolutionize our economicthinking. Classical economics was predicated on the belief that nature was niggardly andthat the human race was constantly confronted by the spectre of shortages. The economistMalthus writing in 1798 warned that the race would be impoverished by an increase in

population which he predicted would greatly exceed gains in the production of foodstuffs.

However, modern technology and the whole adventure of applying creative science tobusiness have so tremendously increased the productivity of our factories and our fieldsthat the essential economic problem has become one of organizing buyers rather than ofstimulating producers. The essential and bitter irony of the present depression lies in thefact that millions of persons are deprived of a satisfactory standard of living at a timewhen the granaries and warehouses of the world are overstuffed with surplus supplies,which have so broken the price level as to make new production unattractive andunprofitable.

Primarily, this country and other countries are suffering from disturbed humanrelationships.

Factories, warehouses, and fields are still intact and are ready to produce in unlimitedquantities, but the urge to go ahead has been paralyzed by a decline in buying power. Theexisting troubles are man-made, and the remedies must be man-conceived and man-executed.

In the present inadequate economic organization of society, far too much is staked on theunpredictable whims and caprices of the consumer. Changing habits of consumption havedestroyed property values and opportunities for employment. The welfare of society has

been left to pure chance and accident.


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In a word, people generally, in a frightened and hysterical mood, are using everything

that they own longer than was their custom before the depression. In the earlier period of

prosperity, the American people did not wait until the last possible bit of use had been

extracted from every commodity. They replaced old articles with new for reasons of

fashion and up-to-dateness. They gave up old homes and old automobiles long before

they were worn out, merely because they were obsolete. All business, transportation, andlabor had adjusted themselves to the prevailing habits of the American people. Perhaps,

prior to the panic, people were too extravagant; if so, they have now gone to the other

extreme and have become retrenchment-mad.

People everywhere are today disobeying the law of obsolescence. They are using their old

cars, their old tires, their old radios and their old clothing much longer than statisticians

had expected on the basis of earlier experience.

The question before the American people is whether they want to risk their future on suchcontinued planless, haphazard, fickle attitudes of owners of ships and shoes and sealing

wax.

What the people can afford is very different at a time when the majority are gainfullyemployed than it is in a period when perhaps ten million are without gainful employment.The job of modern management is to balance production with consumptionto enableone large group, like the factory workers in the cities, to exchange the products of theirhours of labor for the output of farmers. The prevailing defeatist assumption thatdepression and unemployment must continue because we have too much of everything, isthe counsel of despair.

Society is suffering untold loss in foregoing the workpower of ten million human beings.The present deadlock is the inevitable result of traveling along blind alleys. Chaos mustunavoidably flow from an unplanned economic existence.

In the future, we must not only plan what we shall do, but we should also applymanagement and planning to undoing the obsolete jobs of the past. This thoughtconstitutes the essence of my plan for ending the depression and for restoring affluenceand a better standard of living to the average man.

My proposal would put the entire country on the road to recovery, and eventually restorenormal employment conditions and sound prosperity. My suggested remedy would

provide a permanent source of income for the Federal Government and would relieve itfor all time of the difficulties of balancing its budget.

Briefly stated, the essence of my plan for accomplishing these much-to-be-desired-ends isto chart the obsolesce of capital and consumption goods at the time of their production.

I would have the Government assign a lease of life to shoes and homes and machines, to

all products of manufacture, mining and agriculture, when they are first created, and they

would be sold and used within the term of their existence definitely known by the

consumer. After the allotted time had expired, these things would be legally dead and

would be controlled by the duly appointed governmental agency and destroyed if there is

widespread unemployment. New products would constantly be pouring forth from the


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factories and marketplaces, to take the place of the obsolete, and the wheels of industry

would be kept going and employment regularized and assured for the masses.

I am not advocating the total destruction of anything, with the exception of such things asare outward and useless. To start business going and employ people in the manufacture of

things, it would be necessary to destroy such things in the beginningbut for the firsttime only. After the first sweeping up process necessary to clean away obsolete productsin use today, the system would work smoothly in the future, without loss to harm toanybody. Wouldnt it be profitable to spend a sum ofsaytwo billion dollars to buyup, immediately, obsolete and useless buildings, machinery, automobiles and otheroutworn junk, and in their place create from twenty to thirty billion dollars worth of workin the construction field and in the factory? Such a process would put the entire countryon the road to recovery and eventually would restore normal employment and business

prosperity.

An equally important advantage of a system of planned obsolescence would be its

function in providing a new reservoir from which to draw income for the operation of theGovernment. The actual mechanism involved would be briefly something like this:

The people would turn in their used and obsolete goods to certain governmental agencies,situated at strategic locations for the convenience of the public. The individualsurrendering, for example, a set of old dining room furniture, would receive from theComptroller or Inspector of such a Station or Bureau, a receipt indicating the nature of thegoods turned in, the date, and the possible value of the furniture (which is to be paid tohim in the future by the Government). This receipt would be stamped in a receipt bookwith a number, which the individual would have received when he first brought in theobsolete article to be destroyed. Receipts so issued would be partially equivalent tomoney in the purchase of new goods by the individuals, in that they would be acceptableto the Government in payment of the sales tax which would be levied as part of my plan.

