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Transcript of Pla 799 Proposal
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SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Poverty is a multi faceted issue and a plague afflicting
people all over the world. It is considered one of the
symptoms or manifestations of underdevelopment and a
permanent feature of human society. One of the daunting
challenges confronting the world today (particularly
developing countries) is the high incidence of poverty.
Poverty in Africa like in most regions of the world is
somewhat paradoxical. This is so because, despite the
upward trend in the average real growth rate, over the past
five years, endemic poverty has persisted. And no other
region in Africa currently present a gloomy picture of the
continents economic position like the sub-Saharan region
where the share of people living on less than one dollar a
day exceeds that in the next poorest region, south Asia, by
about 17 percent.
The severity of poverty in the sub-continent,
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accompanied by endemic conflict, diseases, political
instability, corruption and mismanagement of resources
have combined to undermine economic growth and
development as well as the fear of meeting the Millennium
Development Goal (MDG), that is, of halving poverty by
2015.
In Nigeria, poverty appears to be the greatest degrader
of the economy, among other contemporary socio-
economic problems. The situation is however paradoxical
when weighed against the fact that Nigeria, with her vast
human and material resources has a large proportion of its
population wallowing in endemic poverty. More worrisome
is the fact that despite the efforts by successive
governments at various levels to improve the well-being of
their people through various poverty reduction policies and
programmes, the incidence of poverty is still high.
In Borno State, poverty describes the deplorable living
condition of individuals and communities in a state of
economic and social deprivation. Poverty manifests itself
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not only in economic deprivation but also in terms of the
individuals inability to access basic social amenities. Thus,
an individuals level of economic well being is determined
and shaped by a complex array of economic and non-
economic factors such as political power, access to basic
infrastructures, and utilities (electricity, transportation and
water supply), access to social services such as education,
health care and environmental protection. The individuals
access to these services is in turn influenced by his level of
economic power.
By 1999 poverty in Borno state has assumed a
frightening dimension forcing down the living condition of
the citizens to the lowest ebb. In a bid to stem the tide and
devastating effects of poverty in the state, the
administration of Senator Ali Modu Sheriff established the
Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment.
Consequently, a lot of poverty alleviation strategies were
implemented.
The idea of poverty alleviation was received with high
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hopes by the people especially given the speed with which
the government created the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation
and Youth Empowerment. Poverty alleviation programmes
and strategies were seen as a means through which the
government can revamp the economy and deal with the
sufferings of the poor and downtrodden.
With regards to the implementation and sustainability of
the poverty alleviation strategies in the state, there are
differing comments and opinions. Peoples perception on
the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation
strategies in Borno State will form the basis of this study
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The problem of poverty in Borno state has eaten deep
into the fabric of the society. There is high rate of
unemployment, standards of living have declined
tremendously, fast decline in the educational institutions
and high rate of corruption in the bureaucracy. The
economy has remained unchanged and the persistence of
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poverty reflected in the overall quality of life of the citizens
(John and Balami, 1999, Ibrahim, 2006).
In Borno state, not only that income levels are much
lower, the incidence of malnutrition, infant mortality and
illiteracy is much higher. This is compounded by the lack of
access to basic social amenities and infrastructures such as
portable water, electricity, modern health facilities, good
schools, roads and communication facilities (Ibrahim,
2006).
More worrisome is the fact that, the poverty situation in
the state is worsening and the human suffering is on the
increase. This deteriorating posture calls to question the
implementation cum sustainability of the poverty
alleviation strategies by the state government over the
years. It is against this back drop that this study examines
the peoples perception on the implementation and
sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno
State.
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1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of this study is to examine
peoples perception on the implementation and
sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno
State. The specific objectives are to;
i. identify the poverty alleviation strategies in Borno
state;
ii. examine peoples perception on the implementation
and sustainability of the poverty alleviation
strategies in Borno state;
iii. examine peoples perception of the impact of
poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State and
iv. poffer policy options in enhancing the
implementation and sustainability of poverty
alleviation strategies in Borno state.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study will be guided by the following research
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questions:
i- What are the peoples perception on the
implementation and sustainability of poverty
alleviation strategies on Borno state?
ii- What are the peoples perception on the
implementation and sustainability of poverty
alleviation strategies in Borno state?
iii- How do the people perceive the impact and
problems of poverty alleviation strategies in
Borno state?
iv- What policy options can enhance the
implementation and sustainability of poverty
alleviation strategies in Borno state?
1.5 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS
The central hypothesis girding this research is:
Ho: Poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state have
not succeeded in reducing poverty.
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1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study is necessitated by the growing rate of
poverty and suffering that have resulted to a very wide
gap between the haves and the have nots. It will
therefore appear a worthwhile exercise to undertake a
study on the peoples perception on the implementation
and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in
Borno state.
The study possesses some academic value and would
be of interest to students, researchers, academics,
government officials and the general public. It will be a
contribution to knowledge and literature on poverty
alleviation and a guide for further research.
The study will be an eye opener on the peoples
perception on the implementation and sustainability of
poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state. This will give
us a good understanding of the impact and or problems of
the poverty alleviation strategies in the state.
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It is hoped that the result obtained from the study will
serve as a useful material in formulating and
implementing sustainable poverty alleviation strategies in
Borno State.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study will essentially concentrate on the peoples
perception on the implementation and sustainability of
poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State. The study
will cover the period 1999 to 2009. The choice of the
period is as a result of three reasons. First, it was the
period of return from military rule to democratic rule with
much expectation from the populace. Second, it was the
period the government established the Ministry of Poverty
Alleviation and Youth Empowerment to curb poverty
among the people. Third, the period is long enough to
assess the success or otherwise of the implementation
and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in the
state.
