Pinyin

For other uses, see Pinyin (disambiguation).

Pinyin, or Hanyu Pinyin, is the official phonetic systemfor transcribing the Mandarin pronunciations of Chinesecharacters into the Latin alphabet in China, Taiwan,*[1]and Singapore. It is often used to teach Standard Chi-nese and a pinyin without diacritic markers is often usedin foreign publications to spell Chinese names familiar tonon-Chinese and may be used as an input method to enterChinese characters into computers.The Hanyu Pinyin system was developed in the 1950sbased on earlier forms of romanization. It was publishedby the Chinese government in 1958 and revised severaltimes.*[2] The International Organization for Standard-ization (ISO) adopted pinyin as an international standardin 1982.*[3] The system was adopted as the official stan-dard in Taiwan in 2009, where it is used for romanizationalone rather than for educational and computer input pur-poses.*[4]*[5]The word Hànyǔ (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditionalChinese: 漢語) means the spoken language of theHan people and pīnyīn (Chinese: 拼音) literally means

“spelled-out sounds”.*[6]

1 History of romanization of Chi-nese characters before 1949

In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci publishedXizi Qiji (《西字奇蹟》; Xīzì Qíjī ; Hsi-tzu Ch'i-chi;“Mir-acle of Western Letters”) in Beijing.*[7] This was thefirst book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chineselanguage. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China,Nicolas Trigault, issued his Xi Ru Ermu Zi (《西儒耳目資》; Hsi Ju Erh-mu Tzu;“Aid to the Eyes and Ears ofWestern Literati”) at Hangzhou.*[8] Neither book hadmuch immediate impact on the way in which Chinesethought about their writing system, and the romanizationsthey described were intended more for Westerners thanfor the Chinese.*[9]One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western al-phabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynastyscholar-official, Fang Yizhi (方以智; Fāng Yǐzhì; FangI-chih; 1611–1671).The first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopta system of spelling was Song Shu (1862–1910). A stu-dent of the great scholars YuYue and Zhang Taiyan, Song

had been to Japan and observed the stunning effect ofthe kana syllabaries and Western learning there. Thisgalvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, oneof the most important being reform of the script. WhileSong did not himself actually create a system for spellingSinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led toa proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts.*[9]

1.1 Sin Wenz

In the early 1930s, Communist Party of China leaderstrained in Moscow introduced a phonetic alphabet usingRoman letters which had been developed in the SovietOriental Institute of Leningrad and originally intended toimprove literacy in the Russian Far East.*[10] This SinWenz or“NewWriting”*[11] was much more linguisti-cally sophisticated than earlier alphabets, with the majorexception that it did not indicate tones.*[12]In 1940, several thousand members attended a BorderRegion Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong andZhu De, head of the army, both contributed their callig-raphy (in characters) for the masthead of the Sin WenzSociety's new journal. Outside the CCP, other promi-nent supporters included Sun Yat-sen's son, Sun Fo; CaiYuanpei, the country's most prestigious educator; TaoXingzhi, a leading educational reformer; and Lu Xun.Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz,plus large numbers of translations, biographies (includ-ing Lincoln, Franklin, Edison, Ford, and Charlie Chap-lin), some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spec-trum of textbooks. In 1940, the movement reached anapex when Mao's Border Region Government declaredthat the Sin Wenz had the same legal status as traditionalcharacters in government and public documents. Manyeducators and political leaders looked forward to the daywhen they would be universally accepted and completelyreplace characters. Opposition arose, however, becausethe system was less well adapted to writing regional lan-guages, and therefore would require learning Mandarin.Sin Wenzi fell into relative disuse during the followingyears.*[13]

2 History of Hanyu Pinyin (1949 topresent)

Pinyin was developed as part of a Chinese governmentproject in the 1950s. One of the prominent figures was

1

2 4 OVERVIEW

Zhou Youguang, who is often called “the father ofpinyin”,*[14]*[15] as he led a government committeein developing the romanization system.*[16]*[17] Zhouwas working in a New York bank when he decided toreturn to China to help rebuild the country after the es-tablishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.Zhou became an economics professor in Shanghai, andin 1954, when China's Ministry of Education created aCommittee for the Reform of the Chinese Written Lan-guage, Zhou was assigned the task of helping to developa new romanization system.Hanyu Pinyin was based on several preexisting systems:(Gwoyeu Romatzyh of 1928, Latinxua Sin Wenz of 1931,and the diacritic markings from zhuyin).*[18]“I’m notthe father of pinyin,”Zhou said years later,“I’m theson of pinyin. It’s [the result of] a long tradition fromthe later years of the Qing dynasty down to today. But werestudied the problem and revisited it and made it moreperfect.”*[19]A first draft was published on February 12, 1956. Thefirst edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adoptedat the Fifth Session of the 1st National People's Congresson February 11, 1958. It was then introduced to primaryschools as a way to teach Standard Chinese pronunciationand used to improve the literacy rate among adults.*[20]Beginning in the early 1980s, Western publications ad-dressing Mainland China began using the Hanyu Pinyinromanization system instead of earlier romanization sys-tems;*[21] this change followed the normalization ofdiplomatic relations between the United States and thePRC in 1979.*[22] In 2001, the PRC Government is-sued the National Common Language Law, providing alegal basis for applying pinyin.*[20] The current specifi-cation of the orthographic rules is laid down in the Na-tional Standard GB/T 16159-2012.*[23]

3 Usage

Pinyin superseded older romanization systems such asWade-Giles (1859; modified 1892) and Chinese postalmap romanization, and replaced zhuyin as the methodof Chinese phonetic instruction in mainland China. TheISO adopted pinyin as the standard romanization formodern Chinese in 1982 (ISO 7098:1982, supersededby ISO 7098:1991); the United Nations followed suit in1986.*[24] It has also been accepted by the governmentof Singapore, the United States' Library of Congress, theAmerican Library Association, and many other interna-tional institutions.*[25]The spelling of Chinese geographical or personal namesin pinyin has become the most common way to transcribethem in English. Pinyin has also become the dominantmethod for entering Chinese text into computers inMain-land China, in contrast to Taiwan where Bopomofo ismost commonly used.

A school slogan asking elementary students to speak Putonghuais annotated with pinyin, but without tonal marks.

Families outside of Taiwan who speak Mandarin as amother tongue use pinyin to help children associate char-acters with spoken words which they already know. Chi-nese families outside of Taiwan who speak some otherlanguage as their mother tongue use the system to teachchildren Mandarin pronunciation when they learn vocab-ulary in elementary school.*[1]*[26]Since 1958, pinyin has been actively used in adult educa-tion as well, making it easier for formerly illiterate peopleto continue with self-study after a short period of pinyinliteracy instruction.*[27]Pinyin has become a tool for many foreigners to learnthe Mandarin pronunciation, and is used to explain boththe grammar and spokenMandarin coupled with Chinesecharacters (汉字; 漢字; Hanzi). Books containing bothChinese characters and pinyin are often used by foreignlearners of Chinese; pinyin's role in teaching pronunci-ation to foreigners and children is similar in some re-spects to furigana-based books (with hiragana letters writ-ten above or next to kanji, directly analogous to zhuyin)in Japanese or fully vocalised texts in Arabic (“vocalisedArabic”).The tone-marking diacritics are commonly omitted inpopular news stories and even in scholarly works. Thisresults in some degree of ambiguity as to which wordsare being represented.

4 Overview

When a foreign writing system with one set of soundsand coding/decoding system is taken to write a language,certain compromises may have to be made. The resultis that the decoding systems used in some foreign lan-guages will enable non-native speakers to produce soundsmore closely resembling the target language than will thecoding/decoding system used by other foreign languages.Native speakers of English will decode pinyin spellingsto fairly close approximations of Mandarin except in thecase of certain speech sounds that are not ordinarily pro-duced by most native speakers of English: j, q, x, z, c,s, zh, ch, sh, and r exhibiting the greatest discrepancies.(When Chinese speakers call out these letters, they readthem as: ji, qi, xi, zi, ci, si, zhi, chi, shi, and ri. The i in

3

In Yiling, Yichang, Hubei, text on road signs appears both in Chi-nese characters and in Hanyu Pinyin

the last four sounds more like r and the use of i is purelya matter of convention.)

The diagrams below are not anatomically correct. They areintended to indicate how things feel in your mouth when youmake these sounds.

Tongue tip scrapesdown the backs ofthe middle fronttwo upper teeth.

ji, qi, xi zhi, chi, shi, ri zi, ci, si

Ji, zhi, zi: full stop is made and gentlyreleased at arrow point.Qi, chi, ci: full stop is made and thenblown away forcefully from the arrowpoint.Xi, shi, si: narrow constriction at arrowpoint, but no actual stoppage; gradualopening.Ri: less narrow constriction at arrowpoint, no gradual opening. Tongue tipvibrates. (Sometimes you can feel thevibration in your lower front teeth.)

