Pi Crm 200901
Transcript of Pi Crm 200901
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Correlates of Job
Satisfaction of Ear
Career Employeesin Printing and
Publishing
OccupationsBy
Ashley S. Walker, M.B.A.
Marketing Communications Coordinator
Printing Industry Center at RIT
Rochester Institute of Technology
Patricia A. Sorce, Ph.D.
Administrative Chair and Fawcett
Distinguished Professor
School of Print Media
Rochester Institute of Technology
A Research Monograph of the
Printing Industry Center at RIT
No. PICRM-2009-01
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By
Ashley S. Walker, M.B.A.Marketing Communications CoordinatorPrinting Industry Center at RIRochester Institute o echnology
Patricia A. Sorce, Ph.D.Administrative Chair and Fawcett DistinguishedProessor, School o Print MediaRochester Institute o echnology
Correlates of Job Satisfaction of
Early Career Employees in Printingand Publishing Occupations
A Research Monograph o thePrinting Industry Center at RIRochester, NYJanuary 2009
PICRM-2009-01
2009 Printing Industry Center at RI All rights reserved.
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)
Te research agenda o the Printing Industry Center at RI andthe publication o research ndings are supported by theollowing organizations:
With Thanks
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 1
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 7
What is Job Satisaction? ....................................................................................... 7
Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Workplace Factors ......................... 8
Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Workplace Behaviors .................... 9
Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Other Constructs ........................ 12
Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Personal Characteristics ............. 14
Generations at Work: Is Tere a Cohort Eect? .............................................. 15
Methodology ................................................................................................................22
Survey Design ......................................................................................................22
Procedure ..............................................................................................................22
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................22
Demographic Proles .......................................................................................... 22
Research Findings .......................................................................................................23
SPM Frequency Analysis ....................................................................................23
Research Questions .............................................................................................27
Discussion o Findings................................................................................................35
Summary o Results .............................................................................................35
Lessons or Employers.........................................................................................36
Support or Prior Research ................................................................................. 37
Limitations o the Research ................................................................................ 39Reerences .....................................................................................................................40
Appendix A: Response Frequencies .......................................................................... 45
Appendix B: Factor Analysis & Factor Regression ................................................. 76
Appendix C: Job itles by Company ype ............................................................... 80
Table of Contents
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 3
Executive Summary
Te printing industry is in a human resources crisis. With the upcoming retirement
wave o Baby Boomer employees, the industry has as many as 5,000 jobs to ll annually
and they are having a challenge nding qualied young people to apply. Tis primary
goal o this research study is to answer this question: what is the perception o recent
college graduates about their uture careers in the printing and publishing industries?
Tis is an extremely pertinent objective as the graphic arts industry will not have any
success in attracting new talent unless the young people now working in these jobs are
satised and nd the work ullling.
A survey was designed to assess the overall job satisaction o graduates in graphic
arts programs rom the Rochester Institute o echnology (RI). O the 2,809 poten-
tial respondents (1,845 School o Print Media (SPM) and 964 School o Design (SD)
alumni), 749 completed the survey yielding a response rate o 26.7%. Regression analy-
ses were conducted to identiy the predictors o overall job satisaction using a number
o independent variables including age, gender, and job acet perceptions. Te results o
the research can be summarized as ollows:
Almost all SPM respondents (90.4%) were satised with their job overall.
However, 36.3% planned to actively seek a new job in the next year. Tose
who planned on making a job change were likely to stay in the same indus-
try (28.0%), while an additional 12.0% will look or a new job within the same
company. Another 12.9% will look or a new job in a dierent industry.
When comparing overall job satisaction between SD and SPM respondents,
there was no statistically signicant dierence. Tere were statistically signi-cant dierences between the two groups or only two job acet satisaction
measures: the level o satisaction with support or continuing education/
in-service programs and work environment or work culture. In both instances,
SPM respondents had lower average satisaction scores than did SD respon-
dents.
In terms o demographic dierences within overall job satisaction or the SPM
sample, no statistically signicant dierences were ound or age groups (gener-
ations). However, dierences among age groups or our o the 23 job acet
satisaction scores were ound to be statistically signicant. Consistent with the
stereotypes o Gen Y, the younger employees were more dissatised than theolder groups on three o the our acets. Additionally, dierences in overall job
satisaction were ound or both gender and salary groups, with emales being
less satised than males and those with higher salaries being more satised than
those with lower salaries.
A regression analysis o the predictors o overall job satisaction or SPM
respondents revealed six pertinent correlating actors that account or 47.8% o
Executive Summary
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)4
the variation in overall job satisaction. Tese six actors are shown below (in
order by beta):
Satisaction with personal gratication you eel rom doing your job,-
Satisaction with the organizations goals/mission/vision,-
Satisaction with the opportunity to be creative,-
Satisaction with salary,-
Absolute salary amount, and-
Satisaction with level o challenge in work.-
Additional analyses revealed the career proles o the respondents and the rms where
they are employed:
Te majority o School o Print Media (SPM) respondents (87.9%) were
employed, and over hal o them (52.1%) worked at traditional graphic arts
companies such as commercial printers, publishers, advertisers, and in-house
marketing or printing departments. When additional traditional categories
were added rom the coded other rm responses (i.e., nancial printer, print-
ing equipment manuacturer, paper & printing supplies, etc.) the total was
72.3% o respondents.
Most SPM respondents (62.2%) worked at large companies with over one
hundred employees. Additionally, most o the companies where SPM respon-
dents are employed have been in business or at least 20 years (71.9%).
Beore starting with their current employer, SPM respondents are likely to have
worked or more than three other employers (57.9%). Tis level o experience is
reected in the act that 73.9% o SPM respondents made $50,000 or more per
year.
A high percentage o SPM respondents have a job that is related to their most
recent degree (60.7%). More than hal (59.4%) o SPM respondents believed
that their experiences in school helped to prepare them or their job, and 60.7%
believed that the graphic arts degree they received was important to their
employer. Additionally, most SPM respondents (78.2%) believed that they have
enough training and education to get ahead in their careers.
Te present research supports prior research that ound the ollowing actors impacting
overall job satisaction: job level, work culture, person-culture or person-organization
t, and satisaction with intrinsic satisers/motivators.
Executive Summary
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 5
Introduction
Te printing industry is in a human resources crisis. With the upcoming retirement
wave o Baby Boomer employees, the industry has as many as 5,000 jobs to ll annually
and they are having a challenge nding qualied young people to apply. Baccalaureate
programs in printing and graphic communications are also nding it dicult to attract
applicants to their programs. Even within those who express interest, a large percent-
age are initially interested in graphic design jobs as opposed to production, workow or
scientic jobs associated with the industry.
A number o trade organizations have either launched or discussed launching advertis-
ing campaigns to sell the industry to young people. At Graph Expo in 2007, the PGSF
organized a panel discussion o ten printing proessionals to address how to improve
the image o graphic arts occupations in the minds o young people. But, as one o the
speakers noted, not one student was included on the panel.
Tis primary goal o this research study is to answer this question: what is the percep-
tion o recent college graduates about their uture careers in the printing and publishing
industries? Tis is an extremely pertinent objective as the graphic arts industry will not
have any success in attracting new talent unless the young people now working in these
jobs are satised and nd the work ullling. Nothing beats positive word-o-mouth as
the most eective orm o marketing.