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For this study, emphasis will be on the perception of the
people on the type of poverty alleviation strategies,
impact and problems of implementation and
sustainability.
1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
This section clarifies concepts within the context of this
research. These concepts are perception, implementation,
sustainability and poverty.
a) Perception: in this study it refers to the
observation, experience, understanding and
interpretation of the implementation and
sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in
Borno state by the people.
b) Implementation: This refers to the execution or
effectuation of the poverty alleviation strategies
into action by the Borno state government. It is
the translating of the poverty alleviation idea or
plan into action.
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c) Sustainability: In this study it means existence,
maintenance, and continuation of the poverty
alleviation programmes in Borno State on a
sustained basis.
d) Poverty: Is a state where an individual is not able
to cater adequately for his or her basis needs of
food, clothing and shelter. One is poor if he or she
is unable to meet social and economic obligations,
lacks gainful employment, skills assets and self
esteem; and has limited access to social and
economic infrastructure such as education, health,
potable water and sanitation; and consequently
has limited chances of advancing his or her
welfare to the limit of his or her capabilities.
1.9 PLAN OF WORK
The study will be divided into five chapters.
Chapter one will present the background of the study
and the rational for the study. Chapter two will review
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relevant literature on poverty and poverty alleviation.
The chapter will also provide the theoretical foundation
for the study. Chapter Three will discuss the
methodology and the study area. Here, population and
sample selection, the instruments used to collect the
data and the procedures used to analyze the data will
be examined. Chapter four will present and analyse the
data collected through the use of questionnaire and
interview. It will further discuss the major findings and
the policy implications of these findings. Chapter five
will summarize the major findings, draw conclusion and
make practical recommendations.
SECTION TWO
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LITERATURE REVIEW
This section is dedicated to the review of relevant
literature and theoretical framework for the study. The works
of authors and scholars on the concept, types, causes,
perception and effects of poverty as well as the meaning of
poverty alleviation, strategies and problems will be
reviewed. The System Theory and the Basic Needs Theory
will be adopted as the theoretical framework for the study.
2.1 CONCEPT OF POVERTY
The concept of poverty is familiar and yet difficult to
explain. A search of the relevant literature shows that there
is no general consensus on any meaningful definition of
poverty. This is because poverty is multi-dimensional and
affects many aspects of the human condition, including
physical, moral and psychological. To this end, different
criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty.
Most economists follow the conventional view of poverty
as a situation of low income or consumption. According to
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Omoruyi (1987:48), poverty is the absence or lack of basic
necessities of life including material wealth, commonplace
regular flow of wage and income and inability to sustain
oneself based on existing resources available. In such a
state, the means of achieving minimum subsistence, health,
education and comfort are absent. The concern here is with
the individuals ability to be able to provide basic goods and
services for himself (Amis and Rakodi, 1994:630).
The above definition of poverty is often used for
constructing one measure of poverty called, poverty line- a
value of income or consumption necessary to purchase the
minimum standard of nutrition and other necessitates of life.
Accordingly, people are considered poor when their
measured standard of living in terms of income or
consumption is below the poverty line. Thus, the poverty line
is a measure that separates the poor from the non-poor.
Many other experts have conceptualized the poor as that
portion of the population that is unable to meet basic daily
nutritional needs. For example, the Food and Agricultural
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Organization (FAO) identifies poverty as the inability to have
a diet that meets 2100 calories a day (Rentlinger and
Selowsky, 1997:146). Similarly, Aluko, (1995:88), defined
poverty as the lack of command over basic consumption
needs such as food, clothing and shelter.
The third group sees poverty as a function of education,
health, life expectancy, child mortality, etc. The German
Government in 1992, stated that people affected by poverty
are unable to lead a decent life and hence poverty means
not having enough to eat, a high rate of infant mortality, a
low life expectancy, low educational opportunities, poor
drinking water, inadequate health care, unfit housing and a
lack of active participation in decision-making processes
(Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
Development, 1992).
Fourthly, another group of experts see poverty as a
consequence of deprivation, lack of rights and exclusion
from participating in political processes. Thus the poor are
deprived of the opportunities of owning physical and
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financial assets. They always experience general condition of
deprivation whose dimensions include: social inferiority,
isolation, humiliation, and insecurity. Thus, Sen (1987:221)
defines poverty as the lack of certain capabilities, such as
being able to participate with dignity in society. Similarity,
Johnson (1989:107) describes poverty as a situation where
the resources of individuals or families are inadequate to
provide a society acceptable standard of living. Such lack of
resources incapacitates the individual in protecting himself
against social, economic and political deprivations.
The above definitions of poverty implies that poverty has
many dimensions, such as inadequate income, malnutrition,
lack of access to social services, and lack of social and
political status. However, the central theme in all the
definitions is that poverty is a condition of barely viable
human existence caused by very low income. It is a
condition in which income is insufficient to meet subsistence
needs. This implies that levels of living may be considerably
lower than those that are deemed adequate standard of
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living. Poverty hinges on varying living and social standards,
thus, poverty must therefore be based upon comparative
scales and standards of living. In other words, individuals,
families and groups in the population can be said to be in
poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of
diet, participate in the activities and have the living
condition and amenities which are customary in the societies
to which they belong.
2.2 TYPES OF POVERTY
There are various types of poverty, the first based on
basic needs, is classified as absolute and relative poverty
(UNDP, 1990, Schubert, 1994, Hemmer, 1994).