Most native speakers of English find these sounds difficult.

In this system, the correspondence between the Romanletter and the sound is sometimes idiosyncratic, thoughnot necessarily more so than the way the Latin script isemployed in other languages. For example, the aspirationdistinction between b, d, g and p, t, k is similar to that ofEnglish (in which the two sets are however also differen-tiated by voicing), but not to that of French. Z and c alsohave that distinction, pronounced as [ts] and [tsʰ]. From s,z, c come the digraphs sh, zh, ch by analogy with Englishsh, ch. Although this introduces the novel combinationzh, it is internally consistent in how the two series are re-lated, and reminds the trained reader that many Chinesepronounce sh, zh, ch as s, z, c (and English-speakers use zhto represent /ʒ/ in foreign languages such as Russian any-way). In the x, j, q series, the pinyin use of x is similar toits use in Portuguese, Galician, Catalan, Basque and Mal-tese; and the pinyin q is akin to its value in Albanian; bothpinyin and Albanian pronunciations may sound similar tothe ch to the untrained ear. Pinyin vowels are pronounced

in a similar way to vowels in Romance languages.The pronunciation and spelling of Chinese words are gen-erally given in terms of initials and finals, which rep-resent the segmental phonemic portion of the language,rather than letter by letter. Initials are initial conso-nants, while finals are all possible combinations of me-dials (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleusvowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).

5 Initials and finals

Unlike European languages, clusters of letters – initials(声母;聲母; shēngmǔ) and finals (韵母;韻母; yùnmǔ) –and not consonant and vowel letters, form the fundamen-tal elements in pinyin (and most other phonetic systemsused to describe the Han language). Every Mandarin syl-lable can be spelled with exactly one initial followed byone final, except for the special syllable er or when a trail-ing -r is considered part of a syllable (see below). The lat-ter case, though a common practice in some sub-dialects,is rarely used in official publications. One exception isthe city Harbin (哈尔滨; 哈爾濱), whose name comesfrom the Manchu language.Even though most initials contain a consonant, finals arenot always simple vowels, especially in compound finals(复韵母; 複韻母; fùyùnmǔ), i.e., when a “medial”isplaced in front of the final. For example, the medials[i] and [u] are pronounced with such tight openings atthe beginning of a final that some native Chinese speak-ers (especially when singing) pronounce yī (衣, clothes,officially pronounced /í/) as /jí/ and wéi (围; 圍, to en-close, officially pronounced /uěi/) as /wěi/ or /wuěi/. Of-ten these medials are treated as separate from the finalsrather than as part of them; this convention is followed inthe chart of finals below.

5.1 Initials

In each cell below, the bold letters indicate pinyin, and thebrackets enclose the symbol in the International PhoneticAlphabet.1 r may phonetically be [ʐ] (a voiced retroflex frica-tive) or [ɻ] (a retroflex approximant). This pronunciationvaries among different speakers and is not two differentphonemes.2 y is pronounced [ɥ] (a labial-palatal approximant) be-fore u.3 the lettersw and y are not included in the table of initialsin the official pinyin system. They are an orthographicconvention for the medials i, u and ü when no initial ispresent. When i, u or ü are finals and no initial is present,they are spelled yi, wu, and yu, respectively. The conven-tional order (excluding w and y), derived from the zhuyinsystem, is:

4 6 RULES GIVEN IN TERMS OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

5.2 Finals

Standard Chinese vowels (with IPA and Pinyin)

The following chart gives the combinations of medialsand finals based on an analysis that assumes just twovowel nuclei, /a/ and /ə/;*[28] various allophones resultdepending on phonetic context.In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the secondindicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, andthe third indicates pinyin for a combination with an ini-tial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omit-ted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possiblefinals.1*[29]The only syllable-final consonants in Standard Chineseare -n and -ng, and -r, which is attached as a grammaticalsuffix. A Chinese syllable ending with any other conso-nant either is from a non-Mandarin language (a southernChinese language such as Cantonese, or a minority lan-guage of China), or indicates the use of a non-pinyin ro-manization system (where final consonants may be usedto indicate tones).1 [ɑɻ] is written er. For other finals formed by the suffix-r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simplyappends r to the final that it is added to, without regardfor any sound changes that may take place along the way.For information on sound changes related to final r, pleasesee Erhua#Rules.2 ü is written as u after j, q, x, or y.3 uo is written as o after b, p, m, or f.4 weng is pronounced [ʊŋ] (written as ong) when it followsan initial.Technically, i, u, ü without a following vowel are finals,not medials, and therefore take the tone marks, but theyare more concisely displayed as above. In addition, ê [ɛ](欸;誒) and syllabic nasalsm (呒,衣), n (嗯,唔), ng (嗯,�) are used as interjections.

6 Rules given in terms of Englishpronunciation

All rules given here in terms of English pronunciation areapproximations, as several of these sounds do not corre-spond directly to sounds in English.

6.1 Pronunciation of initials

* Note on y and w

Y and w are equivalent to the semivowel medials i, u, andü (see below). They are spelled differently when there

is no initial consonant in order to mark a new syllable:fanguan is fan-guan, while fangwan is fang-wan (andequivalent to *fang-uan). With this convention, an apos-trophe only needs to be used to mark an initial a, e, oro: Xi'an (two syllables: [ɕi.an]) vs. xian (one syllable:[ɕiɛ̯n]). In addition, y and w are added to fully vocalic i,u, and ü when these occur without an initial consonant,so that they are written yi, wu, and yu. Some Mandarinspeakers do pronounce a [j] or [w] sound at the beginningof such words—that is, yi [i] or [ji], wu [u] or [wu], yu[y] or [ɥy],—so this is an intuitive convention. See belowfor a few finals which are abbreviated after a consonantplus w/u or y/i medial: wen→ C+un, wei → C+ui, weng→ C+ong, and you→ C+iu.

** Note on the apostrophe

The apostrophe (') is used before a syllable starting witha vowel (a, o, or e) in a multiple-syllable word when thesyllable does not start the word (which is most commonlyrealized as [ɰ]), unless the syllable immediately followsa hyphen or other dash.*[31] This is done to remove am-biguity that could arise, as in Xi'an, which consists of thetwo syllables xi ("西") an ("安"), compared to such wordsas xian ("先"). (This ambiguity does not occur when tonemarks are used: The two tone marks in Xīān unambigu-ously show that the word consists of two syllables. How-ever, even with tone marks, the city is usually spelled withan apostrophe as Xī'ān.)

6.2 Pronunciation of finals

This table may be a useful reference for IPA vowel symbols

The following is a list of finals in Standard Chinese, ex-cepting most of those ending with r.To find a given final:

1. Remove the initial consonant. Zh, ch, and sh countas initial consonants.

7.2 Word formation, capitalization, initialisms and punctuation 5

2. Change initial w to u and initial y to i. For weng,wen, wei, you, look under ong, un, ui, iu.

3. For u after j, q, x, or y, look under ü.

7 Orthography

7.1 Letters

Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects,such as the following:

• Syllables starting with u are written asw in place of u(e.g., uan is written as wan). Standalone u is writtenas wu.

• Syllables starting with i are written as y in place of i(e.g., ian is written as yan). Standalone i is writtenas yi.

• Syllables starting with ü are written as yu in place ofü (e.g., üe is written as yue).

• ü is written as u when there is no ambiguity (suchas ju, qu, and xu), but written as ü when there arecorresponding u syllables (such as lü and nü). In suchsituations where there are corresponding u syllables,it is often replaced with v on a computer, making iteasier to type on a standard keyboard.

• When preceded by a consonant, iou, uei, and uen aresimplified as iu, ui, and un (which do not representthe actual pronunciation).

• As in zhuyin, what are actually pronounced as buo,puo, muo, and fuo are given a separate representa-tion: bo, po, mo, and fo.

• The apostrophe (') is used before a syllable startingwith a vowel (a, o, or e) in a multiple-syllable wordwhen the syllable does not start the word (which ismost commonly realized as [ɰ]), unless the syllableimmediately follows a hyphen or other dash.*[31]This is done to remove ambiguity that could arise,as in Xi'an, which consists of the two syllables xi("西") an ("安"), compared to such words as xian(" 先"). (This ambiguity does not occur when tonemarks are used: The two tone marks in“Xīān”un-ambiguously show that the word consists of two syl-lables. However, even with tone marks, the city isusually spelled with an apostrophe as“Xī'ān”.)

• Eh alone is written as ê; elsewhere as e. Schwa isalways written as e.