The workers wages are exhausted in a week or a month in the purchase of food, clothing

and shelter. He has for himself little that is permanent to show for his hours of toil,whereas the owner of the building or machine which the workers labor helped to

construct has a unit of capital goods which will last for years or even decades. The manwho performed the work received as compensation only enough to purchase comfort andsustenance for a short time, and he must continue to labor if he wishes to go on living.The product of the workers hand, however, is a semi-permanent thing and produces

income for its owner for an indefinite period of years. In the end, not only is the originalcost of production repaid and interest yield on the investment, but far more besides. Thisvery lasting quality of the product of the workers toil results to his disadvantage, for a

time comes such as we are passing through today, when there is an excess of capitalgoods and the worker is told: We have enough production of wealth; we are going to use

up what we have an need no more for the present. You laborer, go find work elsewhere.We do not need you now.

And so the worker, whose sweat wrought this vast store of material goods, suffers frompoverty and want, while the country is glutted with everything. My plan would correctthis obviously inequitable situation by arbitrarily limiting the returned capital, to a

stipulated period of years, after which the benefits would revert to the people.


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The situation in which the country now finds itself, in which there is poverty amidstplenty, is well illustrated by the analogy of a great giant standing in a pool of fresh waterup to his lips, yet crying out that he is thirsty because he is paralyzed and cannot stoop todrink. His muscles must be enabled to relax for him to bend down in order that he mayquench his thirst. So, too, the paralysis which prevents our economic society from

consuming the abundant supplies of raw materials and manufactured commodities whichglut our markets must be cured before normal conditions can be restored.

Furniture and clothing and other commodities should have a span of life, just as humans

have. When used for their allotted time, they should be retired, and replaced by fresh

merchandise. It should be the duty of the State as the regulator of business to see that the

system functions smoothly, deciding matters for capital and labor and seeing that

everybody is sufficiently employed. The Government will have the power to extend thelife of articles for a year or two (upon agreed terms), if they are still useable after theirallotted time has expired and if employment can be maintained at a high peak withouttheir replacement.

If a machine has been functioning steadily for five years or so, it can fairly be considereddeaddead to the one who paid his money for it because he has had all the use of itduring those five years and it will have paid for its life by its earnings in the five-year

period. Then it should go to the workmen, through the State; its life can be prolonged ifthe factories are already busy and there are no unemployed. But if by its replacement idleworkers can be given jobs and closed factories reopened, then this machine should bedestroyed and new (and probably improved) apparatus produced in its place.

The original span of life of a commodity would be determined by competent engineers,economists and mathematicians, specialists in their fields, on behalf of the Government.

Planned Obsolescence: 8 Products Designed

to Fail

Ink Cartridges

A set of new inkjet cartridges can cost more than the printer itself...yet you may bepreventedfrom using every expensive drop of pigment. Many ink cartridges come with proprietary

smart chips on them that disable printing when one of the colors falls to a certain level, evenif there's really enough ink to do the job. Plus, the smart chips can discourage refilling or useof third-party ink.

Greens should be particularly irked at this last point, since each large laser printer cartridgerequires about three quarts of oil and 2.5 pounds of plastic to make. Some water filters havesimilar technology that calls for replacement before the medium is necessarily used up.

Solutions for consumers: Buy cheaper generic cartridges, particularly ones that let you refillthe ink. This cuts down on plastic use, and saves you serious money. You can also probablyget away with printing less. Use draft and grayscale settings to save ink, and optimize contentfrom the Web or e-mail before you send to the printer, so you don't waste ink on headers,
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footers and ads you don't want. You can also skip printing by using online backup services,Google docs and e-mailing things to yourself.

Video Games

When the Super Nintendo (SNES) came out in the early 1990s, it made the earlier NintendoEntertainment System obsolete. Yes, the processing power and other capabilities hadincreased, but the SNES also made the massive game library of the 8-bit console obsolete

because it couldn't play the old cartridges. Those who wanted to play earlier games had tokeep both systems around, and new customers had no option to try older, cheaper titles.

With a few exceptions, most video game systems have been designed to prevent backwardscompatibility, in no small part to spur sales of the latest technology -- and new copies of thesame old games.

Solutions for consumers: Trade video game titles with friends, buy and sell used, or rentgames. If you do it throughGameflyor a similar mail service, you can also reducetransportation. You can also play games online or on your computer instead of a dedicatedconsole.

extbooks

Planned obsolescence isn't limited to newer kinds of technology. Even though not muchchanges from year to year for most core subjects, textbook publishers issue frequent updates.Trouble is, each new edition is usually printed with the information shifted to different pagenumbers, making it difficult to follow along in class with a previous volume. Textbooks arequite expensive, since publishers believe students have little choice, and it would be better forconsumers if new information was placed at the end, or offered as slim supplements.

By issuing new editions, publishers also suppress the used market.