Absolute and Relative Poverty
According to Hemmer (1994:66), absolute poverty
means inability to provide for physical subsistence to the
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extent of being incapable of protecting, human dignity.
Some of the items for physical subsistence include; food,
clothing, shelter, portable water, health services, basic
education, public transportation and work. One of the
features of those who suffer absolute poverty is that their
income is meager and as a result their marginal propensity
to save is zero (Osuntogun 1998:11).
Relative poverty refers to a person or household whose
provision with goods is lower than that of other persons or
households. Relative poverty therefore, does not necessarily
mean that the persons concerned cannot lead a life that is
worthy of human dignity. It merely states that because of
the distribution structures in a society, certain economic
subjects are disadvantaged to an unacceptable extent.
Relative classification attempts to define poverty in relation
to either average levels or societal norms (Schubert,
1994:31). Relative poverty can be subjective or objective.
When the differences in income values of individuals are
objectively determined and are described by value judgment
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as excessive then this is a situation of objective relative
poverty. If, however, such differences are perceived as being
excessive irrespective of whether this is objectively
measurable, there is a case of subjective relative poverty.
Conjunctural and Structural Poverty
Based on individual circumstances, Hiffe (1987:92)
distinguished between conjunctural/transient poverty and
structural/chronic poverty. Conjunctural poverty is a
temporary phenomenon into which normally self sufficient
individuals are thrown in a crisis. Its causes are more
transitory and possibly more reversible. It is mainly due to
natural disasters (e.g drought, floods, earth quake, etc),
man-made disasters like wars, and environmental
degradation, and changes in domestic economic policies that
may result in price changes, increased unemployment etc
(Obadan, 1997:14).
Chronic poverty is long-term or persistent. Its causes are
more permanent and depend on a host of factors such as
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limited productive resources, lack of skills for gainful
employment, locational disadvantage, or endemic socio-
political and cultural factors.
Urban and Rural Poverty
Locationally and spatially, there is urban poverty and
rural poverty. Urban slums and ghettos are usually
characterized by environmental degradation, inadequate
welfare services and social deprivation, low per capital
income, overcrowded accommodation, low level of education
etc. Rural poverty is characterized by poor material
conditions in the rural areas: high rate of illiteracy, lack of
infrastructures, lack of capital resources, high population
growth rates, high levels of under employment and
unemployment, etc (Ekpene 2001:140).
2.3 CAUSES OF POVERTY
Poverty has many causes, some of them very basic.
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Some experts suggest, for instance, that the world has too
many people, too few jobs, and not enough food. But such
basic causes are quite intractable and not easily eradicated.
In most cases, the causes and effects of poverty interact, so
that what make people poor also creates conditions that
keep them poor. According to Corbett (2008:2), primary
factors that may lead to poverty include/ over population,
the unequal distribution of resources in the world economy,
inability to meet high standards of living and costs of living
and inadequate education and unemployment opportunities.
Others are environmental degradation, economic and
demographic trends, individual responsibility and welfare
dependency.
World Bank (1999) identified the main causes of poverty
as:
- Inadequate access to employment opportunities
- Inadequate physical assets, such as land and capital
and minimal access by the poor to credit even on a
small scale.
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- Inadequate access to the means of supporting rural
development in poor regions.
- Inadequate access to markets where the poor can sell
goods and services.
- Low endowment of human capital
- Destruction of natural resource leading to
environmental degradation and reduced productivity.
- Inadequate access to assistance for those living at the
margin and those victimized by transitory poverty.
- Lack of participation; failure to draw the poor into the
design of development programmes.
Alcock (1997) identified three major causes of poverty.
They are pathological, structural and ideological causes.
a) Pathological: This makes use of genetic
explanation which seeks to relate social status
with supposedly inherited characteristics such as
intelligence and psychological approaches. It
focuses on the family or community as the cause
of poverty, where the cycle of deprivation in
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which the inadequate parenting, lowered
aspirations and disadvantaged environment of
families and communities become internalized.
b) Structural: The structural cause explains the
individual is not to blame. It focuses on agency
failure and directs attention towards those who
are supposedly charged with eliminating poverty.
For instance, many claimants do not receive the
benefits to which they are entitled. Also political
decisions are crucial in determining the
circumstances of people living within the political
system.
c) Ideological: This consists of the different causes
of poverty and the likely ways of fighting it from
the point of view of neo-liberalism, conservatism,
social democracy and revolutionary socialism
(Alcock 1997: 94-96).
Olusanya (1997:32), is of the view that poor education,
traditional occupations and unemployment determine
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poverty line in must households in Nigeria and this is
compounded by rapid population growth, poor health and
poor nutrition. He concludes that all obstructions to the
regular flow of income would certainly bring about poverty.
At the micro level, factors such as death, accident,
illness, and age and lack of employment of the head of the
household are top on the list of causes of poverty in Nigeria.
These are complimented by lack of occupational training and
excessive family size. At the macro level, Nigeria is classified
as a low income and severely indebted economy and by
implication, a poor country (World Bank, 1999).
The causes of poverty in Nigeria with the characteristics
mentioned above can be summarized into two categories.
They are:
1. Instability of certain key people in the family to
get or hold steady well paying jobs. This may
be due to lack of expansion of productive
activities in the economy and under capacity
utilization due to excessive dependence on
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foreign inputs. Allied to the above is the lack of
relevant education, skills or talents needed by
the existing jobs.
2. Economic force and changes in labour
requirements. For example, inflation reduces
the quantity of goods and services a given
income can purchase and leads to poverty
identification. The structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) and the fiscal and monetary
polices of the government including the
exchange rate measures have served to fuel
inflation and worsen poverty situation in the
country (Aliyu 2001:26).