• zh, ch, and sh can be abbreviated as ẑ, ĉ, and ŝ (z,c, s with a circumflex). However, the shorthandsare rarely used due to difficulty of entering themon computers, and are confined mainly to Esperantokeyboard layouts.

• ng has the uncommon shorthand of ŋ.

• The letter v is unused (except in spelling foreignlanguages, languages of minority nationalities, andsome dialects), despite a conscious effort to dis-tribute letters more evenly than in Western lan-guages. However, sometimes, for ease of typing intoa computer, the v is used to replace a ü.

Most of the above are used to avoid ambiguity when writ-ing words of more than one syllable in pinyin. For exam-ple, uenian is written as wenyan because it is not clearwhich syllables make up uenian; uen-ian, uen-i-an and u-en-i-an are all possible combinations whereas wenyan isunambiguous becausewe, nya, etc. do not exist in pinyin.See the pinyin table article for a summary of possiblepinyin syllables (not including tones).

7.2 Word formation, capitalization, ini-tialisms and punctuation

Although Chinese characters represent single syllables,Mandarin Chinese is a polysyllabic language. Spacingin pinyin is based on whole words, not single syllables.However, there are often ambiguities in partitioning aword. The Basic Rules of the Chinese Phonetic Alpha-bet Orthography (汉语拼音正词法基本规则; 漢語拼音正詞法基本規則; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn Zhèngcífǎ JīběnGuīzé) were put into effect in 1988 by the National Ed-ucational Commission (国家教育委员会; 國家教育委員會; Guójiā Jiàoyù Wěiyuánhuì) and the National Lan-guage Commission (国家语言文字工作委员会; 國家語言文字工作委員會; Guójiā Yǔyán Wénzì GōngzuòWěiyuánhuì).*[32] These rules became a Guobiao stan-dard in 1996*[32] and were updated in 2012.*[33]

1. General

(a) Single meaning: Words with a single mean-ing, which are usually set up of two charac-ters (sometimes one, seldom three), are writ-ten together and not capitalized: rén (人, per-son); péngyou (朋友, friend); qiǎokèlì (巧克力, chocolate)

(b) Combined meaning (2 or 3 characters):Same goes for words combined of two wordsto one meaning: hǎifēng (海风; 海風, seabreeze); wèndá (问答; 問答, question andanswer); quánguó (全国; 全國, nationwide);chángyòngcí (常 用 词; 常 用 詞,commonwords)

(c) Combinedmeaning (4 ormore characters):Words with four or more characters havingone meaning are split up with their originalmeaning if possible: wúfèng gāngguǎn (无缝钢管; 無縫鋼管, seamless steel-tube); huán-jìng bǎohù guīhuà (环境保护规划; 環境

6 7 ORTHOGRAPHY

保護規劃, environmental protection plan-ning); gāoměngsuānjiǎ (高锰酸钾; 高錳酸鉀, potassium permanganate)

2. Duplicated words

(a) AA: Duplicated characters (AA) are writtentogether: rénrén (人人, everybody), kànkan(看看, to have a look), niánnián (年年, everyyear)

(b) ABAB: Two characters duplicated (ABAB)are written separated: yánjiū yánjiū (研究研究, to study, to research), xuěbái xuěbái (雪白雪白, white as snow)

(c) AABB: Characters in the AABB schema arewritten together: láiláiwǎngwǎng (来来往往;來來往往, come and go), qiānqiānwànwàn(千千万万;千千萬萬, numerous)

3. Prefixes (前附成分; qiánfù chéngfèn) and Suffixes(后附成分;後附成分; hòufù chéngfèn): Words ac-companied by prefixes such as fù (副, vice), zǒng(总; 總, chief), fēi (非, non-), fǎn (反, anti-), chāo(超, ultra-), lǎo (老, old), ā (阿, used before namesto indicate familiarity), kě (嗯, -able), wú (无; 無,-less) and bàn (半, semi-) and suffixes such as zi (子,noun suffix), r (儿; 兒, diminutive suffix), tou (头;頭, noun suffix), xìng (性, -ness, -ity), zhě (者, -er, -ist), yuán (员; 員, person), jiā (家, -er, -ist),shǒu (手, person skilled in a field), huà (化, -ize)andmen (们;們, plural marker) are written together:fùbùzhǎng (副部长;副部長, vice minister), chéng-wùyuán (乘务员;乘務員, conductor), háizimen (孩子们;孩子們, children)

4. Nouns and names (名词;名詞; míngcí)

(a) Words of position are separated: mén wài (门外; 門外, outdoor), hé li (河里; 河裏, underthe river), huǒchē shàngmian (火车上面; 火車上面, on the train), Huáng Hé yǐnán (黄河以南;黃河以南, south of the Yellow River)i. Exceptions are words traditionally con-nected: tiānshang (天上, in the sky orouterspace), dìxia (地下, on the ground),kōngzhōng (空中, in the air), hǎiwài (海外, overseas)

(b) Surnames are separated from the given names,each capitalized: Lǐ Huá (李华;李華), ZhāngSān (张三;張三). If the surname and/or givenname consists of two syllables, it should bewritten as one: Zhūgě Kǒngmíng (诸葛孔明;諸葛孔明).

(c) Titles following the name are separated andare not capitalized: Wáng bùzhǎng (王部长;王部長, Minister Wang), Lǐ xiānsheng (李先生, Mr. Li), Tián zhǔrèn (田主任, DirectorTian), Zhào tóngzhì (赵同志; 趙同志, Com-rade Zhao).

(d) The forms of addressing people with suffixessuch as Lǎo (老), Xiǎo (小), Dà (性) and Ā(阿) are capitalized: Xiǎo Liú (小刘; 小劉,[young] Ms./Mr. Liu), Dà Lǐ (大李, [great;elder] Mr. Li), Ā Sān (阿三, Ah San), LǎoQián (老钱; 老錢, [senior] Mr. Qian), LǎoWú (老吴;老吳, [senior] Mr. Wu)i. Exceptions are: Kǒngzǐ (孔 子,Confucius), Bāogōng (包公, Judge Bao),Xīshī (西施, Xishi), Mèngchángjūn (孟尝君;孟嘗君, Lord Mengchang), amongothers

(e) Geographical names of China: Běijīng Shì (北京市, city of Beijing), Héběi Shěng (河北省,province of Hebei), Yālù Jiāng (鸭绿江;鴨綠江, Yalu River), Tài Shān (泰山, Mount Tai),Dòngtíng Hú (洞庭湖, Dongting Lake), Tái-wān Hǎixiá (台湾海峡; 臺灣海峽, TaiwanStrait)i. Monosyllabic prefixes and suffixes arewritten together with their related part:Dōngsì Shítiáo (东四十条; 東四十條,Dongsi 10th Alley)

ii. Common geographical nouns that havebecome part of proper nouns are writtentogether: Hēilóngjiāng (黑龙江;黑龍江,Heilongjiang)

(f) Chinese names of Non-Chinese names arewritten in Hanyu Pinyin: Āpèi Āwàngjìnměi(阿沛·阿旺晋美; 阿沛·阿旺晉美, NgapoiNgawang Jigme); Dōngjīng (东京; 東京,Tokyo)

5. Verbs (动词; 動詞; dòngcí): Verbs and their suf-fixes -zhe (着;著), -le (了) or -guo ((过;過) are writ-ten as one: kànzhe (看着;看著, seeing), jìnxíngguo(进行过;進行過, have been implemented). Le as itappears in the end of a sentence is separated though:Huǒchē dào le. (火车到了; 火車到了, The train[has] arrived).

(a) Verbs and their objects are separated: kàn xìn(看信, read a letter), chī yú (吃鱼; 吃魚, eatfish), kāi wánxiào (开玩笑;開玩笑, to be kid-ding).

(b) If verbs and their complements are eachmono-syllabic, they are written together; if not, theyare separated: gǎohuài (搞坏; 搞壞, to makebroken), dǎsǐ (打死, hit to death), huàwéi (化为; 化為, to become), zhěnglǐ hǎo (整理好,to sort out), gǎixiě wéi (改写为; 改寫為, torewrite as)

6. Adjectives (形容词;形容詞; xíngróngcí): Amono-syllabic adjective and its reduplication are written asone: mēngmēngliàng (矇矇亮, dim), liàngtángtáng(亮堂堂, shining bright)

7.2 Word formation, capitalization, initialisms and punctuation 7

(a) Complements of size or degree such as xiē(些), yīxiē (一些), diǎnr (点儿; 點兒) andyīdiǎnr (一点儿; 一點兒) are written sep-arated: dà xiē (大些), a little bigger), kuàiyīdiǎnr (快一点儿;快一點兒, a bit faster)

7. Pronouns (代词;代詞; dàicí)

(a) Personal pronouns and interrogative pronounsare separated from other words: Wǒ ài Zhōng-guó. (我爱中国。; 我愛中國。, I loveChina); Shéi shuō de? (谁说的？; 誰說的？, Who said it?)