In order to accomplish this objective, this study will draw on the extensive body o
research investigating the correlates o job satisaction. Job satisaction is a highly stud-
ied construct within the organizational behavior and psychology elds. As shown inFigure 1, there are a number o antecedents o job satisaction potentially indicated.
Demographic dierences such as age are but one o many actors that may predict
whether a person will be satised with and stay in a job.
Introduction
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Figure 1. Researched relationships between job satisaction and other constructs
Te goal o this research is to determine which actors or constructs have the stron-
gest correlation to overall job satisaction among School o Print Media alumni who
are currently employed in the graphic arts industry. Tese alumni were surveyed on
the characteristics o their jobs, what they like and dislike about their jobs, and on
what their employers could do to change their jobs or the better (i such changes wereneeded). From these data, we will determine the keys to job satisaction within this
sample . We will then make recommendations as to what managers can do to increase
the satisaction o their employees in the hopes o attracting new employees and reduc-
ing turnover o the most talented.
Introduction
Age
Gender
Personality
Values
Intrinsic Satisfiers/Motivators
Person-Job Fit
Person-Organization Fit/Person-Culture Fit
Personal Characteristics
Availability of Job Alternatives
Unemployment Rate
External Factors
Outcomes
Intention to Quit/Turnover
Absenteeism
Performance/Productivity
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
AffectJob Facets
Job Level/Rank
Occupational Level (Rank + Age)
Stress
Length of Service
Work Environment
Wages/Benefits
Organizational Vision/Direction
Organizational Culture
Organizational Communication
Organizational Values
Supervision
Work Design
Work Conditions
Coworkers
Job Satisfaction
OrganizationalCommitment
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 7
Literature Review
Extensive research has been conducted on job satisaction and several other constructs
or behaviors (i.e., perormance/productivity, organizational commitment, absenteeism,
turnover, retention) rom the perspective o the organizational behavior and psychology
disciplines. Tis literature review will investigate the various denitions o job satisac-
tion. It will also describe some o the contradictory ndings in relation to the behavioral
and attitudinal constructs studied. It will then move to a discussion o the impact o
generations in the workplace.
What is Job Satisfaction?
Job satisaction has been dened as a pleasurable or positive emotional state, resulting
rom the appraisal o ones job experiences (Oshagbemi, 1999, p. 388, quoting Locke),
as well as the extent to which the employees expresses a positive aective orientation
toward a job (Curry, Wakeeld, Price, & Mueller, 1986, pp. 847-848). It is also impor-tant to note that the emotional state reerenced above is created by an aective reac-
tion that results rom the comparison o actual outcomes with those that are desired
[anticipated, deserved] (Oshagbemi, 2003, p. 1210; Oshagbemi, 1999). Tis aec-
tive reaction is theorized to occur soon afer entry into the organization (Vandenberg
& Lance, 1992). In essence, it is a workers attitude towards their job, whether positive
(satised) or negative (dissatised).
Job satisaction is also considered one o the two summary markers o adult vocational
adjustment, along with success (Jepsen & Sheu, 2003, p. 162). Jepsen and Sheu (2003)
go on to state that general job satisaction is one o the ve global career status outcomes
(along with perormance, persistence, economic stability, and identity) that employeesseek through career counseling.
Job satisaction has historically been measured either as a single-item scale (i.e., How
satised are you with your job?), or as a multiple-item scale measuring satisaction with
dierent aspects o the job and/or workplace. A distinction is made between these two
concepts, which are respectively reerred to as overall (or general) job satisaction and
job acet satisaction (Wanous & Lawler, 1972). Te use o either measurement scale on
a survey will (generally) give dierent results, and the conicting results rom dier-
ent studies may reect the use o dierent scales (Wanous & Lawler, 1972). However,
as Wanous and Lawler ound, there is no one best way to measure job satisaction, and
it is possible to measure satisaction validly with dierent job acets (1972, p. 105).Oshagbemi (1999) suggests using both types o measures in studies o job satisaction,
as this will help to reveal specic areas the organization could improve (rom the multi-
ple-item scales), while at the same time allowing or cross-job comparisons (rom the
single-item scale).
Te measurement o job satisaction has been conducted in a myriad o studies with
the hopes o discovering its relationships to other concerns o interest in the workplace.
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Te ollowing sections investigate the research ndings in regards to the relationships
between job satisaction and workplace actors, workplace behaviors, other constructs,
and personality characteristics.
Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Workplace Factors
Workplace actors that aect job satisaction also aect other job aspects such as work-
related stress. High levels o stress are associated with low levels o job satisaction, and
are also predictive o a greater propensity to leave the organization (Fairbrother & Warn,
2003). However, in this study o 100 naval ocer trainees in the Royal Australian Navy,
the researchers ound that job satisaction was inuenced by actors separate rom those
that inuence stress, although stress does aect job satisaction (Fairbrother & Warn,
2003).
One workplace actor ound to be related to both work stress and voluntary turnover is
job level (Macky, Forsyth, & Boxall, 20081). Tis indicates that job level (which may or
may not be related to tenure or age) plays an important part in an employees workplace
behaviors, as it aects the level o stress, which impacts job satisaction in turn.
Occupational level (a combination o both rank and age) was also ound to be one o
the strongest predictors o job satisaction (Oshagbemi, 1997). In subsequent stud-
ies, Oshagbemi (2000, 2003) also ound rank on its own to be a reliable predictor o job
satisaction, as was the length o service within the current university. Other studies
ound work environment to be the best predictor o satisaction, while hourly wage was
the weakest (Rust, Stewart, Miller, & Pielack, 1996, p. 72).
Other workplace actors that may impact job satisaction are internal to the organiza-
tion itsel: its vision, culture, and communication style. Satisaction with the organi-
zational vision has been shown to aect overall job satisaction, accounting or 33%
o the variance in job satisaction (esta, 19992). Organizational culture may inu-
ence satisaction through the level o person-culture t. I the values o the individual
are dierent than those espoused by the organization, it is very likely that the indi-
vidual will eel out o place and experience lower job satisaction as a result (OReilly,
Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991; Judge & Bretz, 1992). Communication within the organiza-
tion impacts the climate o the rm, which is multidimensional in nature (Muchinsky,
1977). As Muchinsky states, the data suggest that ones aective response to organiza-
tional communication [ones satisaction with it] is substantially related to the aectiveresponses associated with other acets o an employees job (p. 602), which includes job
satisaction and organizational commitment.
1 - Tis study was a secondary analysis o a large national study o 1,004 New Zealand employees aged 18
and above conducted late in 2005. Participants worked in rms with 10 or more employees, and had to have
worked in their jobs or more than 6 months to participate.
2 - Tis was a survey o 740 management personnel (with 709 usable replies) rom 30 departments o a large
U.S.-headquartered cruise line.
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 9
One other actor that may impact satisaction and/or commitment is the availability o
job alternatives. As ound in a longitudinal study o nursing home employees, the avail-
ability o alternatives at the time o entry positively impacts organizational commit-
ment (Bateman & Strasser, 1984). However, afer an employee has joined a company, the
availability o job alternatives may result in a negative impact on both job satisactionand organizational commitment (Bateman & Strasser, 1984).
Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Workplace Behaviors
In much o the literature, job satisaction is the mediating actor that inuences multi-
ple workplace behaviors such as absenteeism, turnover, perormance, and extra-role
behaviors (Oshagbemi, 2003; Brayeld & Crockett, 1955; Rust et al., 1996; Iaaldano
& Muchinsky, 1985; Ostro, 1992). Te ollowing section will summarize the research
testing these relationships.
Performance/Productivity
In one o the early studies on this topic, Brayeld and Crockett (1955) ound that
productivity was unlikely to be an employee goal in and o itsel; instead, it was more
likely to be a means to achieve other goals held by the employee. Additionally, satisac-
tion with ones job or position did not imply that the individual would have a strong
motivation to be productive, as it was the goals o the employee that determined the
level o work. Tey also discovered that the work group was especially important to
determining productivity, as the group standards would ofen determine how hard the
employee worked. Tis was ound to be especially true in cohesive groups.
Rust et al. (1996) ound job satisaction and perormance to be positively correlated,while job satisaction was also shown to positively correlate to certain acets o peror-
mance, such as organizational citizenship behaviors. Savery (1996) ound that satisac-
tion with intrinsic satisers/motivators was the most important to determining both
employee perormance and the likelihood o leaving the organization. In a study o
secondary schools, Ostro (1992) theorized that the satisaction-perormance rela-
tionship might be stronger at the organizational level than at the individual level. She
concluded that organizations with more satised employees tended to be more eec-
tive than organizations with less satised employees. [And] these relationships were
somewhat stronger than those typically observed at the individual level (pp. 968-969).
However, she also discussed the possibility o a reciprocal relationship in which orga-
nizations that perormed better were more likely to have satised employees and viceversa.
Petty, McGee, and Cavender (1984) conducted a meta-analysis o JDI (Job Description
Index) studies. Tey ound that the nature o the relationship between perormance and
job satisaction was unclear, but their results indicated that the relationship between
individual, overall job satisaction and individual job perormance is stronger and more
consistent than that reported in previous reviews (p. 719). Teir research also indi-
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)10
cated that it was more likely or perormance to be a determinant o job satisaction (as
opposed to theories indicating the opposite), that job level may moderate the relation-
ship, and that the relationship may be circular in nature i the outcomes o perormance
were perceived to be inequitable.
In contrast to many o these ndings (with the exception o Brayeld and Crocketts
study), Iaaldano and Muchinskys (1985, p. 269) meta-analysis ound that job satisac-
tion and perormance are only slightly related to each other under most employment
conditions. Tey conclude their paper by stating that [i]t is almost as i the satisac-
tion-perormance relation is itsel what Chapman and Chapman (1969) called an illu-
sory correlation, a perceived relation between two variables that we logically or intui-
tively think should interrelate, but in act do not (p. 270).
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs, also known as extra-role behaviors) are
dened as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized
by the ormal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the ecient and eective
unctioning o the organization (Williams & Anderson, 1991, p. 601). Both job satisac-
tion and organizational commitment have theoretical and empirical support as anteced-
ents o OCBs. However, Williams and Anderson (1991) ound that the perormance o
OCBs was more a unction o equitable treatment by the organization and the equity o
its policies and procedures than o any attitudinal constructs (p. 615).
Turnover & Absenteeism
urnover is expensive. Quitters generally cost the organization one and a hal to two
and a hal times their annual salary in separation, replacement, and training costs(Rust, et al., 1996). Te United States currently has the worlds highest median volun-
tary turnover rate at 11% (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). However, the turnover rate
or critical skill or top perorming employees was only 5% (Watson Wyatt Worldwide &
WorldatWork, 2007).
urnover and absenteeism are ofen talked about in relation to each other: employ-
ees who are absent rom the job most ofen are more likely to dislike their jobs and
more likely to leave the company (Bssing, Bissels, Fuchs, & Perrar, 1999; Agho, Price,
& Mueller, 1992). However, the intention to quit was not signicantly related to either
voluntary or involuntary absenteeism in a 1994 survey o 199 United Kingdom univer-
sity teachers with one to ten years o service (Oshagbemi, 2000). Tis indicates thatabsenteeism is not always an antecedent to the intention to leave the company, regard-
less o tenure.
Te our main managerial processes that have been linked to both employee satisaction
and retention are supervision, benets, work design, and work conditions, respectively
(Rust et al., 1996, p. 67). Another actor in employees leaving can be an incompatibil-
ity with the corporate culture which results in employees eeling as though they dont
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 11
t in (Wallach, 1983). Person-job t and person-organization t can also be predictive
o turnover (OReilly et al., 1991). However, many retention problems are caused by an
imperect comprehension o employee priorities (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). As
shown below in Figures 2 and 3, there is a disconnect between employers and employees
in regards to what attracts employees to the company and to what causes them to leave.
RankReasons to Join Reasons to Leave
Employees Employers* Employees Employers*
1Nature o work
(44%)
Career developmentopportunities
(47%)
Stress levels(37%)
Base pay(52%)
2Base pay
(31%)Base pay
(46%)Base pay
(33%)
Career developmentopportunities
(47%)
3 Job security(30%)
Employer reputation(44%)
Promotionopportunity(26%)
Promotionopportunity(45%)
4Employerreputation
(23%)
Company culture(34%)
Career developmentopportunities
(23%)
Relationship withsupervisor/manager
(35%)
5Length o commute
(23%)Nature o work
(26%)Work/lie balance
(22%)Work/lie balance
(24%)
*Percentage reporting element as one o the top three reasons employees consider joining or leaving an organization
Figure 2. Reasons to join or leave a company globally (Adapted rom Watson WyattWorldwide & WorldatWork, 2007, p. 7)3
3 - Reprinted with permission rom Playing to Win in a Global Economy, 007/008 Global Strategic
Rewards Report 2008 Watson Wyatt Worldwide. For more inormation, visit www.watsonwyatt.com.
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)12
Rank
Reasons to Join Reasons to Leave
Top-PeromingEmployees
Employees Employers*Top-Peroming
EmployeesEmployees Employers*
1 Nature o work(46%)
Nature owork(41%)
Employerreputation(37%)
Stress levels(42%)
Stress levels(40%)
Base pay(53%)
2Base pay
(28%)Base pay
(33%)
Companyculture(35%)
Work/liebalance(32%)
Base pay(28%)
Careerdevelopmentopportunities
(49%)
3Health care
benets(22%)
Employerreputation
(29%)
Base pay(34%)
Promotionopportunities
(29%)
Promotionopportunities
(26%)
Promotionopportunities
(43%)
4 Job security(20%)
Health carebenets(26%)
Career
developmentopportunities
(32%)
Career
developmentopportunities
(25%)
Work/liebalance(25%)
Relationship
withsupervisor/manager
(41%)
5
Employerreputation
(19%)
Retirementbenets(19%)
Job security(23%)
Nature owork(29%)
Incentive payopportunity
(20%)
Trust/con-dence
in seniormanagement
(23%)
Work/liebalance(23%)
*Percentage reporting element as one o the top three reasons employees consider joining or leaving an organization
Figure 3. Reasons to join or leave a company in the U.S. (Adapted rom Watson WyattWorldwide & WorldatWork, 2007, p. 18)4
However, Carsten and Spector (1987) conducted a meta-analysis o turnover studies
and determined that the economic opportunity actors (i.e., unemployment) had the
strongest impact on turnover out o any other possible actors (including job satisaction
and behavioral intentions). Tey ound that the relationship between job satisaction
and turnover was moderated by unemployment even afer adjusting or the quit rate (p.
