Piping and Pipeline Engineering Design, Construction, Maintenance, lntegrity, and Repair

George A. Antaki Aiken, South Carolina, U.S.A.

~ Taylor & Francis 'e] Taylor &. Francis Group

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Tayfor & Francis ìmprìnt, a member of the Taylor & Francìs Group, the acad emic divìsion of T&F Informa pie.

Contents

PREFACE

C HAPTER l CO D ES, ST ANDARDS AND PRACTICE 1.1 A BriefHistory ofPiping Technology 1.2 National Codes, Standards and Guides 1.3 Piping and Pipeline Codes 1.4 Scope of ASME B31 Codes 1.5 Boiler and Pressure V essei Code 1.6 Federai and State Laws 1.7 ASME Council on Codes and Standards 1.8 ASME Bl6 Standards 1.9 API Standards and Recommended Practices 1.10 Manufacturers Standardization Society 1.11 Pipe Fabrication Institute Standards 1.12 American Institute of Steel Construction 1.13 American Concrete Institute 1.14 NACE 1.15 Materia! Institutes 1.16 National Board 1.17 Flow Contro! Institute Standard 1.18 Hydraulic Institute Pump Standards 1.19 References

CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENT ALS

2.1 Competence 2.2 At the Engineering Leve1

2.2.1 Materials 2.2.2 Design 2.2.2.1 Systern Design 2.2.2.2 Component Design 2.2.3 Construction 2.2.4 Quality Contro! Inspections 2.2.5 Preoperational Testing 2.2.5.1 Mechanical Testing 2.2.5.2 Operational Testing 2.2.6 Maintenance 2.2.7 Operation

2.3 At the Corporate Level

III

l l 9

13 14 15 17 21 22 23 26 29 30 30 30 31 32 32 33 33

34 34 34 35 36 36 36 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 40

v

vi

CHAPTER 3 MA TERIALS Introduction: A Good Pastry 3.1 FenousPipe

3.1.1 Wrought Iron 3.1.2 Cast Iron 3.1.3 Steel Pipe and Fittings 3 .1.3 .l Essential Characteristics 3.1.3.2 Carbon Steels 3.1.3.3 Alloy Steels 3.1.3.4 High Alloy Steels 3 .1.4 Steel Line Pipe

3.2 Non-Fenous Pipe 3.2.1 Alurninum Alloys 3.2.2 Nickel Alloys 3.2.3 Copper Alloys

3.3 Fabrication ofSteel Pipe 3.3.1 Pipe Size 3.3.2 Searnless Pipe 3.3.3 Seam Welded Pipe 3.3.4 Docurnentation 3.3.5 Microstructure

3.4 Fabrication ofPipe Fittings and Components 3.4.1 Forging 3.4.2 Casting 3.4.3 Sheet Meta! 3.4.4 Pipe Specifications 3.4.5 Machining and Finishing 3.4.6 Base Metal Imperfections

3.5 Mechanical Properties 3.5.1 Strength 3.5.2 Hardness 3.5.3 Toughness 3.5.3.1 Charpy Y-Notch Toughness 3.5.3.2 Drop Weight Test 3.5.3.3 Fracture Toughness 3.5.4 Fatigue Strength 3.5.5 Physical Properties

3.6 Procurement 3.6.1 Procurement Specification 3.6.2 Supplier Assessment

3.7 References

CHAPTER 4 1NTER~AL P RESSURE 4.1 Pressure Design ofPiping

Contents

42 42 43 43 43 44 44 45 45 49 so so so so SI 51 51 52 52 54 55 58 58 59 60 61 61 62 62 63 66 68 68 70 71 73 73 74 74 77 78

81 81

Contents

4.1.1 Thin Wall Approximation 4.1.2 Pipe1ine Design Equation 4.1.3 Yield and W ali Thickness

4.2 Pressure Design of Plant Piping 4.2.1 Lamé's Formula 4.2.2 Early Design Equation 4.2.3 Piping Design Equations 4.2.4 Allowable Stress 4.2.5 Wall Thickness Allowance