(b) The demonstrative pronoun zhè (这;這, this),nà (那, that) and the question pronoun nǎ (哪,which) are separated: zhè rén (这人; 這人,this person), nà cì huìyì (那次会议; 那次會議, that meeting), nǎ zhāng bàozhǐ (哪张报纸;哪張報紙, which newspaper)i. Exception—If zhè, nà or nǎ are followedby diǎnr (点儿; 點兒), bān (般), biān(边;邊), shí (时;時), huìr (会儿;會兒),lǐ (里; 裏), me (么; 麼) or the generalclassifierge (个; 個), they are written to-gether: nàlǐ (那里;那裏, there), zhèbiān(这边;這邊, over here), zhège (这个;這個, this)

8. Numerals (数词;數詞; shùcí) andmeasurewords(量词;量詞; liàngcí)

(a) Numbers andwords like gè (各, each),měi (每,each), mǒu (某, any), běn (般, this), gāi (该;該, that), wǒ (我, my, our) and nǐ (你, your)are separated from the measure words follow-ing them: liǎng ge rén (两个人; 兩個人, twopeople), gè guó (各国; 各國, every nation),měi nián (每年, every year), mǒu gōngchǎng(某工厂; 某工廠, a certain factory), wǒ xiào(我校, our school)

(b) Numbers up to 100 are written as single words:sānshísān (三十三, thirty-three). Above that,the hundreds, thousands, etc. are writtenas separate words: jiǔyì qīwàn èrqiān sān-bǎi wǔshíliù (九亿七万二千三百五十六;九億七萬二千三百五十六, nine hundredmillion, seventy-two thousand, three hundredfifty-six). Arabic numerals are kept as Arabicnumerals: 635 fēnjī (635分机; 635分機, ex-tension 635)

(c) The dì (般) of ordinal numerals is hyphenated:dì-yī (第一, first), dì−356 (第 356, 356th).The chū (初) in front of numbers one to ten iswritten together with the number: chūshí (初十, tenth day)

(d) Numbers representing month and day are hy-phenated: wǔ-sì (五四, May fourth), yīèr-jiǔ(一二·九, December ninth)

(e) Words of approximations such as duō (多), lái(来;來) and jǐ (几;幾) are separated from nu-merals and measure words: yībǎi duō gè (一百多个;一百多個, around a hundred); shí láiwàn gè (十来万个;十來萬個, around a hun-dred thousand); jǐ jiā rén (几家人; 幾家人, afew families)i. Shíjǐ (十几; 十幾, more than ten) and

jǐshí (几十; 幾十, tens) are written to-gether: shíjǐ gè rén (十几个人; 十幾個人, more than ten people); jǐshí (几十根钢管;幾十根鋼管, tens of steel pipes)

(f) Approximations with numbers or units that areclose together are hyphenated: sān-wǔ tiān (三五天, three to five days), qiān-bǎi cì (千百次,thousands of times)

9. Other function words (虚词;虛詞; xūcí) are sepa-rated from other words, including:(a) Adverbs (副词; 副詞; fùcí): hěn hǎo (很好,

very good), zuì kuài (最快, fastest), fēichángdà (非常大, extremely big)

(b) Prepositions (介词;介詞; jiècí): zài qiánmiàn(在前面, in front)

(c) Conjunctions (连词; 連詞; liáncí): nǐ hé wǒ(你和我, you and I/me), Nǐ lái háishi bù lái?(你来还是不来？;你來還是不來？, Are youcoming or not?)

(d)“Constructive auxiliaries”(结构助词; 結構助詞; jiégòu zhùcí) such as de (的/地/得), zhī(手) and suǒ (所): mànmàn de zou (慢慢地走), go slowly)i. A monosyllabic word can also be writtentogether with de (的/地/得): wǒ de shū /wǒde shū (我的书;我的書, my book)

(e) Modal auxiliaries at the end of a sentence: Nǐzhīdàoma? (你知道吗？;你知道嗎？, Do youknow?), Kuài qù ba! (快去吧！, Go quickly!)

(f) Exclamations and interjections: À! Zhēn měi!(啊！真美！), Oh, that's so beautiful!)

(g) Onomatopoeia: mó dāo huòhuò (磨刀霍霍,honing a knife), hōnglōng yī shēng (轰隆一声;轟隆一聲, rumbling)

10. Capitalization(a) The first letter of the first word in a sentence is

capitalized: Chūntiān lái le. (春天来了。;春天來了。, Spring has arrived.)

(b) The first letter of each line in a poem is capi-talized.

(c) The first letter of a proper noun is capitalized:Beǐjīng (北京, Beijing), Guójì Shūdiàn (国际书店; 國際書店, International Bookstore),Guójiā YǔyánWénzì GōngzuòWěiyuánhuì (国家语言文字工作委员会; 國家語言文字工作委員會, National Language Commission)

8 8 TONES

i. On some occasions, proper nouns canbe written in all caps: BĚIJĪNG, GUÓJÌSHŪDIÀN, GUÓJIĀ YǓYÁN WÉNZÌGŌNGZUÒ WĚIYUÁNHUÌ

(d) If a proper noun is written together with acommon noun to make a proper noun, it iscapitalized. If not, it is not capitalized: Fójiào(佛教, Buddhism), Tángcháo (唐朝, Tang dy-nasty), jīngjù (京剧; 京劇, Beijing opera),chuānxiōng (川芎, Szechuan lovage)

11. Initialisms

(a) Single words are abbreviated by taking the firstletter of each character of the word: Beǐjīng(北京, Beijing) → BJ

(b) A group of words are abbreviated by taking thefirst letter of each word in the group: guójiābiāozhǔn (国家标准; 國家標準, Guobiaostandard) → GB

(c) Initials can also be indicated using full stops:Beǐjīng→ B.J., guójiā biāozhǔn→ G.B.

(d) When abbreviating names, the surname iswritten fully (first letter capitalized or in allcaps), but only the first letter of each characterin the given name is taken, with full stops aftereach initial: Lǐ Huá (李华; 李華) → Lǐ H. orLǏ H., Zhūgě Kǒngmíng (诸葛孔明; 諸葛孔明) → Zhūgě K. M. or ZHŪGĚ K. M.

12. Line Wrapping

(a) Words can only be split by the character:guāngmíng (光明, bright) → guāng-míng, not gu-āngmíng

(b) Initials cannot be split:Wáng J. G. (王建国;王建國) →WángJ. G., notWáng J.-G.

(c) Apostrophes disappear in line wrapping:Xī'ān (西安, Xi'an) → Xī-ān, not Xī'-ān

(d) When the original word has a hyphen, the hy-phen is added at the beginning of the new line:chēshuǐ-mǎlóng (车水马龙;車水馬龍, heavytraffic: “carriage, water, horse, dragon”) →chēshuǐ--mǎlóng

13. Hyphenation: In addition to the situations men-tioned above, there are four situations where hy-phens are used.

(a) Coordinate and disjunctive compound words,where the two elements are conjoined or op-posed, but retain their individual meaning:

gōng-jiàn (弓箭, bow and arrow), kuài-màn(快慢, speed: “fast-slow”), shíqī-bā suì (十七八岁; 十七八歲, 17–18 years old), dǎ-mà(打骂;打罵, beat and scold), Yīng-Hàn (英汉;英漢, English-Chinese [dictionary]), Jīng-Jīn(京津, Beijing-Tianjin), lù-hǎi-kōngjūn (陆海空军;陸海空軍, army-navy-airforce).

(b) Abbreviated compounds (略语; 略語; luèyǔ):gōnggòng guānxì (公共关系;公共關係, pub-lic relations) → gōng-guān (公关; 公關, PR),chángtú diànhuà (长途电话;長途電話, long-distance calling) → cháng-huà (长话; 長話,LDC).Exceptions are made when the abbreviatedterm has become established as a word in itsown right, as in chūzhōng (初中) for chūjízhōngxué (初级中学; 初級中學, junior highschool). Abbreviations of proper-name com-pounds, however, should always be hyphen-ated: Běijīng Dàxué (北京大学; 北京大學,Peking University) → Běi-Dà (北大, PKU).