378). Overall, they concluded that a person would rather stay at a job they disliked than
ace unemployment, and that these economic actors (at both the local and national
level) were more important in determining turnover than any other attitudinal actor.
Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Other Constructs
One o the most researched (and most disputed) relationships is between job satisac-
tion and organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the extent to
which an employee identies with and is involved in the organization (Curry et al.,
1986, p. 847).
4 - Reprinted with permission rom Playing to Win in a Global Economy, 007/008 Global Strategic
Rewards Report 2008 Watson Wyatt Worldwide. For more inormation, visit www.watsonwyatt.com.
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 13
Organizational commitment has historically been viewed as a more stable construct
than job satisaction (Curry et al., 1986; Bateman & Strasser, 1984). It is viewed as
beginning to emerge as a unction o pre-entry experiences (Bateman & Strasser,
1984, p. 107) which is then solidied upon organizational entry as a result o the level o
cognitive dissonance experienced (Vandenberg & Lance, 1992). It may urther developas the employee develops investments that bind [him or her] to [the] organization
(Meyer et al., 1990, p. 719). However, some studies have shown that job satisaction was
just as stable as organizational commitment when measured over time (Curry et al.,
1986).
Historically, job satisaction has been theorized as antecedent to organizational commit-
ment (Vandenberg & Lance, 1992; Curry et al., 1986). Although this relationship has
been popularized, organizational commitment has been ound to be antecedent to job
satisaction in several studies (Bateman & Strasser, 1984; Vandenberg & Lance, 1992).
Additionally, no causal eects [have been ound] in either direction over time
(Curry et al., 1986, p. 851-852), although this theory was not supported by the researcho Vandenberg and Lance (1992). It is also possible that the two constructs have a cycli-
cal relationship, although this was not tested in the studies surveyed.
Other constructs studied in relation to job satisaction are engagement and person-
organization t. Engagement has been dened as creating conditions or meaningul
employee expression in work roles (Avery, McKay, & Wilson, 2007, p. 1542), and as
commitment, which is motivation on the part o employees to help the organization
succeed, in conjunction with line o sight, which is the ocus and direction that enables
employees to understand what to do to make their organizations successul (Watson
Wyatt Worldwide, 2007, p. 3). Engagement has been demonstrated to be a predictor
o turnover, customer satisaction and loyalty, saety in the workplace, and, to someextent, productivity and protability as well (Avery et al., 2007). It also has been shown
to directly aect employee perormance (Avery et al., 2007; Watson Wyatt Worldwide,
2007).
One aspect o job satisaction that has been shown to be signicantly related to engage-
ment is satisaction with ones coworkers (Avery et al., 2007). Tis is important in
regards to retention, as employees who are engaged are less likely to leave (Avery et al.,
2007, Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007).
Person-organization t is dened as the degree to which individuals are suited to a
job, and depends on their motives and need and the jobs requirements (OReilly etal., 1991, p. 489). Values are also an important determinant o person-organization
t (Judge & Bretz, 1992, p. 269), as the congruency o the values o the individual to
the work values within the organization is an essential component o what determines
person-organization t (Judge & Bretz, 1992). Organizational work values were shown
to signicantly impact job choice when inormation about them was known in a study
o 67 proessional and graduate students. Tis indicates that a person will be more likely
to choose a job where he or she believes their values will t well with the organization
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)14
(Judge & Bretz, 1992). When the individual is considering entering the organization,
they consider the salary, the opportunity or promotion, and the organizational value
actors, but the eects o the organizational value actors on job choice were stronger
than the eects o the other two actors (Judge & Bretz, 1992).
Once the individual has entered the rm, person-organization t continues to be an
important determinant o on-the-job attitudes and behaviors. Job satisaction can be
predicted by person-organization t, as can organizational commitment, perormance,
and turnover. Te eects o person-organization t on these constructs were ound
to occur independently o age, gender, or tenure (OReilly et al., 1991). Additionally,
job satisaction and organizational commitment were predicted a year afer the initial
measurement o t, and actual turnover was predicted afer two years (OReilly et al.,
1991). Tis indicates that person-organization t continues to impact the employee long
afer the initial settling-in period is over. I the employee does not eel that they t in,
they tend to leave (OReilly et al., 1991; Wallach, 1983).
Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Personal Characteristics
Several personal characteristics, such as age, gender, and personality, have been reported
to aect job satisaction. Tey may aect it directly, as in the case o age (Oshagbemi,
2003), or they may aect it indirectly by aecting other actors that impact job satis-
action, such as stress (Fairbrother & Warn, 2003). Personality may also inuence the
initial job choice itsel (Judge & Bretz, 1992).
As people progress through the career lie stages, their job satisaction is expected to
increase (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007; Jepsen & Sheu, 2003). As the individual gainsmore work experience, they will be able to move closer to their ideal work situation and
they will thereore attain more job satisaction. However, survey data does not always
provide support or this progression. In a 25-year study o 169 high-school graduates, it
was ound that the average job satisaction scores remained the same during the adult
years, whereas the average job congruence (measured by the similarity between the
individuals major in college and the position held at the time o the survey) increased
signicantly (Jepsen & Sheu, 2003). Davis (2004) also ound no evidence to support
the hypothesis that older people tend to be more satised with their jobs than younger
people, and no statistically signicant generational dierences have been ound or job
satisaction in recent research (Macky, 2008).
As discussed by Oshagbemi (2003), the relationship between age and job satisaction is
uncertain. wo dierent explanations exist: linear and curvilinear. Te linear relation-
ship is explained by the ideas o accommodation (adjusting to the workplace) and an
increased ability to obtain more rewarding jobs due to seniority and experience. Te
curvilinear relationship is explained by the idea that stress on the job increases over
time as changes in the environment, increased pressure to perorm at higher levels, and
a desire to retire earlier, all collide.
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 15
Although gender has been reported to aect job satisaction rom time to time, overall
there is very little evidence to support the idea that gender directly inuences job satis-
action (Oshagbemi, 2003). Contradicting survey results on this matter urther conuse
the theory, although it has been determined that men and women have dierences in
what needs are satised by a job, which may impact how they respond to satisactionquestions (Oshagbemi, 2003).
Personality characteristics can aect the level o job satisaction an individual is able
to experience at work. As stated by Jepsen & Sheu (2003), some personalities are
more likely to be satised regardless o their t with their work while some kinds
o work produce job satisaction irrespective o the extent o matching with personal
characteristics (p. 165). Research by Agho et al. (1992) identied two distinct personal-
ity variablespositive aectivity and negative aectivity5that were shown to directly
inuence job satisaction. Trough their impact on satisaction, these variables also
indirectly inuence organizational commitment.
Conclusion
In sum, much o the research conducted to investigate potential linkages between job
satisaction and other constructs has been contradictory to other studies conducted on
the same subject. It appears that cross-sectional research will result in dierent ndings
depending on what industry or sector is studied. Tis does not necessarily indicate that
the relationship o job satisaction to other attitudinal constructs is dependent on the
industry or job being studied. However, some ndings do indicate that such relation-
ships are more heavily inuenced by job-specic and individual personality or attitudi-
nal actors than had been previously thought. Indeed, it is possible that job satisaction,
perormance, and organizational commitment are entirely unrelated concepts withinthe mind o the employee, although specic actors o the job or the individual may
impact all three simultaneously in varying ways.