2.4 EFFECTS OF POVERTY
Poverty has a lot of detrimental effects, as a very
undesirable level of economic well being, it creates fear,
depression, despondency and suicides. Extreme poverty can
cause terrible suffering and death, and even modest levels
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of poverty can prevent people from realizing many of their
desires. The worlds poorest people many of whom live in
developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and
Eastern Europe struggle daily for food, shelter, and ether
necessities. They often suffer from severe malnutrition,
epidemic disease outbreaks, famine, and war. In wealthier
countries such as the United States, Canada, Japan, and
those in Western Europe the effects of poverty include poor
nutrition, mental illness, drug dependence, crime, and high
rates of disease, depression and anxiety (Corbett 2008:1).
Poverty has diverse effects on the poor and the society
in general. Poor people of course lack basic human needs
particularly quality food and adequate medical care, as such
they remain helplessly exposed to illness, disease and high
risk of mortality. They live in crowded and poor houses with
no basic facilities, jobs available to them provide low wages
and little opportunities for improvements and advancement
(Okoh, 2000:113).
There is the psychological effect of poverty which causes
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causes despair, anger, and lack of interest in anything since
the poor is not available for mobilization to achieve societal
objectives. Similarly, poverty deprives one of any economic
and political influence in the society, neither does the poor
person have much resources to produce and contribute to
the societys pool of goods and services (Otaigbe 2000:16).
The needy also have little money to contribute to the
political campaigns neither do they have interest in politics
nor give adequate education to their children. In fact, there
are chains of effects of poverty that the society generally
suffers. They include a number of social scourge, the biggest
being increased crime (Otaigbe 2000:22).
Poverty is a condition of human deprivation, dis-
powerment and disablement. It is not just low income but
poor nutrition which debilitates the human beings mental
and manual capacity and leads to the reproduction of
retarded and physically and mentally deformed children.
Poverty is not just low consumption and poor access to
health and educational facilities, it is a condition of chronic
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daily; illness and disablement by all forms of disease, by
illiteracy and semi illiteracy and lack of skill and deskilling
(Sekum and Orsaq, 2006:75).
Poverty is not just tattered clothing and wretched
housing, dirt and lack of sanitation and ventilation, it is
dehumanization, degradation and permanent insecurity and
instability in all forms of essential family and community
relationships and even in the ability to perform religious
duties. Furthermore, poverty leads to despondency and
hopelessness. In Nigeria, this is because the alarming
dimensions of poverty and potential human contributions
towards development are wasted as people continue to fall
into the poverty trap daily (Usman 1999: 74-77).
According to Odurumba (2006:16), persistent chronic
poverty has been responsible for most revolutions. Thus,
poverty has both social and economic implications and
unless efforts are made to alleviate poverty, the condition is
compounded and development will be impaired.
A major problem of the concept of poverty is that it
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presents itself as an entirely economic condition which can
only be realistically addressed within an entirely economic
framework. The historical experience of mankind in the 21st
century has brought out the fact that poverty by dispowering
some human beings in a society, disable that society and
renders it unstable and incapable of functioning in ways in
which it can realize its economic and political potentials. It is
not just that the high level of deprivation suffered by the
poor reduce their usefulness as consumers of goods and
services produced by others but the exercise of their mental
and manual capacities as citizens who have social,
educational, cultural, legal, political and economic roles and
responsibilities are severely crippled (Edoh 2007:74).
2.5 PERCEPTION AND PERSPECTIVES OF POVERTY
There are so many perceptions or perspectives of
poverty in the literature. We shall however examine the
social democratic perspective, the Marxist perspective, and
the individualistic perspective/approach.
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Social Democratic Perspective
Social democracy encompasses a wide spectrum of
people who broadly share the belief that a market economy
left to its own devices will create large income inequalities
and therefore poverty, but that such a situation can be
changed through government intervention acting through
the parliamentary system. Clearly this is one motivation for
setting up the welfare state based on the principle of full
employment and universal provision of certain benefits.
The key causes of poverty according to writers in this
tradition is the operation of the labour market, and in
particular the creation of high levels of unemployment.
Toionsend (1979), certainly sees the operation of the
labour market as a central cause of poverty. Since
participation in the labour market is seen to be the main
source of income for most people, exclusion from work is
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likely to be a weighty factor.
Marxist Perspective
Marxist agrees with social democratic thinkers that the
cause of poverty is to be located in the nature of free market
capitalism. Central to the writings of Marx (1856), was the
idea that capitalism operated by workers producing more in
value than they were paid in wages, leaving the surplus
value to be accumulated by the capitalist.
Marxists disagree with the social democratic thinkers
about the solution because they do not believe that the
welfare state and nations of citizenship can overcome the
inequalities created by capitalism. Since, they say, poverty is
a permanent feature of capitalism, the only solution is the
revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the institution of a
communist society where production is based on human
needs, not profit. The reason for this as perhaps best
explained by neo-Marxist writer, Claus Offe. He points out
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that the welfare state faces a number of key structural limits
to its powers. The most important of these is its reliance on
tax revenue from private production and borrowing from
private financial institutions to fund its activities. This means
that in order to fund its activities it needs to ensure the
continued profitable operation of capitalism.
According to Offe (1984:148); The welfare state, rather
than being a separate and antonymous source of well-being
which provides incomes and services as a citizens right, is
itself highly dependent upon the prosperity and continued
profitability of the economy.