(c) Four-syllable idioms: fēngpíng-làngjìng (风平浪静; 風平浪靜), calm and tranquil: “windcalm, waves down”), huījīn-rútǔ (挥金如土;揮金如土, spend money like water: “throwgold like dirt”), zhǐ-bǐ-mò-yàn (纸笔墨砚;紙筆墨硯, paper-brush-ink-inkstone [four co-ordinate words]). (The AA-BB reduplicationabove is an instance of this.)*[34]i. Other idioms are separated according tothe words that make up the idiom: bēihēiguō (背黑锅; 背黑鍋, to be madea scapegoat: “to carry a black pot”),zhǐ xǔ zhōuguān fànghuǒ, bù xǔ bǎixìngdiǎndēng (只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯; 只許州官放火，不許百姓點燈, Gods may do what cattle may not:

“only the official is allowed to light thefire; the commoners are not allowed tolight a lamp”)

14. Punctuation(a) The Chinese full stop (。) is changed to a

western full stop (.).(b) The hyphen is a half-width hyphen (-).(c) Ellipsis can be changed from 6 dots (……) to

3 dots (…).(d) The enumeration comma (、) is changed to a

normal comma (,).(e) All other punctuation marks are the same as

the ones used in normal texts.

8 Tones

The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the fourtones of Mandarin. The diacritic is placed over the let-

8.1 Numerals in place of tone marks 9

5

4

3

2

1

1st tone

2nd tone

3rd tone

4th toneRelative pitch changes of the four tones

ter that represents the syllable nucleus, unless that letteris missing (see below). Many books printed in China usea mix of fonts, with vowels and tone marks rendered in adifferent font from the surrounding text, tending to givesuch pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance.This style, most likely rooted in early technical limita-tions, has led many to believe that pinyin's rules call forthis practice and also for the use of a Latin alpha (ɑ)rather than the standard style of the letter (a) found inmost fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however,specify no such practice.

1. The first tone (Flat or High Level Tone) is repre-sented by a macron (ˉ) added to the pinyin vowel:

ā (ɑ̄) ē ī ō ū ǖ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ǖ

2. The second tone (Rising or High-Rising Tone) is de-noted by an acute accent (ˊ):

á (ɑ́) é í ó ú ǘ Á É Í Ó Ú Ǘ

3. The third tone (Falling-Rising or Low Tone) ismarked by a caron/háček (ˇ). It is not the roundedbreve (˘), though a breve is sometimes substituteddue to font limitations.

ǎ (ɑ̌) ě ǐ ǒ ǔ ǚ Ǎ Ě Ǐ Ǒ Ǔ Ǚ

4. The fourth tone (Falling or High-Falling Tone) isrepresented by a grave accent (ˋ):

à (ɑ̀) è ì ò ù ǜ À È Ì Ò Ù Ǜ

5. The fifth tone (Neutral Tone) is represented by anormal vowel without any accent mark:

a (ɑ) e i o u ü A E I O U Ü

(In some cases, this is also written with a dotbefore the syllable; for example, ·ma.)

These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarintextbooks or in foreign learning texts, but they are essen-tial for correct pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, asexemplified by the following classic example of five char-acters whose pronunciations differ only in their tones:

The four main tones of Standard Mandarin, pronouncedwith the syllable ma.

The words are“mother”,“hemp”,“horse”,“scold”and a question particle, respectively.

8.1 Numerals in place of tone marks

Before the advent of computers, many typewriter fontsdid not contain vowels with macron or caron diacritics.Tones were thus represented by placing a tone numberat the end of individual syllables. For example, tóng iswritten tong2. The number used for each tone is as theorder listed above, except the neutral tone, which is eithernot numbered, or given the number 0 or 5, e.g. ma5 for吗/嗎, an interrogative marker.

8.2 Rules for placing the tone mark

Briefly, the tone mark should always be placed by the or-der—a, o, e, i, u, ü, with the only exception being iu,

10 9 THE Ü SOUND

where the tone mark is placed on the u instead. Pinyintone marks appear primarily above the nucleus of the syl-lable, for example as in kuài, where k is the initial, u themedial, a the nucleus, and i the coda. The exception issyllabic nasals like /m/, where the nucleus of the syllableis a consonant, the diacritic will be carried by a writtendummy vowel.When the nucleus is /ə/ (written e or o), and there is botha medial and a coda, the nucleus may be dropped fromwriting. In this case, when the coda is a consonant n orng, the only vowel left is the medial i, u, or ü, and so thistakes the diacritic. However, when the coda is a vowel,it is the coda rather than the medial which takes the di-acritic in the absence of a written nucleus. This occurswith syllables ending in -ui (from wei: (wèi → -uì) andin -iu (from you: yòu → -iù.) That is, in the absence ofa written nucleus the finals have priority for receiving thetone marker, as long as they are vowels: if not, the medialtakes the diacritic.An algorithm to find the correct vowel letter (when thereis more than one) is as follows:*[35]

1. If there is an a or an e, it will take the tone mark.

2. If there is an ou, then the o takes the tone mark.

3. Otherwise, the second vowel takes the tone mark.

Worded differently,

1. If there is an a, e, or o, it will take the tone mark; inthe case of ao, the mark goes on the a.

2. Otherwise, the vowels are -iu or -ui, in which casethe second vowel takes the tone mark.

If the tone is written over an i, the tittle above the i isomitted, as in yī.

8.2.1 Phonological intuition

The placement of the tone marker, when more than oneof the written letters a, e, i, o, and u appears, can also beinferred from the nature of the vowel sound in the medialand final. The rule is that the tone marker goes on thespelled vowel that is not a (near-)semi-vowel. The excep-tion is that, for triphthongs that are spelled with only twovowel letters, both of which are the semi-vowels, the tonemarker goes on the second spelled vowel.Specifically, if the spelling of a diphthong begins with i(as in ia) or u (as in ua), which here serves as a near-semi-vowel, this letter does not take the tonemarker. Likewise,if the spelling of a diphthong ends with o or u representinga near-semi-vowel (as in ao or ou), this letter does notreceive a tone marker. In a triphthong spelled with threeof a, e, i, o, and u (with i or u replaced by y orw at the start

of a syllable), the first and third letters coincide with near-semi-vowels and hence do not receive the tone marker (asin iao or uai or iou). But if no letter is written to representa triphthong's middle (non-semi-vowel) sound (as in ui oriu), then the tone marker goes on the final (second) vowelletter.

8.3 Using tone colors

In addition to tone number and mark, tone color has beensuggested as a visual aid for learning. Although there areno formal standards, there are a number of different colorschemes in use.

• Dummitt's color scheme was one of the first to beused. It is tone 1 - red, tone 2 - orange, tone 3 -green, tone 4 - blue and neutral tone - black.*[36]

• The Unimelb color scheme is tone 1 - blue, tone 2- green, tone 3 - purple, tone 4 - red, neutral tone -grey

• The Hanping color scheme is tone 1 - blue, tone 2- green, tone 3 - orange, tone 4 - red, neutral tone -grey.*[37]

• The Pleco color scheme is tone 1 - red, tone 2 -green, tone 3 - blue, tone 4 - purple, neutral tone- grey

• The Thomas color scheme is tone 1 - green, tone 2 -blue, tone 3 - red, tone 4 - black, neutral tone - grey

8.4 Third tone exceptions

In spoken Chinese, the third tone is often pronounced as a“half third tone,”in which the pitch does not rise. Addi-tionally, when two third tones appear consecutively, suchas in你好 (nǐhǎo, hello), the first syllable is pronouncedwith the second tone. In pinyin, words like“hello”arestill written with two third tones (nǐhǎo).

9 The ü sound

An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs afterthe initials l and n in order to represent the sound [y]. Thisis necessary in order to distinguish the front high roundedvowel in lü (e.g. 驴;驢;“donkey”) from the back highrounded vowel in lu (e.g. 炉;爐;“oven”). Tonal markersare added on top of the umlaut, as in lǘ.However, the ü is not used in the other contexts where itcould represent a front high rounded vowel, namely af-ter the letters j, q, x and y. For example, the sound ofthe word 鱼/魚 (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply asyú, not as yǘ. This practice is opposed to Wade-Giles,which always uses ü, and Tongyong Pinyin, which always

11

uses yu. Whereas Wade-Giles needs to use the umlaut todistinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu),this ambiguity cannot arise with pinyin, so the more con-venient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguitiesonly happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distin-guished by an umlaut.Many fonts or output methods do not support an um-laut for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Like-wise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is notpresent as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. Forthese reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention.For example, it is common for cellphones to use v insteadof ü. Additionally, some stores in China use v instead ofü in the transliteration of their names. The drawback isthat there are no tone marks for the letter v.This also presents a problem in transcribing names for useon passports, affecting people with names that consist ofthe sound lü or nü, particularly people with the surname吕 (Lǚ), a fairly common surname, particularly comparedto the surname 陆 (Lù), 鲁 (Lǔ), 卢 (Lú) and 路 (Lù).Previously, the practice varied among different passportissuing offices, with some transcribing as“LV”and“NV”while others used“LU”and“NU”. On 10 July 2012,the Ministry of Public Security standardized the practiceto use“LYU”and“NYU”in passports.*[38]*[39]Although nüe written as nue, and lüe written as lue arenot ambiguous, nue or lue are not correct according to therules; nüe and lüe should be used instead. However, someChinese input methods (e.g. Microsoft Pinyin IME) sup-port both nve/lve (typing v for ü) and nue/lue.