4.3 Yield and Burst Pressure 4.3.1 The Von Mises Yield Pressure 4.3.2 Burst Pressure

4.4 Pressure Design ofPlastic Pipe 4.5 Pressure Rating

4.5.1 Pressure Rating 4.5.2 Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings 4.5.3 Steel Butt Welded Fìttings 4.5.4 Steel Flange Ratings 4.5.5 Socket Weldìng and Threaded Fittings 4.5.6 Valves 4.5.6.1 Shell Strength 4.5.6.2 Seat Tightness 4.5.7 Unlisted Components

4.6 Pressure Stress in Fittings 4.6.1 Pipe Elbows and Bends 4.6.2 Branch Connections and Nozz1es 4.6.3 Reinforcement ofBranch Connections 4.6.4 End Fillets

4.7 High Pressure Design 4.8 Design Pressure

4.8.1 Design Scenarios 4.8.2 Pressure Excursions

4.9 Over-Pressure Protection 4 .l O Burst Energy 4.11 Pipe Specification 4.12 Valve Specification 4.1 3 References

CHAPTER 5 EXTERNAL PRESSURE 5.1 Buckling Pressure 5.2 ASME Code Design 5.3 References

CHAPTER 6 LAYOUT AND SUPPORTS

vii

81 82 83 85 85 86 87 89 90 90 90 91 92 92 92 94 94 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 97 98

101 103 105 105 105 107 109 111 112 116 118

121 121 124 124

126

viii

6.1 Spacing ofPipe Supports 6.2 Sustained Stress 6.3 Stress Indices 6.4 Design Standards 6.5 Selection ofPipe Supports

6.5.1 Variable Spring 6.5.2 Constant Load Hanger 6.5.3 Rigid Frames 6.5.4 Road Hangers 6.5.5 Pipe Rolls 6.5.6 Rigid Struts 6.5.7 Vibration Dampers 6.5.8 Snubbers 6.5.9 Anchors 6.5.10 Saddles

6.6 Design of Standard Support 6.7 Design ofSteel Frames

6.7.1 Design 6.7.2 Construction

6.8 Anchorage to Concrete 6.9 Layout Rules of Good Practice

6.9.1 Equipment Elevations 6.9.2 Equipment Spacing 6.9.3 Piping 6.9.4 Valves 6.9.5 Pump Piping 6.9.6 Compressor Piping

6.1 O References

CHAPTER 7 FLEXlBILITV AND FATIGUE

7.1 Layout for Flexibility 7.2 Simplified F1exibi1ity Analysis 7.3 Fatigue 7.4 Smooth Specimen Fatigue 7.5 Pipe Component Fatigue 7.6 Fatigue Strength ofSocket Welds 7.7 Fatigue Strength ofButt Welds 7.8 ASME B31 Fatigue Rules 7.9 Fracture Mechanics Approach 7.1 0 Corrosion Fatigue 7.11 Shakedown 7.12 Cold Spring 7.13 Through-Wall Temperatures 7.14 Creep Damage

Contents

126 129 130 132 133 133 135 136 137 138 138 139 139 140 141 141 142 142 142 142 148 148 148 148 149 149 149 149

152 152 155 157 160 165 167 168 169 171 173 173 174 175 177

Contents

7.15 Pipe lnsulation 7 .16 Expansion J oints 7. 17 References

C HAPTER 8 VIBRATION

8.1 Root Cause 8.2 Mechanically Induced Vibration 8.3 Vibration Analysis 8.4 Hydraulic Induced Vibration

8.4.1 Vane and Piston Motion 8.4.2 Turbulence Induced Vibration 8.4.3 Cavitation and Air Pockets 8.4.4 Acoustic Resonance 8.4.5 Breathing Mode 8.4.6 Valve Noise

8.5 Measuri.ng Vibration 8.5.1 Measuring Displacement 8.5.2 Measuring Velocity 8.5.3 Measuring Acceleration 8.5.4 Strain Gages 8.5.5 Signal Conditioners and Analyzers

8.6 Assessing Vibration Severity 8.6.1 Severity Charts 8.6.2 Pipe Vibration Analysis

8.7 Prevention and Mitigation 8.7.1 Eliminate the Source 8.7.2 Good Layout and Supports 8.7.3 Preoperational Testing 8.7.4 Reducing Turbulence and Cavitation 8.7.5 Pulsation Damper 8.7.6 Damping 8.7.7 Flexible Connections