Individualistic Approach
The key reason for poverty identified by individualistic
thinkers is the behaviour and culture of the individuals in
poverty. On the basis of his studies, Lewis (1986), argued
that the poor have a distinctive set of attitudes, norms and
values which include a sense of resignation and fate. This
cultural attribute makes them different from the rest of the
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population. His list of attributes of this culture of poverty
runs to some 62 traits, including things such as feelings of
helplessness and marginality, early sexual experience and
violence in the household. He maintained that such a way of
life of poor people is perpetuated and is passed on from
generation to generation (Lewis, 1986:114).
This concept has come into more usage, and often tends
to be presented as the reason for poverty; these people are
in poverty because of their own behavior and attitudes, or at
best, that of their parents. Their fatalistic attitude to life
leads them to fail to take up opportunities and so they
remain poor. They tend to live life for the moment, spending
rather than saving, and not getting involved in political or
community groups campaigning for change. Lewis further
argued that even if some of their poverty is due to the
structure of society, their failure to get involved in any
attempt to change it is due to their culture, not to structural
factors (Lewis 1986: 25-26).
A more widespread concept in the individualistic
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approach today is that of the dependency culture. This is
similar to the culture of poverty, but the explanation of the
source of that culture is distinctive.
2.6 POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES IN NIGERIA
According to Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2002), poverty
alleviation or reduction is any process which seeks to reduce
the level of poverty in a community, or amongst a group of
people or countries. World Bank (2002), defined poverty
alleviation as any attempt by government, non-
governmental organizations and philanthropists to reduce
the hardship imposed on groups or individuals by poverty.
Ogwumike (2000) explains poverty alleviation as
programmes aimed at improving the living conditions of
people who are already poor.
The above explanations indicate that poverty alleviation
is a deliberate policy or strategy instituted by government
and non governmental organizations aimed at tackling the
problems associated with poverty. In other words, it is a
policy or strategy aimed at reducing the misery, hardship
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and suffering of people caused or as a result of being poor.
Poverty alleviation or reduction programmes may be
aimed at economic or non-economic poverty. Some of the
popular methods used are education, economic development
and income redistribution. Poverty alleviation efforts may
also be aimed at improving social and legal barriers to
income growth among the poor.
Egware (1997), explains the approach of poverty
alleviation in Nigeria as;
- Increasing the poor and vulnerables access to
productive assets.
- Raising the return on assets to which the poor and
vulnerable have access.
- Promoting employment opportunities.
- Investing in human capital, making available to the
poor sufficient and relevant qualities of education,
health, nutrition and food security.
- Empowering the poor to expand their economic and
social participation by supplementing their resources
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and initiatives with adequate and relevant transfers.
In Nigeria, poverty has been on the increase, rendering
individuals helpless due to little or no access to basic
infrastructures and amenities. There is high level of
insecurity, high death rate and increase in corruption in the
level of society and government.
Over the years successive governments have severally
attempted to reduce the problem of poverty through various
programmes and schemes. Most of these programmes were
put in place by the government (either wholly or in
association with international agencies).
Poverty alleviation programmes put in place include
Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) set up in 1977. Free and
Compulsory Primary Education (FCPE) set up also in 1977,
Green Revolution established in 1980, and Low Cost Housing
Scheme. Both OFN and Green Revolution were set up to
boast agricultural production and improve the general
performance of the agricultural sector among other things.
These programmes made some laudable impacts, they
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enhanced the quality of life of many Nigerians. But the
programmes could not be sustained due to lack of political
will and commitment, policy instability and insufficient
involvement of the beneficiaries in these programmes (CBN,
1998).
Other programmes by the government to alleviate
poverty are the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA),
the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), the
Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS), the Rural
Electrification Scheme (RES), and the Rural Banking
Programme (RBP). Most of these programmes were designed
to take care of such objectives as employment generation
enhancing agricultural output and income, and stemming
the tide of rural-urban migration, which no doubt affected
reduction. According to Ogwumike (1998), despite some
significant degree of success made by some of these
programmes, most of them could not be sustained. He
added that with time many of them failed as a result of
diversion from the original focus. For instance, the Rural
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Banking and the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme at
many stages failed to deliver the desired credit for
agricultural and rural transformation because a lot of savings
were mobilized in rural areas only to be diverted to urban
areas in form of credit/investments.
Some of the attempts made in the past to alleviate
poverty include the establishment of the Directorate of Food,
Roads, and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) with the major aims
of opening up the rural areas and to improve the conditions
of the vulnerable poor. The establishment of the Peoples
Bank of Nigeria (PBN) to cater for all the credit needs of the
less privilege Nigerians, the establishment of the National
Directorate of Employment (NDE) to tackle the problem of
mass unemployment and the Better Life Programme (BLP)
which was gender specific. The Better Life Programme was
meant to improve the life of rural women, and was later
replaced by the Family Support Programme (FSP).
Others such as the National Agricultural Land
Development Authority (NALDA), the Strategic Grains
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Reserve Authority (SGRA), and the Accelerated Crop
production (ACP) were all established to improve the
productive capacities of peasant farmers as well as
improving their incomes and well-being. To assist in
eradication of illiteracy which was found to be a major cause
of poverty, the Nomadic and Adult Education programmes
wee established.
Igbuzor (2005:31), reported that these programmes
failed because they were hijacked by position seeking
individuals, who used most of the resources for personal
aggrandizement rather than the set objectives. In the same
vein, Elumilade and Asaolu (2006:72), submitted that the
master and servant relationships associated with the
programmes to alleviate poverty was responsible for the
failure of the programmes. Elumilade and Asaolu concluded
that the government claims to know and understand what
poverty is, who the poor are and what they need in order to
alleviate poverty, whereas, only the poor understands
poverty and it is only him that can tell how it can be
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alleviated.