Generations at Work: Is there a Cohort Effect?
As the Baby Boomer workorce continues to move towards retirement, the next great
change or American businesses will be the continued rise o Generation X (born
between 1965 and 1985) and the introduction o Generation Y (born between 1986 and
2002) workers into the workplace. Currently, Generations X and Y together make up
45% o the workorce (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Workers under 34 years o age
are projected to compose approximately 60% o the ull-time workorce in the United
States by 2010 (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Executives and mid-level managersalike wonder how this will aect their companies, and whether or not they will be able
to attract these younger workers into their company and convince them to stay. A large
concern is riction among age groups. Are generations so dierent in terms o values
and work styles that they will not be able to work together successully?
5 - Aectivity is dened as the disposition to be happy (positive) or to experience discomort (negative)
across time and situations (Agho et al., 1992, p. 186).
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)16
Hypotheses about dierences between generations are based on cohort theory. Cohorts
are dened as a given group o members who were born in a limited span o consecu-
tive years [ergo, a generation] and whose boundaries are xed by peer personality
(Glass, 2007, pp. 98-99). Peer personality is a generational persona recognized and
determined by common age, location, shared belies, behavior, and perceived member-ship in a common generation, and it is developed because o the dening events expe-
rienced between ages 5 and 18, the prime developmental years that aect the groups
outlook on work and lie (Glass, 2007, p. 99).
Smola and Sutton used this theory as the basis o their 2002 study Generational dier-
ences: revisiting generational work values or the new millennium. Te study aimed to
compare work values among cohorts rom a 1974 study with cohorts rom a 1999 study.
However, the study was unable to compare values or all dened generational cohorts, as
not enough data existed to compare any cohorts except Baby Boomers and Generation
X.WW II-ers, Swingers, and Millennials/Gen Y were all excluded. Although this study
is quoted as illustrating [t]he existence o generational dierences through its conclu-sion that work values are more inuenced by generational experiences than by age and
maturation (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007, p. 151), the authors contend that the study
only illustrates the act that generational experiences may impact work values more
strongly than do age or maturation alone. However, this study contained no evaluation
o actions or behaviors based on the work values espoused. It is not possible to deter-
mine whether or not generations will act dierently at work based on their answers to a
survey.
One o the most concerning generations today is Generation Y, also known as the
Millennials or the Echo Boomers. An analysis o the popular media reveals that there
are thirteen specic areas o dierences reported about Generation Y, all o which dealwith their expectations regarding aspects o work. Tese include: work/lie balance,
personal growth, employer policies and structure, management styles, salary/benets,
meaningul work, working in teams, parental involvement, entrepreneurship, changing
jobs, importance o riendships, technology, and sel-worth. Tese are each discussed in
more detail below.
Work/Life Balance
According to most articles, Generation Y is not interested in making work their lie.
Instead, they want to make their jobs accommodate their amily and personal lives
(Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). However, they are willing to accept working on the week-ends in exchange or increased exibility and balance in their day-to-day lie during the
week (runk, 2007; Rowh, 2007; Spiro, 2006). Many also do not accept the tradition o
working unpaid overtime they use technology to increase their eciency, and dont
value punching the clock as a method o tracking work eectiveness (Hira, 2007).
Teir personal commitments take priority over work schedules (Saer, 2007), and,
since many Gen Yers are still in school, they are more likely to need schedule exibility
(Martin, 2005).
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 17
Personal Growth High Maintenance, High Expectations
Generation Y is characterized as being high-maintenance, but also as high-peror-
mance (Armour, 2005; Martin, 2005). Tey have high expectations or themselves, their
employers, and also or personal growth, even in entry-level jobs (Armour, 2005; Spiro,2006; runk, 2007). Tey want to see a return on their investment into their education
and their job (Balderrama, 2007), and are willing to work aster and better than other
workers (Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). In return, they expect their managers to be highly
involved in their personal development (Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006), and they seek
out new creative challenges (Martin, 2005; Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). However, they
are also known or challenging authority. Tey have a speak your mind philosophy,
and they dont take orders without questioning everything (Armour, 2005; Hira, 2007;
Martin, 2005). Tis is reected in the statistic that 55% o employers over the age o 35
eel that Gen Y workers have a more dicult time taking direction or responding to
authority than other generations o workers (CareerBuilder.com, 2007).
Employer Policies and Structure
Employers are trying to gure out how to recruit and retain younger workers (Armour,
2005; Spiro, 2006). Te purported key to keeping Generation Y workers is changing
policies and company structure in order to keep them happy at work. An example o
this is online shoe retailer Zappos, where [a]ctual work actually happens, despite
gooy parades, snoozing in the nap room, and plenty o happy hours (Saer, 2007). O
the 15% o employers who have changed or implemented new policies/programs to
accommodate Gen Y workers, 57% have changed work schedules, 33% have increased
their recognition programs, 26% have increased access to technology, 26% have
increased salaries and bonuses, 24% have added more ongoing education programs,20% have started paying or cell phones, Blackberrys, and other communication devices,
18% have added more telecommuting options, and 11% have added more vacation time
(CareerBuilder.com, 2007).
Management Styles
Gen Yers are purported to need more eedback than other generations (Armour, 2005).
Praise is especially important or them (Saer, 2007; Spiro, 2006). Tey also have had
plenty o experience with dierent kinds o managers beore entering the workorce
ull-time, as most will have had three to our part-time jobs previously (Martin, 2005).
However, they hate micromanagement, but at the same time need help developing time
management skills (Martin, 2005) With this desire or a balance between supportive andwatchul management (Rowh, 2007) is the desire to have the reedom and exibility to
get the task done in their own way, at their own speed (Martin, 2005). In act, Yers love
to be given the results you want and the reedom to gure out the process to achieve
them (Martin, 2005, p. 40).
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)18
Salary/Benefits
Generation Y has seen the changes in the stock market over time, and is less likely to
care about stock options as a result (Rowh, 2007). Tey are nancially savvy, and care
about benets like retirement plans (Armour, 2005). Although many believe that[m]oney creates the reedom to live the lie [they] want, ination has eaten away at
what that money will buy, which may make them eel less secure (Jayson, 2007). As a
result, they expect to be paid more and get arther aster in return (CareerBuilder.com,
2007). Many Generation Yers pursue graduate degrees because they have a high regard
or education (Spiro, 2006), and they ask or more in return or their investment.
Meaningful Work
Many Generation Yers are reported to highly value sel-ulllment (Armour, 2005).
Tey have been raised with the idea that they can do something important in lie, and
they thereore want to spend their time in meaningul and useul ways (runk, 2007;
Gogoi, 2005). Tey want to make an important impact at their job right away, and they
are reluctant to perorm tasks that lack depth due to their greater need to eel valued
(Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006; Rowh, 2007). Employers who support volunteering are
likely to be more attractive to Gen Y workers, and they also like to take time o to travel
and pursue alternative activities in their search or meaning in their work (runk, 2007;
Gogoi, 2005). Sheena Lindahl, a 24-year old entrepreneur who now helps others to
pursue their dream careers, perhaps puts it best: Its hard or people in our genera-
tion to just do work (Jayson, 2006).