8.8 References

CHAPTER 9 F'LUID TRANSlENTS 9.1 Single Liquid Phase

9.1.1 Bulk or Propagative Flow 9.1.2 Pressure Change in Bulk Flow 9 .1.3 Waterhammer 9.1.4 Valve Characteristics 9 .1.5 One-to-Two P base Transient 9.1.6 Pump Fill Rate 9.1.7 Prevention ofLiquid Waterhammer

9.2 Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Waterhamrner

ix

179 180 182

186 186 187 189 194 195 196 197 199 201 202 203 203 204 204 204 204 205 205 206 207 207 208 209 209 210 210 211 211

216 216 216 219 221 223 224 225 226 226

x

9.2. 1 Steam-Water Waterhammer 9.2.2 Case Histories 9.2.3 Predicting the Effects ofTwo-Phase Transients 9.2:4 Steam System Layout

9.3 Non-Condensable Two-Phase Waterhammer 9.3.1 FlowRegime 9.3.2 Analysis ofSlug Flow 9.3.3 Trapped Air

9.4 Stress Analysis 9.5 References

CHAPTER 10 WIND DESIGN 10.1 Wind Damage l O. 2 W in d Pressure 10.3 Vo11ex Shedding 10.4 Wind-Bome Mìssiles l 0.5 References

CHAPTER 11 SEISMIC DESIGN AND RETROFIT 11 .1 The Seìsmic Challenge 11.2 Seisrnic Specìfication

11.2.1 Project Specification 11.2.2 Seìsrnic Input 11 .2.3 Seisrnic Qualification 11.2.3.1 Operability 11.2.3.2 Leak Tightness 11.2.3 .3 Position Retention 11.2.4 Materia! Conditìon 11.2.5 Interactions 11 .2.6 Documentation 11.2.7 Maintenance 11.2.8 Definition of Common TellilS

11.3 Rules of Good Practice 11.4 Seismic Analysis Techniques 11.5 Seismic Input Based on IBC 11.6 Seisrnic Response Spectra

11.6.1 Seisrnic Input 11.6.2 Modal and Directìonal Combinations

11.7 Seisrnic Qualificati o n 11.8 Shake Table Testìng 11.9 Seismic Interactions

11.9.1 Description 11.9.2 Interaction Revìew 11.9.3 Falling Interactions

Contents

226 228 230 232 233 233 236 236 239 239

241 241 242 243 244 245

246 246 246 247 247 248 248 249 250 251 251 251 251 252 254 255 257 260 260 262 263 264 265 265 266 266

Contents

l 1.9.4 Rocking or Swing Impact l 1.9 .5 Significant Impact

l l. l O References

C IIAPTER 12 EXPLOSJONS 12.1 Deflagration and Detonation 12.2 Dynarnic Loads 12.3 Dynarnic Properties 12.4 Pressure Lirnits 12.5 Design Criteria

12.5.1 Quasi-Static Load 12.5.2 Impulsive Load 12.5.3 Fracture

12.6 Explosion Protection 12.7 Extemal Explosions 12.8 References

C HAPTER 13 S UBSEA PIPELINES 13. 1 Subsea Pipeline Safety 13.2 Design Process 13.3 Internai Pressure 13.4 Extemal Pressure 13.5 Pipe Lowering 13.6 On-Bottom Stability

13.6.1 Objective 13.6.2 Static Analysis

13.7 Pipeline Flotation 13.8 Fatigue Design 13.9 Hook and Pull 13.1 O References

C HAPTER 14 BURJED PIPE 14.1 To Bury or not to Bury 14.2 Internai Pressure 14.3 Soil Loads 14.4 Surface Loads 14.5 Thermal Expansion and Contraction 14.6 Ground Movement 14.7 Seisrnic 14.8 References

C HAPTER 15 WELDING 15 .l Shop and Field Welding 15.2 Welding Processes

xi

267 268 268

271 271 272 274 276 276 276 278 278 280 281 284

287 287 288 289 289 292 294 294 295 297 298 298 299

302 302 303 303 304 305 307 309 309

311 311 313

xii

15.2.1 Shielded Meta! Are Welding 15.2.2 Submerged Are Welding 15.2.3 Gas Meta! Are Welding 15.2.4 Flux Core Are Welding 15.2.5 Gas Tungsten Are Welding 15.2.6 Welding Parameters 15.2.7 Gas Purging 15.2.8 Meehanized Welding