2.7 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES
IN NIGERIA
According to Aliyu (1999:13), a very strong foundation is
essential for the successful implementation of poverty
alleviation schemes in any developing country. These solid
base are in the area of:
1. National Security and Political Stability.
2. Discipline
3. Infrastructural Development
4. Economic stability and provision of adequate welfare
services.
He argued that without adequate foundation on the
above, any poverty alleviation scheme through provision of
social services and loans for investment may not have the
much desired effect.
Poverty has been a long standing issue in Nigeria and
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several policy and programmes has been implemented by
successive governments aimed at poverty alleviation.
Despite all these efforts however, the situation has
deteriorated over the years and million of Nigerian are still
living in abject poverty and hardship. These programmes
have not been able to salvage the poverty stricken nature of
people in Nigeria because of their attendant problems.
According to United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP, 2003), virtually all government policies and
programmes lack targeting mechanism for the poor. Most
policies and programmes are too general in focus with the
poor being only a component of a differentiated target
beneficiary.
Secondly, policy discontinuity has inhibited programmes
and created a climate of uncertainties. Thirdly, there is
inadequate attention of people centered development
strategies, and quite often, the emphasis appears to be on
investment in resources rather than investment in peoples
welfare. Hence there is considerable investment on large
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scale capital intensive resources development projects which
are often not directly relevant to the socio-economic
circumstance of the poor and other vulnerable groups in
Nigeria. Fourthly, there is inadequate institutional
mechanism for policy and programme coordination. Fifthly,
there is no accountability and transparency in the
implementation of the policies and programmes.
Similarly, Ehigiamusoe (2000:45) articulated the
problems of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria as:
1. The poor are not adequately targeted by the
programmes and therefore are not much affected.
2. The poor are not involved in the formulation and
implementation of the programmes. Because of
their non involvement, they do not identify with
the programmes, and do not support them either
by way of local resource contribution or
sustainability.
3. Frequent policy changes, server budgetary
management and administrative inefficiency.
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Aliyu (1999:19) x-rayed the problems of poverty
alleviation programmes in Nigeria from the point of view of
implementation institutions. He highlighted the problems as:
a) Duplication of implementation agencies and
or their functions leading to unnecessary
plurality of influences and interests.
b) Wrong identification of implementation
agencies.
c) Non-existence of the right implementation
trend.
d) Poor management of the identified
implementation agencies occasioned by high
rate of corruption, incompetence, poor
staffing, lack of congruity between
national/corporate and individual interest of
managers of implementation agencies.
In the same vein Garuba (1999) posits that the problem
of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria revolves
around what he call the five Cs
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1. Conception: This has to do with the primary
intention of the government that conceived the
programme. In most cases these programmes
were not conceived primarily to address poverty
issues but mainly to score cheap political point or
as a populist programme designed to confuse
existing situation. For example, the Green
Revolution Programme of the Second Republic
turned out to be ploy to favour politicians of the
ruling party. Fertilizer procurement and
distribution became political patronage with
beneficiaries being mainly politicians of the ruling
party. The actual farmers were left to depend on
the emergency farmers - the politicians.
2. Content: poverty alleviation programmes in
Nigeria have always suffered from content
deficiency. For instance, due consideration has
never been given to adult education as a tool for
empowering people against poverty. In addition,
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poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria has
always been a top-down arrangement with little or
no input from the grassroots.
3. Coordination: The problem here is the existence
of too many agencies established to do the same
thing thereby resulting in role overlap and
confusion. This makes coordination difficult.
4. Corruption: This has remained the bane of
Nigerians development efforts where poverty
alleviation programmes are put in place, such end
in some cases in further empowerment of the rich
as the actual beneficiaries turns out to be the
privileged class or their cronies.
5. Continuity: In Nigeria, it takes more time to
design policies than it takes to jettison it. Owing to
rapid change in government, good policies put in
place by successive government have been
abandoned by their successors in a bid for the
latter to create an impression of working on
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people.
2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
For the purpose of this study, the Systems theory and
the Basic Need theory has been adopted as the theoretical
framework for the study. We shall examine the theories and
their relevance to the study.
The Systems Theory
The systems concept is used by Talcott Parsons (1951),
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1950), Katz and Khan (1960), Robert
Chin (1969) and David Easton (1957) to denote an analytical
scheme for unraveling complexity.
The system theory is a concept that refers to the
complex of inter-dependencies between parts, components
and processes that involves discernible regularities of
relationships and to a similar type of inter-dependencies with
its surrounding. A system is any whole which functions as a
result of inter-relatedness of its parts (Easton 1957: 383-
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400).
Toffler (1980) maintained that, a system is a set of
interacting units which endure through time within and
established boundary by responding and adjusting to
changing pressures from the environment in order to
achieve and maintain goals. According to Mitchell (1962), a
social system consists of two or more persons who are
engaged in a patterned or structured form of relationship or
interaction and who are guided by sets of values and norms
generally called roles.
A system Ackoff (1972) has said, is a whole which cannot
be taken apart without the loss of its essential
characteristics. These characteristics include;
1. A set of objectives which the entity seeks to
achieve and without which it cannot exist;
2. An external environment which receives the output
of the system, economic and political variables
which present problems to the system
(organization) and which subsequently assist or
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compound the efforts to resolve the problems;
3. An input which come into the system. This includes
demand, support and expectation.