Working in Teams
Generation Y is reported to love working in teams, especially ones that are uid andcan adapt to the needs o the problem to be solved (Rowh, 2007). eams o peers are
reported to be more comortable or Gen Yers to work on, as they are used to commu-
nicating with people their own age (Jayson, 2006). Overall, [t]hey work well alone, but
they work better together (Martin, 2005, p. 40).
Parental Involvement
Since more than hal o new graduates move back in with their parents, it is very easy
or parents to remain highly involved in their Gen Yers lie (runk, 2007; Saer, 2007).
Ofen, the parental involvement has not been abated throughout the college experience.
Tis involvement has been termed the coddling virus, where parents stay involved atthe college level, and some even phone their childs rst employers (Saer, 2007). Tis
has resulted in a delayed adolescence, and adulthood is now perceived by most to begin
at 26 or older (Saer, 2007).
Entrepreneurship
Generation Yers are the children o Baby Boomers. Tey have seen their parents and
other adults deal with changes in corporate America that ofen resulted in the loss o
jobs. Tis has led to the idea o being ree agents, where entrepreneurship is a saety
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 19
net (runk, 2007). People can create a job or themselves when they cant nd one they
like, since the sel-employed tend to be more satised with their jobs than other workers
(Jayson, 2006). Te Internet has also enabled this shif, since it is now possible to have
proessional home-based businesses (Jayson, 2006).
Changing Jobs
In addition to the option o entrepreneurship, Gen Yers also view job hopping as an
alternative to staying in a job they dislike. Tey have seen corporations act disloyally to
their parents, so they have no qualms about changing jobs rapidly. In act, many do not
expect to stay in a job or even career or too long (Armour, 2005). Many also think that
they can get more by trying new companies and careers (Saer, 2007), and it is also a
way out o companies when no career development opportunities are presented (runk,
2007). Gen Yers also are unwilling to compromise, and rarely settle or a job when they
think they can do better elsewhere (Gerdes, 2007; Rowh, 2007).
Importance of Friendships
As detailed in one anecdote, Gen Yers are reported to choose jobs merely to be with
their riends because o the level o importance those relationships carry in their lie
(runk, 2007). Some even start business with riends (Jayson, 2006). As Saer (2007)
writes, []amily and riends are their new priorities, while blind careerism is beginning
to ade.
Technology
Generation Y grew up during the technological revolution, and were participants in it
(Balderrama, 2007). Tey are the rst generation o unconscious technology usersto enter the workplace, which aects how they do things (Erickson, 2007). Tis has
also aected their level o patience with technology and the time they want to invest in
learning how to do things, making it much shorter than those unused to technology
(Martin, 2005; Rowh, 2007). Tey are tech savvy, and their technological gadgets are an
extension o their bodies (Saer, 2007; Hira, 2007). Teir amiliarity with technology has
led to a preerence or using it to communicate, to solve problems virtually, and to create
(Rowh, 2007; Armour, 2005; Martin, 2005). In order to better control the use o technol-
ogy in the workplace (and curb the distractions it can bring), some companies have put
media policies in place to guide the use o technology (Rowh, 2007).
Self-WorthGeneration Yers are reported to have been the center o attention and to have obtained
many awards and accolades as theyve grown up (Jayson, 2007; Saer, 2007). Tis has led
to an optimistic view o themselves and the possibilities open to them. Since they have
been told that they can be anything they imagine since birth, they believe this, and are
determined to live their best lives now (Hira, 2007). Tey also have been trained to
put themselves rst (Saer, 2007; Hira, 2007), and they think that ame and ortune can
happen to anyone (Jayson, 2007).
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)20
Conclusion
Much o the popular media on this topic contains anecdotes indicating the vast dier-
ences that Generation Y is bringing to the workplace. Tese range rom evidence on
generational gaps in communication styles and job expectations6 (CareerBuilder.com,2007) to statements that [t]he workplace has become a psychological battleeld, and
the millennials [Generation Y] have the upper hand (Saer, 2007). Anecdotes rom
Generation Yers themselves are extremely popular as well, and are used as evidence o
the extreme dierences that exist. Some examples o this are:
One Gen Yer and her seven riends, all o whom havent remained in one job or
city since they graduated just our years ago (Gerdes, 2007).
A moving company who hired an entire athletic team in order to motivate
the workers to stay in their positions (runk, 2007).
A young entrepreneur who started a dozen businesses beore turning 21
(Jayson, 2007).
A student who deerred a job at a prime management consulting rm to accept
a Fulbright scholarship and then quit the job once she started it afer just three
months to go back to graduate school ull-time and study something she was
passionate about (Gogoi, 2005).
Although these anecdotes may be true, recently conducted research sheds light on the
act that there is limited empirical evidence o generational dierences rom a human
resources management perspective (Macky et al., 2008, p. 1). Tis study (which will be
published in an upcoming edition o the Journal o Managerial Psychology with severalother empirical studies on generational dierences) also states that the prevalent stereo-
types o today are not reected in the empirical research on this topic (p. 3). Westerman
and Yamamura (2007, p. 152) agree, stating, the inuence o work environment
preerence dierences between the groups [Baby Boomers as compared to Generations
X and Y] remains empirically unveried and untested. Additionally, the most vocal
proponents o generational dierences tend to be those with something to sell, be it
consulting services or studies on Gen Y (Read, 2007).
Other articles have pointed out the lack o evidence (with the exception o anecdotes)
regarding Generation Ys habits and behaviors (Jayson, 2006; Read, 2007). Some arti-
cles have also asserted that individual dierences do exist within generational cohorts
6 - Tese ndings are rom a 2007 survey o 2,546 hiring managers and human resources proessionals
across all industries by CareerBuilder.com. O those surveyed, 49% elt that Generation Y communicates
more through technology than in person, 25% elt that they have a dierent rame o reerence (especially
in regards to pop culture), 87% elt that some or most o them eel more entitled to compensation, benets,
and career advancement than older generations, 74% elt that they expect to be paid more, 61% elt that
they expect to have exible work schedules, 56% elt that they expected to be promoted within a year, 50%
elt that they expect to have more vacation or personal time, and 37% elt that they expect to have access to
state-o-the-art technology.
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 21
(Martin, 2005; Kupperschmidt, 2000), and that these dierences are more important or
management to consider than are the supposed generational similarities (Rowh, 2007;
Ryan, 2007). It has also been noted that similar ears were aired against Generation X
when they rst entered the workorce, but that they have since learned how to deal with
work, as will Generation Y (Ryan, 2007).
Jack and Suzy Welch (2007) also agree that [w]hat weve seen [in Gen Y workers] is
dierent [than the stories out there], and they have also ound Gen Yers to be hard-
working, entrepreneurial, startlingly authentic, rereshingly candid, and wonderully
upbeat. Tey conclude that there is no real proo o generational dierences, and that
all Generation Y needs is a chance to grow up. Tis is echoed by Macky, Forsyth, and
Boxall7 (2008, p. 2), who state that any perceived generational dierences could be due
to simple dierences in maturity and/or concurrent lie and work experiences, since
Generation Y is younger, has less work experience, and is more likely to experience
higher stress and atigue levels as they adjust to working ull-time.