10 Pinyin in Taiwan

Taiwan (Republic of China) adopted Tongyong Pinyin, amodification of Hanyu Pinyin, as the official romaniza-tion system on the national level between October 2002and January 2009, when it switched to Hanyu Pinyin.Tongyong Pinyin (“official phonetic”), a variant ofpinyin developed in Taiwan, was designed to romanizelanguages and dialects spoken on the island in additionto Mandarin Chinese. The Kuomintang (Chinese Na-tionalist Party) resisted its adoption, preferring theHanyuPinyin system used in Mainland China and in general useinternationally. Romanization preferences quickly be-came associated with issues of national identity. Pref-erences split along party lines: the Kuomintang and itsaffiliated parties in the pan-blue coalition supported theuse of Hanyu Pinyin while the Democratic ProgressiveParty and its affiliated parties in the pan-green coalitionfavored the use of Tongyong Pinyin.Tongyong Pinyin was made the official system in an ad-ministrative order that allowed its adoption by local gov-ernments to be voluntary. A few localities with gov-ernments controlled by the Kuomintang (KMT), mostnotably Taipei, Hsinchu, and Kinmen County, overrode

the order and converted to Hanyu Pinyin before the Jan-uary 1, 2009 national-level switch,*[4]*[5] though with aslightly different capitalization convention than mainlandChina. Most areas of Taiwan adopted Tongyong Pinyin,consistent with the national policy. Many street signs inTaiwan today still display Tongyong Pinyin but some, es-pecially in northern Taiwan, display Hanyu Pinyin. It isstill not unusual to see spellings on street signs and build-ings derived from the older Wade-Giles, MPS2 and othersystems.The adoption ofHanyu Pinyin as the official romanizationsystem in Taiwan does not preclude the official retentionof earlier spellings. International familiarity has led tothe retention of the spelling Taipei (“Taibei”in pinyinsystems) and even to its continuation in the name of NewTaipei, a municipality created in 2010. Personal nameson Taiwanese passports honor the choices of Taiwanesecitizens, who often prefer the Wade-Giles romanizationof their personal names. Transition to Hanyu Pinyin inofficial use is also necessarily gradual. Universities andother government entities retain earlier spellings in long-established names, budget restraints preclude widespreadreplacement of signage and stationery in every area, andquestions remain about the ability of the national govern-ment to enforce the standard island-wide.*[40] Primaryeducation in Taiwan continues to teach pronunciation us-ing zhuyin (MPS or Mandarin Phonetic Symbols).

11 Comparison with other or-thographies

Pinyin is now used by foreign students learning Chineseas a second language.Pinyin assigns some Latin letters sound values which arequite different from that of most languages. This hasdrawn some criticism as it may lead to confusion whenuninformed speakers apply either native or English as-sumed pronunciations to words. However this is not aspecific problem of pinyin, since many languages that usethe Latin alphabet natively assign different values to thesame letters. A recent study on Chinese writing and lit-eracy concluded, “By and large, pinyin represents theChinese sounds better than the Wade-Giles system, anddoes so with fewer extra marks.”*[41]Because Pinyin is purely a representation of the sounds ofMandarin, it completely lacks the semantic cues and con-texts inherent in Chinese characters. Pinyin is also un-suitable for transcribing some Chinese spoken languagesother than Mandarin, languages which by contrast havetraditionally been written with Han characters allowingfor written communication which, by its unified semanto-phonetic orthography, could theoretically be readable inany of the various vernaculars of Chinese where a pho-netic script would have only localized utility.

12 14 REFERENCES

11.1 Chart of comparison with other ro-manizations

11.2 Computer input systems

Simple computer systems, able to display only 7-bitASCII text (essentially the 26 Latin letters, 10 digits andpunctuation marks), long provided a convincing argu-ment in favor of pinyin over Chinese characters. Today,however, most computer systems are able to display char-acters from Chinese and many other writing systems aswell, and have them entered with a Latin keyboard usingan input method editor. Alternatively, some PDAs, tabletcomputers and digitizing tablets allow users to input char-acters directly by writing with a stylus.

12 Other languages

See also: SASM/GNC romanization and Tibetan pinyin

Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variantsof Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of ro-manizations devised by the government of Guangdongprovince for Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen di-alect), and Hainanese. All of these are designed to useLatin letters in a similar way to pinyin.In addition, in accordance to the Regulation of PhoneticTranscription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names inMinority Nationality Languages (少数民族语地名汉语拼音字母音译转写法; 少數民族語地名漢語拼音字母音譯寫法) promulgated in 1976, place names innon-Han languages like Mongolian, Uyghur, and Tibetanare also officially transcribed using pinyin in a systemadopted by the State Administration of Surveying andMapping and Geographical Names Committee known asSASM/GNC romanization. The pinyin letters (26 Ro-man letters, ü, ê) are used to approximate the non-Hanlanguage in question as closely as possible. This resultsin spellings that are different from both the customaryspelling of the place name, and the pinyin spelling of thename in Chinese:Tongyong Pinyin was developed in Taiwan for use in ren-dering not only Mandarin Chinese, but other languagesand dialects spoken on the island such as Taiwanese,Hakka and aboriginal languages.

13 See also• Transcription into Chinese characters

• Bopomofo

• Chinese postal map romanization

• Combining character

• Erhua (儿化)

• Jyutping (most similar to IPA)

• Legge romanization

• List of ISO romanizations

• Pe̍h-ōe-jī

• Pinyin input method

• Pinyin table

• Romanization of Japanese

• Simplified Wade

• Tibetan pinyin

• Tone number

• Tongyong Pinyin

• Wade–Giles

14 References[1] Snowling, Margaret J.; Hulme, Charles (2005). The sci-

ence of reading: a handbook. Blackwell handbooks of de-velopmental psychology) 17. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 320–22. ISBN 1-4051-1488-6.

[2]“Pinyin celebrates 50th birthday”. Xinhua News Agency.2008-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[3] “ISO 7098:1982 – Documentation – Romanization ofChinese”. Retrieved 2009-03-01.

[4] “Hanyu Pinyin to be standard system in 2009”. TaipeiTimes. 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[5] “Government to improve English-friendly environment”. The China Post. 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[6] The on-line version of the canonical Guoyu Cidian (《國語辭典》) defines this term as: 標語音﹑不標語義的符號系統，足以明確紀錄某一種語言。(A systemof symbols for notation of the sounds of words ratherthan for their meanings that is sufficient to accuratelyrecord some language.) See http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/cgi-bin/newDict/dict.sh?cond=++%AB%F7%AD%B5&pieceLen=50&fld=1&cat=&ukey=2123466121&serial=1&recNo=2&op=f&imgFont=1, accessed 14September 2012.

[7] Sin, Kiong Wong (2012). Confucianism, Chinese Historyand Society. World Scientific. p. 72. ISBN 9814374474.Retrieved 13 July 2014.

[8] Brockey, Liam Matthew (2009). Journey to the East: TheJesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Harvard UniversityPress. p. 261. ISBN 0674028813. Retrieved 13 July2014.

13

[9] Chan, Wing-tsit; Adler, Joseph (2013). Sources of Chi-nese Tradition. Columbia University Press. pp. 303, 304.ISBN 0231517998. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

[10] Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese, Cambridge LanguageSurveys. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN0521296536. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

[11] Jensen, Lionel M.; Weston, Timothy B. (2007). China'sTransformations: The Stories Beyond the Headlines. Row-man & Littlefield. p. XX. ISBN 074253863X.

[12] Chen, Ping (1999). Modern Chinese: History andSociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521645727. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

[13] John DeFrancis, The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984), pp. 246-247.

[14] “Father of pinyin”. China Daily. 26 March 2009. Re-trieved 12 July 2009. Reprinted in part as Simon, Alan(21–27 Jan 2011). “Father of Pinyin”. China DailyAsia Weekly (Hong Kong). Xinhua. p. 20.

[15] “Zhou Youguang”. China Digital Times. China.

[16] “Tag: Zhou Youguang”. Chinadigitaltimes.net. 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2012-04-06.

[17] Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21).“Sound Principles”. Lon-don: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[18] Rohsenow, John S. 1989. Fifty years of script and writtenlanguage reform in the PRC: the genesis of the languagelaw of 2001. In Zhou Minglang and Sun Hongkai, eds.Language Policy In The People's Republic Of China: The-ory And Practice Since 1949, p. 23

[19] Branigan, Tania (2008-02-21).“Sound principles”. TheGuardian (London).