4. A conversion process or an input transforming
technology which refers to the processes and
techniques by which resource inputs are
transformed into output (the internal mechanisms
of the system).
5. The output which is the product, result, outcome
from the system as arising from the preceeding
processing step. The type of output will depend on
the nature of the input, the type of processing and
the use expected for the outputs which themselves
have implications for systems persistence and
effectiveness through feedback mechanism.
6. A feedback process which informs the environment
on what the system is doing, while at the same
time communicates back to the system the
reaction of the environment to its output. This
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enables the system to adjust its output, and or
processing of input according to the demands of
the environment.
The system theory can be realistically applied to the
study. Borno state is a state established by law to achieve a
set of objectives for the proper functioning of the state
without which it cannot exist. The state is made of different
parts components and units (local governments and
ministries etc) and these parts interact with one another to
achieve a common goal, hence it can be classified as a
system.
Input in this regard include, expectations, supports and
demand into Borno State. Expectations are that rather
amorphous group of beliefs that citizens have regarding
what the state ought to do and the way its officials have to
behave. Supports are similar to expectations and take
various forms. Obviously, without some form of support,
institutions could hardly survive. Support for the Borno state
Government include public support, specific support
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stimulated by certain outputs from the state and involves
the citizens perception of how their demands are met as well
as Diffuse support a more general concept referring to that
reservoir of good-will which a system may engender, not
dependent upon a particular output, and at the extreme
mode typified by unquestioning loyalty or patriotism.
Demands comprise the third conceptual classification of
inputs. These demands represent the need for poverty
alleviation from individuals and interest groups in Borno
state within the context of the responsibilities of the state.
The conversion process that transforms inputs into
outputs include the strategies, programmes and activities of
the state in alleviating poverty. The output represents the
end result, outcome of the activities, programme and
strategies of the state in terms of poverty alleviation and
improving the standard of living of the citizens of the state.
The feedback represents the responses, opinions, and
perception (of the citizens) from the environment on how it
is affected or perceives the outputs of the state as well as
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demands placed on it. This informs the (Borno State
Government) system on its area of efficiency or deficiency
and the need to adjust.
Since a system is an entity, conceptual or physical which
consists of inter related, inter-dependent and interacting
parts that interacts with the environment (public) just like
that of Borno state government, the system theory remains
an appropriate theoretical framework for the study.
Basic Need Theory
The basic need theory is a model of development plan
that proposes that development plan and effort should be
directed specifically at the provision of essential amenities
so as to benefit the poor in areas such as power supply,
access roads, nutrition, education, housing, water supply,
health facilities, sanitary conditions etc.
The basic need theory introduced by the International
Labour Organization in 1976 is service directed in approach
to plan for development. Proponents of the basic need
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theory (Hopkins and Hoeven 1983, Burton 1990) postulate
that if materials needed for development are specifically
targeted at poverty areas, this approach is efficient in
economizing and it is an efficient strategy for eradication of
poverty.
The basic need theory provide us with the materials of
an approach to development plan which has the implication
of backing up government efforts at development and
poverty eradication through private sector stimulation and
individuals self reliance by government supports.
We must understand that all efforts by government to
improve the lot of the poor through skill acquisition and
resettlement of graduated trainees will produce positive
impact only in a situation where all necessary amenities and
infrastructures are in place. For instance, a resettled farmer
in a rural area cannot make turnover if his produce cannot
be transported, to the appropriate markets for sales i.e
where there are no access roads. The same goes for any
venture if the needed infrastructures are not available. So
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without the provision of basic amenities people who are into
small scale and agricultural ventures in the rural areas and
even those in the urban centers cannot thrive to improve on
their economic status.
For Nigerias poverty eradication growth strategy to
record the desired success, it must consider the debilitating
impact of the social condition and the problem of the value
system of the targeted poor. In this instance government has
a great role to play in ensuring this growth by official
interventions as well as the provision of an enabling
environment (ie basic amenities) to improve the human
resources and entrepreneurship development efforts of the
Nigerian community.
According to Atoloye (1977) most of the poverty
ameliorating programmes from the government to the
communities do not get to the targeted people A strategy
of satisfying the basic needs of the people through the
creation of job opportunities, provision of infrastructures and
the supply of materials that relieve the areas of hardship
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directly would be more preferred to capital projects that are
not directly relevant.
What this implies is that with the provision of basic
(amenities) need to the people especially at the rural
communities, their involvement in economic activities will
increase and hence their productive capacity.
The relevance of the basic need theory to the study is
anchored on the fact that the over riding objective of
governments poverty alleviation policy is to broaden the
opportunities available to the poor and to ensure that every
citizen has access to basic needs of life, food, potable water,
clothing, shelter, basic health services and nutrition, basic
education and communication. The overall goal is improved
living conditions for the poor. The goals are, of course, an
array of sector specific objectives to be pursued in order to
ensure the success of the policy. Nigerias poverty alleviation
is buttressed on the integration of the citizens into
economically, politically and socially sounds society with
equal opportunities to live a healthier, richer, fuller and
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productive life. It is therefore obvious that poverty alleviation
cannot be accomplished without ensuring access to
resources and opportunities by the poor.
SECTION THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section focuses on the study area and the various
methods and techniques employed in getting the
information required for the study as well as the method of
analyzing data that would be collected.
3.1 THE STUDY AREA
Borno State being the area of study is one of the 36
states of Nigeria. It was in the former North-eastern state
comprising of Gongola, Bauchi and Borno. It was created
out of the North-eastern state by the then head of State,
General Murtala Mohammed in a broadcast to the nation on
Friday, 3, 1976. The reason for its creation according to him
was that states will no longer be described by reference to
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geographical points such as North and South, West or East.