For the purpose o our study, it is important to determine i there are generational
dierences in attitudes towards work. I these dierences exist, they will impact the
hiring o and retaining o employees. o address this issue, our research will explore the
ollowing questions:
What is the level o satisaction o each age group? Does satisaction vary by age
(that is, are there generational dierences)?
What actors predict the intentions o younger generations to stay in their
current job, company, and/or industry?
o test whether attitudes towards work are unique to graphic communications, print-
ing, and publishing proessionals, we included a control group o RI School o Design
alumni in our survey. Tis is discussed in more detail in the ollowing section.
7 - Tis study was a secondary analysis o a large national study o 1,004 New Zealand employees aged 18
and above conducted late in 2005. Participants worked in rms with 10 or more employees, and had to
have worked in their jobs or more than 6 months to participate. Very ew practical dierences were ound
between any o the three generations studied (Y, X, and Boomer), and the studys main conclusion is that
Generation X may, in act, be the most dierent rom the other two.
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)22
Methodology
Survey Design
Te initial survey was created or School o Print Media alumni. Question logic wasused to allow respondents to be classied into one o two segments: employed or
retired/unemployed. Survey questions were duplicated or each segment, with changes
to the wording to reect the status o the respondent. Te survey was designed to collect
the ollowing kinds o inormation: demographic inormation, inormation on the job
and company where the respondent is/was employed, and satisaction (both overall and
with a range o job acets). Te survey was then edited to meet the specications o the
RI Human Subjects Research Oce (HSRO), and was reviewed and approved by the
HSRO. Te initial survey was then duplicated and customized or use in surveying the
School o Design alumni. Te precise wording o the questions and the requency o
responses are presented in Appendix A.
Procedure
Te survey was administered using an online survey service. In April o 2008, an e-mail
was sent to the alumni o both the School o Print Media and the School o Design
inviting them to complete the survey. Te alumni sampled are only those who had
provided their e-mail addresses to the RI Alumni Oce and are a subset o all gradu-
ates. Te sampling rame was n=1,845 or the School o Print Media and n=964 or the
School o Design. Respondents were eligible to be entered into a drawing to win one o
our iPod Nanos (two Nanos were given away to each pool o respondents). Reminder
e-mails were sent one week afer the initial e-mail was distributed. Afer three weeks, the
surveys were closed.
Data Analysis
Te total number o respondents was 749, with 307 School o Design (response rate o
31.8%) and 442 School o Print Media respondents (response rate o 24.0%). Not all
respondents answered all questions, since the survey did not require all questions to be
answered. Analysis o the gathered data was conducted using SPSS sofware (version
16.0). Open-ended responses deemed necessary or urther research were coded appro-
priately. Frequencies o all question responses are given in Appendix A.
Demographic Profiles
School o Print Media (SPM) respondents were mostly male (70.4% male, 29.6%
emale). Te age distribution revealed 27.8% between the ages o 20 and 29, 31.3%
between the ages o 30 and 44, and 40.9% age 45 and older. Almost all (90.8%) were
rom the United States, with 3.1% rom North and Latin America (outside o the U.S.),
3.1% rom Asia, and 1.9% rom Europe. Almost hal (49.8%) had graduated within the
last ourteen years, with 28.9% graduating 15-25 years ago, and the remainder (21.3%)
graduating more than 25 years ago. (Tis was the year o most recent graduation rom
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 23
Methodology
a college or university, and may reect a return to school to pursue a more advanced
degree.) At the point o this most recent graduation, 68.2% held bachelors degrees,
28.5% held masters degrees, 0.5% held a doctorate, and 2.9% received another type o
degree or certicate.
School o Design (SD) respondents were mostly emale (64.1% emale, 35.9% male).
Tey were also somewhat younger than the SPM sample, with 35.6% between the ages
o 20 and 29, 52.1% between the ages o 30 and 44, and 12.2% age 45 and older. Almost
all (92.1%) were rom the United States, with 3.9% rom Asia, 2.3% rom North and
Latin America (outside o the U.S.), and 1.0% rom Europe. Almost two-thirds (65.9%)
had graduated within the last ourteen years, with 33.8% graduating 15-25 years ago,
and only 0.3% graduating more than 25 years ago. (Tis was the year o most recent
graduation rom a college or university, and may reect a return to school to pursue a
more advanced degree.) At the point o this most recent graduation, 79.9% held bach-
elors degrees, 17.1% held masters degrees, 0.3% held a doctorate, and 2.6% received
another type o degree or certicate.
Research Findings
Te results o the survey will be presented in the ollowing order:
Is there a dierence in satisaction between School o Print Media (SPM) and
School o Design (SD) alumni?
Within the SPM alumni population, are there dierences in overall satisaction
by demographic groups as dened by generation, gender, and salary level?
What are the major predictors o overall job satisaction?
What predicts the intention to change industries?
Each question is shown below with the corresponding data analysis and discussion
ollowing. Beore we discuss the hypothesis tests, we will provide a description o the
overall requency analysis on each question.
SPM Frequency Analysis
Te majority o the respondents (87.9% o 428 respondents) indicated they wereemployed. Tis included the ollowing categories: employed ull-time (76.4%),
employed part-time (0.7%), sel-employed/entrepreneur (6.5%), contract/reelance work
ull-time (1.2%), contract/reelance work part-time (1.4%), continuing education
part-time while employed (0.7%), and continuing education ull-time while employed
(0.9%). Te remainder (12.1%) were either retired, employed in alternative types o
work, or unemployed. Tis included the ollowing categories: caring or my amily/
home ull-time (0.5%), serving in the military (0.2%), continuing education ull-time
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)24
Research Findings
(0.9%), unemployed seeking employment (2.8%), unemployed not seeking employ-
ment (0.5%), and retired (7.2%). No respondents were continuing their education part-
time while unemployed.
From this point orward in the analysis, the data provided is specic to those SPMrespondents who were classied as employed.
Firm Characteristics
O the 361 respondents who responded to the question regarding the type o rm where
they work, 29.6% worked at commercial printing rms, 8.3% worked at publishing
rms, 3.9% worked at advertising rms, 3.9% worked at in-house corporate communi-
cations/marketing departments, 3.3% worked at in-house educational/non-prot print
shops, 1.4% worked at design rms, 1.1% worked at in-house corporate print shops, and
0.6% worked at in-house educational/non-prot communications/marketing depart-
ments. Almost hal o the respondents (47.6%) indicated other types o rms. Tese
responses have been coded and are presented in able 1.
Table 1. Coded other rm responses
Other Firm CodesPercent o Respondents
(n=361)
Education 6.93%
Miscellaneous/Non-printing 5.82%
Consulting & Recruiting 4.16%
Sotware & IT 3.88%
Printing Equipment Manuacturer 3.60%
Package & Label Printing 3.32%
Government & Government Agencies 2.49%
Consumer Products 2.22%
Paper & Printing Supplies 2.22%
Printing Product Manuacturer 1.66%
Financial Printing 1.66%
Digital Printing 1.66%
Document Services 1.39%
Marketing (Unspecied) 1.11%
Prepress 1.11%Manuacturing (General, Non-printing) 1.11%
Retail 1.11%
Direct Marketing/Mail 0.55%
Sel-employed 0.55%
Book Manuacturing 0.55%
Health Care & Hospitals 0.28%
Architecture 0.28%
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 25
Research Findings
Te majority o respondents (62.2%) worked at companies with more than 100 employ-
ees (24.6% 100-499 employees, 37.6% 500+ employees). Te remainder (37.9%) worked
at companies with less than 99 employees as ollows: 1-5 employees 8.7%, 6-10
employees 3.8%, 11-19 employees 4.3%, 20-49 employees 8.4%, 50-99 employees
12.7%.