Solutions for consumers: Some students arefighting back, and are buying recently usedtexts at a fraction of the cost from places likeCraigslist. Or perhaps even cheaper and moreconvenient, you may be able to rent the textbooks you need.Chegg.com, for example, is a

mail service not unlike Netflix, in which shipping on return books is free.

Fast Fashion

One year fishnets are out, the next year they're in. Unless you have your own warehouse likeDemi Moore, chances are good that you don't hang on to every piece of clothing you own towait until acid wash comes back into vogue. Whether it's because of cuts, hemlines or colors,a lot of what is advertised and sold is designed to go out of style in a short time. As big-labeldesignerGary Harvey recently put it, "Too many garments end up in landfill sites. They aredeemed aesthetically redundant and get discarded at the end of the season when there areoften years of wear left."
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Solutions for consumers: Instead of buying the latest and greatest apparel, consider timelessclassics.Vintage clothesare a great green choice, and offer nearly endless style possibilities.Avoid so-called "fast fashion," which is churned out quickly based on ephemeral trends andisn't designed to last.

Software

In software, as with some video game hardware, many titles are incompatible with previousfiles or programs. This definitely gives consumers incentive to upgrade across the board.Many users are also forced to upgrade to new editions after publishers stop providing supportto older versions. This is particularly effective for software in which copyright protectionlimits the amount of service third parties could perform.

The march of progress in software often drives hardware sales as well, since newer versions

often require increasingly powerful machines. Microsoft's Windows, in particular, gets largerand hungrier for bits with each incarnation, forcing people to purchase faster computers.

Solutions for consumers: Instead of proprietary software, useopen sourcetitles, which areusually free for typical users, including upgrades. You also may be able to save money byusing general titles instead of specialized ones that only do one thing, since you are less likelyto get trapped into expensive service or upgrades later. For example, use Microsoft Excel orGoogle Spreadsheets instead of custom accounting software. Some users may also find thatthey don't really need to get the latest and greatest upgrades, unless there are security reasonsto do so

Cars

Automakers are often accused of planned obsolescence for a variety of reasons. Theyroutinely discontinue parts that could otherwise be made available for repairs. And they hewto a strict yearly cycle of model releases, often introducing purely cosmetic changes from oneyear to the next. Instead of sticking with hits and standardizing them over time, which would

better support a repair aftermarket, car companies retire popular models and bring outsomething new every few years, making it harder to fix older vehicles.

Cars today are partly seen as fashion accessories, and a whole culture has arisen of keepingvehicles for only a few years, when it wouldn't be very difficult to extend the life. Cars take alot of resources to produce, so adding a few years to every model's lifespan could have a bigimpact.

Solutions for consumers: Used vehicles! It may not be the trendiest option, but keeping usedcars on the road can prevent new resource use, as long as they aren't too horribly inefficient.Keep your car in good working order to make it last longer, and consider bartering formechanic service.
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Consumer Electronics

Some have complained that cell phones seem to follow planned obsolescence, although it isalso true that handsets endure heavy daily use, and often do wear out. Plus, cell phonetechnology has been proceeding apace. MP3 players, on the other hand, seem to be designedwith more rapid planned obsolescence in mind. Unlike many gadgets, these units are rarelyupgradable with more memory, meaning consumers are more likely to buy a whole new unitafter they fill up their old one. But perhaps even more aggravating is planned obsolescence of

proprietary batteries -- typically lithium-ion -- that are found in many MP3 players (inaddition to laptops, cameras and some other devices).

In the worst case, such as with Apple iPods, the battery can't be removed easily byconsumers, forcing an expensive service request when it runs out -- inconveniently priced just

below replacement cost of the whole unit, and encouraging a throwaway mentality. Also,many batteries have integrated circuits on them that help regulate power. That can help

reduce fire risk, but many are also set to disable the battery after a predetermined number ofcycles, even if the life of the individual battery could go on for longer. These advancedbatteries are often expensive ($75 or more in the case of laptops, but still pricey for smallerdevices), so extending the life is no trifling matter.

Solutions for consumers: Luckily, there are a number of good quality "generic" batteries onthe market for many devices. These typically are not recommended by manufacturers, but

problems are rare. It also isn't that difficult to replace the battery in your iPod, anddirectionsand how-to videos are online. If you are experienced with technology, you may be able toreprogram the battery itself to get around built-in auto shut-off

Light Bulbs

In a few museums, some of Thomas Edison's early light bulbs still glow, after more than 100years. Yet contemporary bulbs seem lucky to last a year or two. Clearly, the technology existsto make light bulbs last longer, but that isn't exactly a profit motivator for manufacturers.

Solutions for consumers: Consider longer lasting light bulbs, such as fluorescent and LEDtechnology. These may cost more up front, but they'll save a lot of energy down the line. But

beware that manyCFLs haven't lasted as long as advertised, so stick with major name brands.

Perhaps most important, keep your lights off as much as possible (dimmers and sensors makeit easier); the less your bulbs are on, the longer they'll last.
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