This should help to ease memories of past political ties an
emotional attachment. It will also foster effective
administration and decentralization of power, so as to bring
the government closer to the people.
Borno is located in the North Eastern part of Nigeria. It
shares borders with the neighbouring countries which
include the Republic of Chad to the North-East, Niger
Republic to the North, and Adamawa State to the South-
East, Bauchi to the South-West and Yobe State to the West.
Based on the 1991 provisional censure figures, Borno state
has a population of 2,596,589 and population density of
approximately 38 inhabitants per square kilometer.
The state has 27 local governments: Askira/Uba, Bama,
Biu, Mobbar, Damboa, Dikwa, Gubio, Gwoza, Hawul, Kaga,
Konduga, Kukawa, Kwaya-Kusa, Mafa, Magumeri,
Maiduguri, Marte, Monguno, Ngala, Nganzai, Shani, Jrere,
Abadam, Chibok, Guzamala, Kala/Balge, and Bayo.
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3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
This study will make use of survey method. The choice
of survey method is because it attempts to be fairly
representative of the population of interest in its selection
of its sample of study. Its major attractions are its relatively
low cost considering the fact that useful information about
a large number of people could be collected from a
relatively small number (representative sample). It is easy
to generalize the findings to larger populations once
representativeness of the sample is assured. In addition the
flexible nature of survey means that a variety of data
collection instruments (observation, interviews,
questionnaires, focus group discussion) could be used. This
allows one instrument to serve as a check on the other.
3.3 TYPES OF DATA REQUIRED
The types of data to be used for this study will centre
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mainly on understanding the concept and dimensions of
poverty, its causes, types, effects, poverty alleviation
strategies and implementation problems. Opinions and
views (perception) of members of the society on the
implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation
strategies in Borno State will be sought.
3.4 SOURCES OF DATA
The sources of data for this study will comprise of both
primary and secondary sources. The secondary sources of
data will consist of books, journals, magazines, seminar
papers, newspapers, internet and unpublished materials.
The primary sources will include information obtained
from interviews and administration of questionnaires to
members of the public in the local government areas of
Borno State. Interviews will be held with youth leaders, top
local government officials and officials of the Ministry of
Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment. Participatory
rapid appraisal method based on the technique of focus
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group discussion will also be conducted in the local
governments.
3.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE
The population of the study consist of the unemployed
youths (4,847), widows (515), petty traders (2,130) and
retrenched and unemployed men and women (1,008).
A sample size of 800 will be used for the study. The
state will be divided into four clusters which will
accommodate all the 27 local governments in the state.
The local governments will be selected through random
sampling from each cluster which will constitute the
sampling frame.
For the study four local governments will be randomly
selected from each cluster, amounting to 16 local
governments which will serve as the target population of
study. A random sampling method will be used in
administering the questionnaire so that the targeted
respondents will be reached directly and given equal
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representation. In this regard 50 questionnaires will be
distributed to each of the 16 local government areas,
amounting to 800.
3.6 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Focus group discussion is a rapid appraisal technique,
which is akin to the free discussion type of interview. It is
normally conducted in small groups of about six to twelve
people (Dlakwa, 2002). In this study the discussions will be
guided by a Facilitator - the person asking the question, a
Recorder - the person taping the discussion for play back
information and an Observer - the person monitoring the
discussion. These discussions will be conducted in eight
local governments, two from each cluster. The objective of
this discussion will be to achieve the following:
1. To solicit information about the
strategies of poverty alleviation
provided by the Borno State
government.
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2. The opinions of the respondents on
the impact and sustainability of
poverty alleviation programmes by
the state government.
3. Some problems hindering the
implementation of the poverty
alleviation programme of the Borno
State Government.
4. To discuss ways how to enhance
and sustain the poverty alleviation
programmes of the Borno State
Government.
3.7 INSTRUMENTS OF DATA COLLECTION
The instruments of data collection are questionnaire
and interview. For the study questions will be prepared in
the questionnaire form and distributed to respondents.
In addition, interview sessions will be conducted with
three officials of the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and
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Youth Empowerment, and twelve members of the public,
three selected from each cluster.
3.8 ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES
The questionnaires will be administered among
members of the public in the state. Eight hundred (800)
copies of questionnaires will be distributed to respondents
at their places of work and homes.
In order to have proper representation of all the
members of the public, random sampling will be used to
select the respondents from the target population.
3.9 STATISTICAL TOOL OF DATA ANALYSIS
The data obtained through the method discussed above
will be quantitatively analyzed with the aid of frequency
distribution tables, simple percentages, charts and
diagrammes. However in testing the hypothesis formulated
the use of chi-square will be applied. The choice of the chi-
square is to measure the reliability and significance of data
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to see whether deviations of the actual observation
(observed frequency) from the expected are significant so
that it may lead to the acceptance or rejection of the null
hypothesis.
The chi-square formular commonly used is:
22 (O E)
XE
=
Where:
X2 = chi square
O = Observed Frequency
E = Expected Frequency
A suitable low significance level of significance is
selected at 0.05 while the degree of freedom is
calculated using this formular:
(R 1) (C 1)
Where:
C = Number of Columns
R = Number of Rows
3.10 EXPECTED OUTCOME
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The study is expected to reveal the opinions of the
people on the impact and sustainability of poverty
alleviation programmes by the Borno State government. It
is also expected to highlight the problems hindering the
implementation of poverty alleviation programmes and
policy options to enhance and sustain the programmes.
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