15.3 Weld Defects 15.3.1 Weld Metallurgy 15.3.2 Porosities 15.3.3 Cracks 15.3.3.1 HotCracking 15.3.3.2 Delayed Cracking 15.3.4 Inclusions 15.3.5 Root Concavity and Undercut 15.3.6 Incomplete Penetration 15.3.7 Laek ofFusion 15.3.8 Shrinkage

15.4 Codes, Standards and Praetiee 15.4.1 ASMEB31 andAPI 1104 15.4.2 Arneriean We1ding Society 15.4.3 Eleetrode Nomenclature 15.4.4 Welder and Weld Procedure Qualifieation

15.5 Post-W el d Heat Treatment 15.6 In-Serviee Welding 15.7 Surfaeing Techniques 15.8 References

CHAPTER 16 EXAMINATION 16.1 Visua1 Examination 16.2 Magnetie Particles Testing 16.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing 16.4 Radiographic Testing 16.5 Ultrasonic Testing 16.6 Eddy Current Testing 16.7 Acoustie Ernission Testing 16.8 Thermography 16.9 Measurement Aecuraey 16.1 O Type and Extent of Exarninations 16.11 Aceeptance Criteria 16.12 Personnel Certification 16.13 Pipeline Pigs

16.13.1 Utility Pigs

Contents

313 313 314 315 315 316 317 317 317 317 319 319 319 319 320 320 320 320 320 321 321 322 323 323 325 326 327 328

329 329 330 331 333 334 336 336 337 338 339 340 341 341 341

Contents

16.13.2 Smart Pìgs 16.14 References

CHAPTER 17 PIPE FLANGE 17 .l Flange Standards 17.2 Flange Types 17.3 Flange Gaskets

17.3.1 Selection Factors 17.3.2 Non-Metallìc Gaskets 17 .3.3 Semi-Metallic Gaskets 17.3 .4 Metalli c Gaskets

17.4 Flange Faces 17.5 Flange Ratings 17.6 Flange Bolt Torque 17.7 Ex te mal Loads 17.8 Assembly ofPipe Flanges

17.8.1 Assembly Steps 17.8.2 Closing the Gap

17.9 Nuts and Bolts 17.9.1 Definitions 17.9.2 Bolt Fabrication 17.9 .3 Bo l t Specìfications 17.9.4 Nut, Washer Specifications 17.9.5 Restrictions 17.9. 6 Corrosion Preventìon

17 . l O Maintenance 17 .l 0.1 Flange Assembly Sequence 17 .l O .2 Replacing a Gasket 17.10.3 Welding a Slip-On Flange 17 .l 0.4 Leakage Diagnostics 17.10.5 Refmishing Flange Faces

17. 11 References

CHAPTER 18 MECHANICAL JOINTS 18. 1 What they Are 18.2 Swage Fitings 18.3 Grooved Fittings 18.4 In Conclusion

CHAPTER 19 LEAKAND PRESSURE TEST 19.1 Leak Test and Pressure Test 19.2 Leak and Pressure Test Methods 19.3 Choice ofTest Method 19.4 Conduct ofTest

xiii

343 344

349 349 349 351 351 352 353 353 354 355 357 362 364 364 367 368 368 368 368 371 371 372 372 372 373 373 374 374 374

377 377 379 380 381

382 382 383 388 389

xiv

19 .4.1 Plan the Test 19.4. 2 Conduct the Test 19.4.3 Pian for Leaks 19.4 .4 Drail1 an d Dry

19.5 Isolation 19.6 Locating Leaks Underground 19.7 References

C HAPTER 20 DEGRADATION I N SERVI CE 20.1 A Criticai Decision 20.2 Generai Corrosion

20.2.1 Progressive Corrosion 20.2.2 Passivating Coating

20.3 Local Corrosion 20.4 Galvanic Corrosion 20.5 Erosion Corrosion 20.6 Environmental Effects 20.7 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 20.8 High Temperature Effects 20.9 Mechanical Damage 20.1 O Lining and Coating

20 .l O .l Properties 20.10.2 Liquid Organics 20.10.3 Multilayer Coating 20.10.4 Metalli c Coatings