[20] “Hanyu Pinyin system turns 50”. Straits Times. 2008-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[21] Terry, Edith. How Asia Got Rich: Japan, China and theAsian Miracle. M.E. Sharpe, 2002. 632. Retrieved fromGoogle Books on August 7, 2011. ISBN 0-7656-0356-X,9780765603562.

[22] Terry, Edith. How Asia Got Rich: Japan, China and theAsian Miracle. M.E. Sharpe, 2002. 633. Retrieved fromGoogle Books on August 7, 2011. ISBN 0-7656-0356-X,9780765603562.

[23] “New Pinyin Standards (2012). On Derk Zech’s blog,with links to PDF documents”. 2012-12-31. Retrieved2013-11-10.

[24] Lin Mei-chun (2000-10-08).“Official challenges roman-ization”. Taipei Times.

[25] Ao, Benjamin (1997-12-01). “History and Prospect ofChinese Romanization”. Chinese Librarianship: an Inter-national Electronic Journal (Internet Chinese LibrariansClub) (4). ISSN 1089-4667. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[26] R.F. Price (2005). Education in Modern China. Volume23 of“China : history, philosophy, economics”. (2, il-lustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 123. ISBN 0-415-36167-2.

[27] Price (2005), pp. 206–208

[28] Hashimoto, Mantaro (1970). “Notes on MandarinPhonology”. In Jakobson, Roman; Kawamoto, Shigeo.Studies in General and Oriental Linguistics. Tokyo: TEC.pp. 207–220

[29] You can hear recordings of the Finals here

[30] http://hua.umf.maine.edu/Chinese/topics/pinyin/pinyin.html

[31] “Apostrophes in Hanyu Pinyin: when and where to usethem”.

[32] "Basic Rules of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet Orthogra-phy". Qingdao Vocational and Technical College of Ho-tel Management (in Chinese). Department of EducationalAdministration. 10 April 2014. Retrieved 11 August2014.

[33] “Release of the National Standard Basic Rules of the Chi-nese Phonetic Alphabet Orthography". China Educationand Research Network (in Chinese). China Education andResearch Network. 20 July 2012. Retrieved 11 August2014.

[34] “Use of the Hyphen; Abbreviations and Short Forms”.Pinyin.info. Retrieved 2012-04-06.

[35] Swofford, Mark. “Where do the tone marks go?".Pinyin.info. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

[36] Nathan Dummitt, Chinese Through Tone & Color (2008)

[37] “Hanping Chinese Dictionary color scheme”. 2013-01-10. Retrieved 2013-01-10.

[38] Huang, Rong. " 公安部最新规定护照上的"ü" 规范成"YU"". Retrieved 29 August 2012.

[39] Li, Zhiyan. "" 吕" 拼音到怎么写？公安部称应拼写成"LYU"". Retrieved 23 August 2012.

[40] “Google Reader”. Google.com. Retrieved 2010-05-17.

[41] Taylor, Insup and Maurice M. Taylor (1995),Writing andliteracy in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese, Volume 3 ofStudies in written language and literacy, John Benjamins,p. 124.

15 Further reading• Yin Binyong/尹斌庸 and Mary Felley (1990). Chi-

nese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography(Hanyu Pinyin he zhengcifa 汉语拼音和正词法).Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN0-8351-1930-0.

• Gao, J. K. (2005). Pinyin shorthand: a bilingualhandbook = [Pinyin su ji fa]. Dallas, TX: Jack Sun.ISBN 1-59971-251-2

14 16 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Kimball, R. L. (1988). Quick reference Chinese: apractical guide to Mandarin for beginners and trav-elers in English, Pinyin romanization, and Chinesecharacters. San Francisco, CA: China Books & Pe-riodicals. ISBN 0-8351-2036-8

• Uy, Dr. Tim and Jim Hsia (ed.) (2009). Web-ster's Digital Chinese Dictionary: Advanced Refer-ence Edition. Mountain View, CA: Loqu8 Press.

• Wu, C.-j. (1979). The Pinyin Chinese–English dic-tionary. Hong Kong: Commercial Press. ISBN 0-471-27557-3

15.1 Pinyin reading matters

• Pinyin reading matters from Wikibooks

• Pinyin reading matters from Wikimedia

16 External links• Pinyin Chart with Audios

• (Proper sound of pinyin from zdic.net with sounds,require java script turned on)

• Pinyin-Hanzi-English Chinese-English dictionary

• Pinyin-English news summary for learners of Chi-nese language

• Free Pinyin Tutorial (Chinese & Beyond)

• Basic Rules of Hanyu Pinyin Orthography by ZhouYouguang (Pinyin.info. Now superseded by GB/T16159-2012 below.)

• Basic Rules for Hanyu Pinyin Orthography (Na-tional Standard of the People's Republic of China(ICS 01.140.10), 1996. Now superseded by GB/T16159-2012 below.)

• Basic rules of the Chinese phonetic alphabet orthog-raphy (The official standard GB/T 16159-2012 inChinese. PDF version from the Chinese Ministryof Education.)

• The Chinese phonetic alphabet spelling rules forChinese names (The official standard GB/T 28039-2011 in Chinese. PDF version from the ChineseMinistry of Education.)

• Interactive Pinyin Table

• Mandarin Chinese Pinyin Table

• pinyinAID

• Table of Combinations of Initials and Finals(Pinyin.info)

• Free Chinese Pronunciation Online

• Pinyin Listening Test for 4 Tones

• Pinyin Tone Recognition Test

15

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.1 Text• Pinyin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin?oldid=680843110 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Epopt, The Cunctator, DerekRoss, Brion VIBBER, Alex.tan, Eclecticology, Kowloonese, Christian List, Roadrunner, Ktsquare, Zadcat, Youandme, Bernfarr, Olivier,Leandrod, Stevertigo, Steverapaport, Voidvector, Dominus, Pnm, Menchi, Cyde, Ralmin, GrandVoivodOfErdely, SebastianHelm, Theresaknott, Pratyeka, Benjaminong, Andres, Jiang, Kaihsu, Goododa, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, Vargenau, Mnementh, Crissov, Timwi, Jukeboksi,Nohat, Lfh, N-true, WhisperToMe, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Taoster, Bjarki S, AnonMoos, Ortonmc, Jusjih, GPHems-ley, Huangdi, Robbot, KeithH, Benwing, Naddy, Lowellian, Chris Roy, Babbage, Ashley Y, P0lyglut, Yacht, Hippietrail, Ashwin, DHN,Gbog, Mheller~enwiki, Delpino, Wereon, Shannonr, JerryFriedman, Cyrius, Cordell, Alerante, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Tarek, NatKrause, Jpta~enwiki, Tom harrison, Monedula, Bfinn, Taibeiren~enwiki, Koyn~enwiki, Varlaam, Cantus, DO'Neil, Gilgamesh~enwiki,Xwu, Chameleon, Pne, Esrogs, Wmahan, Vanished user wdjklasdjskla, Jrc, Pgan002, Toytoy, Sonjaaa, Ran, Antandrus, Beland, Evertype,MarkSweep, Jfliu, OwenBlacker, Bumm13, Ak301, Sam Hocevar, Daofeishi, Huaiwei, Laca, Tcpli, Frau Holle, Zeman, MementoVivere,Abdull, Babelfisch, Lacrimosus, Everlong, Zarxos, Felix Wan, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Florian Blaschke, Smyth, PaulAugust, Bender235, ESkog, Zy26, Kjoonlee, Nabla, Livajo, Bennylin, El C, Kwamikagami, EmilJ, Moilleadóir, Jlin, Shoujun, Stesmo,Chtito, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Dreikin, Yuje, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, MPerel, Helix84, Jhertel, Alfanje~enwiki, User6854, Gun-slinger47, Ronline, Mlessard, PedroAguiar, Pfahlstrom,Woodstone, Itsmine, Chamaeleon, Instantnood, Dtobias, Gmaxwell, Jannex, CWH,Sburke, StradivariusTV, Dsaff, Miss Madeline, TarisWerewolf, GregorB, Karmosin, Umofomia, Waldir, Xiong, Calréfa Wéná, Matturn,Graham87, Deltabeignet, TAKASUGI Shinji, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Nanami Kamimura, Adjusting, Mzhao, Binary, Seraphimblade, LjL,Yug, Dar-Ape, Williamborg, Cassowary, Yamamoto Ichiro, Sky Harbor, SchuminWeb, Ubi, Gary Cziko, Hottentot, Wctaiwan, Ysw1987,Xerrex, Atitarev, WouterBot, LiangHH, Chobot, DTOx, Benlisquare, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Eraserhead1, Hairy Dude,Jimp,Wikky Horse, John Quincy AddingMachine, Farnkerl, Kaottic97, Pigman, Manop, Rincewind42, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Anomalo-caris, Herbertxu, Xunflash, Aeusoes1, Dforest, Badagnani, Acalpixca, Syrthiss, S. Neuman, Psy guy, Bota47, Trainra, Nlu, ArneauSevignon,Icedwater, Suredeath, Tvarnoe~enwiki, JuJube, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, Alasdair, Wikipeditor, GrinBot~enwiki, MrReaper, Hughitt1, Abit iffy, SmackBot, Pwt898, Reedy, Iopq, KocjoBot~enwiki, Hardyplants, Rōnin, AnOddName, David G Brault, Kintetsubuffalo, Gilliam,Ohnoitsjamie, Bluebot, Kurykh, Salvo46, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Stevage, The Rogue Penguin, Bazonka, Neo-Jay, Jerome Charles Potts,Ikiroid, Octahedron80, Nberger, DHN-bot~enwiki, ToobMug, Hongooi, A. B., MyNameIsVlad, Teemeah, Taiwantaffy, Rrburke, Sundar-Bot, Alton.arts, Khoikhoi, Cybercobra, Chrishyli, Nakon, Salt Yeung, Zzorse, LDHan, OneTopJob6, Murdocke, Soap, Euchiasmus, Iglew,JorisvS, Ssbye, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, RunningFool, Capmo, Slakr, A-cai, Abjad, Jose77, Keahapana, Hu12, DabMachine, Yes0song,Norm mit, Tsharpfilm, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Shoeofdeath, Fsotrain09, HongQiGong, Gnusmas, Ageoflo, Meow,Mirrorblade, Ko'oy, Jim Stinson, Dragonbones, Percyboy, John Riemann Soong, Vinty, Bottlegreen roses, ShelfSkewed, Talamus, Vanisheduser fj0390923roktg4tlkm2pkd, FilipeS, HalJor, Cydebot, Aristophanes68, EmperorOfSevenSeas, Brownian, Xbeza, Lindsay658, Smiteri,Mathpianist93, CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, GentlemanGhost, RevolverOcelotX, JustAGal, Mmiklas, Grayshi, CharlotteWebb, Niohe, Tr-lkly, G Purevdorj, Gdo01, Joelh,Washod, Kariteh, JAnDbot, STSC, Barek, MER-C, Seddon, Andonic, Rothorpe, Joshua, Hroðulf, VoABotII, Hihihi100, Objectivesea, Esalso, Sanket ar, ForestAngel, ArchStanton69, Mkdw, Swang20000, Leaderofearth, Franzean, R'n'B, ASD-FGH, Rpclod, J.delanoy, Paul1953h, Love Krittaya, Mike.lifeguard, Nobuts, Silas S. Brown, Mjb1981, Tianyu, Balthazarduju, Aervanath,Rendaa, Mamin27, Micro01, Treisijs, Untitled and unidentified1, Idioma-bot, Mphibian, VolkovBot, Lop.dong, Bobo Bonnie, Ndsg, John-Blackburne, Jbradfor, LokiClock, Oleh Kernytskyi, AlnoktaBOT, Marcuslim, Grammarmonger, Aesopos, Hhinomaru, Mercy, Yakeyglee,Antoni Barau, Someday123, Tader1, Elphion, Don4of4, Kirsten07734, LeaveSleaves, Magnificent red sun, Billinghurst, Billgordon1099,Webmastersubzero, Wolfrock, Nell bomber, Synthebot, VanBuren, Jobberone, Azza-bazoo, SieBot, Charlesxu, Tiddly Tom, Wizard offire, Dawn Bard, Stevekass, Proud Ho, Perspicacite, Lightmouse, BenoniBot~enwiki, Gymshaw, Flwyd, Jiangyi178, Rosiestep, Longjiangg,Calatayudboy, Ttbya, ����� ~enwiki, Inafunk, JL-Bot, Kevang, ClueBot, Harry potter sucks a$$, Helenabella, Plastikspork, Hongthay, Ab-hinav, Wutsje, Der Golem, Sevilledade, Jasonmile, Woolters, Gneisenau~enwiki, Officer781, Copyeditor42, Alexbot, ChinaTuna, Wprlh,LonerXL, Doprendek, Mr. Shiny &New, NJGW, Balmacaan, Cghrugionugnifti, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, 3CDS, XLinkBot, Bod-hisattvaBot, Junox, Elkin1, Sebastien.bruggeman, Addbot, JDTUCKER, Leszek Jańczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Pirtskhalava, Oper-acenter, Ferronier, BabelStone, Download, Wyvernoid, FJorisK, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Pyl, Joe9320, Newfraferz87, Jarble, Sherpaderka,Skpl2007, Legobot, Abc root, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, Sillyvalley, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Donfbreed, Tem-podivalse, Synchronism, 虞海, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Royote, LlywelynII, Arilang1234, ChristopheS, Customerservicethepurelanguage,Mahmudmasri, Cababunga, Citation bot, DirlBot, Benylava, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Terry Kotter, DSisyphBot, Teamjenn, Jakwra, Tintinm,See1gz, Anonymous from the 21st century, Nasa-verve, Book of Praxis, Omnipaedista, Richieclever~enwiki, RibotBOT, Wwbread, DaleChock, Natural Cut, Chongkian, Ken334, Benny White, FrescoBot, AlexanderKaras, EPOdata, Mistakefinder, Cntrational, Kdelwat, Ci-tation bot 1, Shanghainese.ua, Krfgrtkgm, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Efficiency54WS, Yahia.barie, Takeshi0928, Adamlaskey, Îleflottante, Janaa, Double sharp, TobeBot, Belchman, Lapinskicho, Zanhe, Lotje, Tanzhang, Dinamik-bot, Duoduoduo, ZhBot, Airbag190,Jfmantis, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, 达伟, EmausBot, Goldenbrook, John of Reading, Kpufferfish, Brently75, Dewritech, Britan-nic124, NotAnonymous0, Tochnik, ZéroBot, Oncenawhile, Aeonx, Rspence1234, Rethliopuks, NYMets2000, TheChampionMan1234,Saruman-the-white, Winstonlighter, Il Jani, Digirami2, ClueBot NG, Mrpinyin, Chibbert10, Jjj84206, JesseW900, Oneold, Jadeword,CaroleHenson, LiliCharlie, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hktkokle, HMSSolent, Dhelmdach, BG19bot, Thaistory, Summer002, Calvin Marquess,Zhongguy, Guiskilin, Fernandoj311, Earth Wikipedian, Jazb665, Chmarkine, BattyBot, Victor Yus, ChrisGualtieri, Givegrowgo, Dvd123,Sdhdxgj, Critias1, 梁棚元, PereraD, Mogism, Cuihaoleo, Minime12358, Halfflah, Rajmaan, Saleswiki, Watchthewatchmen, Ibluesky,Mevagiss, Kpintor, Justinrleung, Dsprc, Chûng-koet, Lookingforalaska69, The Last Arietta, Drmmhmd, Efex3, Throne3d, Vam829, K.T.McKay, KGB1988, W. W. Y. Merridor, KasparBot, Mr.Bob.298, Sexton05 and Anonymous: 511

17.2 Images• File:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

• Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png Original artist: Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png: Denelson83 (talk · contribs)

• File:Dajia-shuo-Putonghua-2817.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Dajia-shuo-Putonghua-2817.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vmenkov

16 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:DifficultChineseSpeechSounds.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/DifficultChineseSpeechSounds.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Patrick Edwin Moran

• File:First_tone_(Mandarin).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Immanuel Giel

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Fourth_tone_(Mandarin).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Immanuel Giel

• File:Gnome-speakernotes.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Gnome-speakernotes.svg License: GPLContributors: Self-made in Illustrator; Based off of image from the GNOME package, a free software (GPL) desktop environment. Originalartist: Gnome?

• File:Hubei-S334-Entering-Yiling-4848.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Hubei-S334-Entering-Yiling-4848.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Vmenkov

• File:IPA_vowel_chart_2005.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/IPA_vowel_chart_2005.png License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Incubator-notext.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Meddie_Egg_horizontal_line.svg Original artist: NielsF

• File:Parentesi_Quadre.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Parentesi_Quadre.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: GJo

• File:Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-published work by Wereon Original artist: Wereon

• File:Second_tone_(Mandarin).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Immanuel Giel

• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Third_tone_(Mandarin).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Immanuel Giel

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

• File:Zh-pinyin_tones_with_ma.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Zh-pinyin_tones_with_ma.ogg Li-cense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Karmosin

• File:Zhongwen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Zhongwen.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

17.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0