20.11 Corrosion Inhibitors 20.12 Materia! Selection 20.13 References

CHAPTER 21 F JTNESS-FOR-$ERVICE 21.1 Fitness-for-Service 21.2 Wall Thinning

21.2.1 Measurement 21.2.2 Ductile Fracture Initiation 21.2.3 Longitudmal Thinning 2 1.2.4 Circumferential Thinning 21.2.5 Cautions

21.3 Crack Flaws 21.3.1 Brittle and Ductile Fracture 21.3.2 Fundamental Approach 21.3.3 Stress Intensity 21.3.4 Fitness-for-Service Evaluation 21.3.5 CrackArrest 21.3.6 Fatigue

Contents

389 390 391 391 391 393 394

396 396 397 399 400 402 403 405 405 408 410 411 413 413 414 414 415 415 416 4 16

419 419 421 421 422 422 428 428 429 429 431 431 434 438 438

Contents xv

21.4 Mechanical Damage 439 21.4.1 R.ipple 439 21.4.2 Buckle and Wrinkle 440 21.4.3 Dent 441 21.4.4 Dent with Gouge 442

21.5 References 443

CHAPTER 22 MATNTENANCE, RELIABILITY AND FAILURE ANALYSIS 446 22.1 Case History 446 22.2 Maintenance Objective 448 22.3 Maintenance Pian 448 22.4 Maintenance Strategies 449 22.5 Corrective Maintenance 450 22.6 Failure Modes 451 22.7 Pro-Active Maintenance 453

22.7.1 Preventive or Predictive Maintenance 453 22.7.2 Inspection Checklists 454 22.7.2.1 Piping and Vessels 454 22.7.2.2 Supports 455

22.8 PDM Teclmiques 456 22.9 Reliability 459 22.1 O Maintenance and the Construction Codes 462 22.11 Elements ofFailure Analysis 463

22.11.1 Data Collection 463 22.11.2 Visual Examination, Macrofractography and NDE 463 22.11.3 Metallography and Microfractography 465 22.11.4 Chemical Analysis 467 22.11.5 Mechanical Tests 467 22.11.6 Stress and Fracture Analysis 467 22.11.7 Improvements 468

22.12 References 468

CHAPTER 23 REPAIR TECHNIQUES 471 23.1 Repair Strategy 471 23.2 Replacement 471 23.3 Grinding Out Defects 475 23.4 Weld Overlay 477 23.5 Full Encirclement Sleeve 478 23.6 Fillet Welded Patch 480 23.7 Flush Welded Patch 480 23.8 Welded Leak Box 481 23.9 Mechanical Clamp 482 23.10 Composite Overwrap 483 23.11 Buried Pipe Rehabilitation 484

xvi

23.12 Brushed and Sprayed Lining and Coating 23. 13 Pipe Straightening 23. 14 References

C HAPTER 24 PLASTlC PIPE 24. 1 Plastic Form 24.2 Sizc 24.3 Chemical Resistance 24.4 Physical and Mechanical Properties 24.5 Pressure Design 24.6 Pressure Cycling Fatigue 24.7 Pressure Design ofFittings 24.8 Support Spacing 24.9 Fabrication and Exarnination

24.9.1 Solvent Cementing 24.9.2 Coated Adhesive 24.9.3 Butt Strap Adhesive 24 .9.4 Hot Plate Butt Fused Joint 24.9.5 Hot Plate Socket Joint 24.9.6 Hot Air Welding 24.9.7 Electrofusion 24 .9.8 Flange Joints

24 .l O Bonding Qualification 24.1 1 References

CHAPTER 25 V AL VES

25 .l Overview 25.2 Gate Valves 25.3 Globe Valves 25.4 Plug Valves 25.5 Ball Valves 25.6 Butterfly Valves 25.7 Diaphragm Valves 25.8 Check Valves 25.9 Safety and ReliefValves 25.10 Contro! Valves 25.1 1 Sizing Gas Contro! Valves 25.12 Valve Actuators 25.13 Closure Test 25.14 References

AJ'PENDIX STANDARD PIPE SIZES

IN DEX

Contents

486 487 488

492 492 493 493 494 495 498 498 499 501 501 501 501 502 502 502 502 502 502 503

505 505 507 508 510 510 511 512 512 513 518 520 521 522 523

526

533