In addition to working at larger rms, respondents also tended to work at rms that had
been in business or more than 20 years (71.9%). O these, 27.2% had been in business
or 20-49 years, 21.8% or 50-99 years, 14.9% or 100-149 years, and 8.0% or more than
150 years. Te remaining respondents (28.1%) worked or rms that had been in busi-
ness or less than 20 years as ollows: 1-5 years 9.2%, 6-10 years 8.0%, 11-19 years
10.9%.
Employee and Job Characteristics
A large majority (83.2%, n=358) o respondents started working or their current
employer since 1995 (1995-1999 - 11.2%, 2000-2004 24.0%, 2005-2008 48.0%).
Respondents were likely to have worked or more than three other employers beore
starting their current job (57.9% had worked or three or more employers). Additionally,
66.6% o respondents have been at the same position since starting with their current
employer, while the remaining 33.4% have changed jobs since starting with their current
employer. (Job titles were reported as open-ended responses. Tese are shown arranged
by company type in Appendix C.)
Respondents also tended to have this job as their only job, with only 12.2% who indi-
cated that they held another job outside o their primary job. O those with other jobs,
the majority (84.4%, n=45) had one other part-time job, with 6.7% who held one otherull-time job and 8.9% indicating that they held two or more other part-time jobs. In
terms o annual income, the median salary level was between $60,000 and $69,999
a year (11.5% o respondents). However, the distribution was skewed, with 21.3% o
respondents indicating they earned more than $100,000 a year.
Te current job held was also likely to be highly related to the most recent degree
attained (60.7%). Respondents also tended to eel that they had been more than
adequately (36.7%) or exceptionally well (22.7%) prepared or their current job by
their experiences at school. In turn, they also tended to eel that their graphic commu-
nications degree was important (29.6%) or very important (31.1%) to their employ-
ers. Teir most recent experience in school was also elt to have helped them prepareor their uture careers, as 51.0% elt that they had the education and training necessary
to get ahead in their career, while 27.2% elt that they had more than enough education
and training necessary to get ahead in their careers.
Overall Satisfaction and Job Facet Satisfaction
Almost all (90.4%) o SPM respondents were satised with their jobs. Te majority
o the satised respondents were mostly satised (51.5%), while 21.0% were some-
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)26
Research Findings
what satised and 17.9% were completely satised. Only 7.4% were dissatised with
their current jobs (including the categories o somewhat dissatised at 4.3%, mostly
dissatised at 2.8%, and completely dissatised at 0.3%), while 2.2% were unsure o
their satisaction level. In addition, 23 job acets were queried on a 5-point satisaction
scale. Te sum o the satised (includes very satised and satised) and dissatised(includes dissatised and very dissatised) or each acet is shown below in able 2
(acets are shown ordered rom highest to lowest percent satised). Neutral responses
are not provided in this table, but can be seen (along with ull response requencies or
all questions) in Appendix A.
Table 2. Job acet satisaction levels o SPM respondents
Facet Satised (%) Dissatised (%)
Quality o service/product provided/produced 84.20% 2.80%
Relationships with coworkers 83.00% 2.50%
Flexibility to do your work when and how you like 79.10% 8.10%Organizations goal/mission/vision 75.90% 7.10%
Level o technology employed at the company 75.20% 8.10%
Organizations ethical standards 74.60% 8.00%
Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job 73.70% 7.70%
Relationship with immediate supervisor/boss 72.30% 10.30%
Level o challenge in work 71.60% 8.60%
Opportunity to be creative 71.20% 8.60%
Human diversity (gender, ethnicity) 70.00% 5.90%
Job security 65.50% 9.00%
Respect by upper management 64.90% 14.60%Work environment or work culture 64.90% 12.40%
Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie 64.50% 13.10%
Proximity o work to your home 60.80% 16.60%
Fringe benets 54.30% 17.70%
Eectiveness o organizational leadership 51.60% 21.10%
Amount o on-the-job stress 49.20% 24.10%
Salary 48.90% 23.10%
Potential or career/proessional advancement 44.80% 24.30%
Support or continuing education/in-service programs 39.60% 30.40%
Accessibility/proximity o childcare services 16.80% 14.90%
Employer Promises and Career Plans
Almost one-quarter o respondents elt that their employers had broken promises made
during recruitment, with 16.4% o respondents agreeing and 6.3% strongly agree-
ing that their employer had not kept all o the promises made during recruitment. Te
remainder o the respondents were either neutral (31.5%) or elt that their employer had
not broken any promises made during recruitment (45.7%).
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 27
Research Findings
Over one-third (36.3%) o SPM respondents planned to actively seek a new job in the
next year (combining categories o highly likely at 19.1% and likely at 17.2%). An
additional 20.6% were unsure as to whether or not they would seek a new job within the
next year, while 43.1% did not plan to seek a new job within the next year (combining
categories o unlikely at 17.8% and highly unlikely at 25.3%).
When asked what the next steps in their career would be, 52.9% planned to seek another
job in the uture. Tose who planned on making a job change were likely to stay in the
same industry (28.0%), although more would look or a dierent job (14.2%) than a
similar job (13.8%). An additional 12.9% would look in a dierent industry, with 8.6%
who would look or a dierent job and 4.3% who would look or a similar job. Another
12.0% would look or a new job within the same company. A small portion (3.7%)
planned to return to school to pursue another degree, while 14.2% were unsure o their
uture plans. Almost one-third (29.2%) did not plan to switch jobs.
Research Questions
1. Is there a difference in satisfaction between SPM andSD alumni?
o determine i School o Print Media (SPM) alumni were unique in their responses, we
included a control group o RI School o Design (SD) alumni in the research. First, we
tested whether there was a dierence in overall job satisaction. Tere was not a statisti-
cally signicant dierence in overall satisaction between the two groups, although SPM
alumni had a somewhat lower average satisaction than SD graduates (mean o 2.33 vs.
2.22, p=0.250).8
However, statistically signicant dierences in satisaction were ound between the
graduates o the two programs in two job acet categories: satisaction with continuing
education/in-service programs and satisaction with work environment or work culture
(see able 3 below). In both cases, SPM graduates had signicantly lower average satis-
action scores than SD graduates.
Table 3. Categorical Dierences in Satisaction
Job Facet SD Mean* SPM Mean* P value
Support or continuing education/in-service programs 2.64 2.86 0.023
Work environment or work culture 2.03 2.29 0.002
* Five point scale where 1 = Very Satised and 5 = Very Dissatised.
Higher numbers thereore correspond to lower satisaction.
8 - Ranked on a seven point scale where 1 = Completely Satised and 7 = Completely Dissatised. Higher
numbers thereore correspond to lower satisaction.
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)28
Research Findings
2. Within the SPM alumni population, are there differences inoverall satisfaction by demographic groups as defined bygeneration, gender, or salary level?
o test whether there are any generational dierences in satisaction, we grouped SPMalumni into three dierent age categories: 20-29 years o age, 30-44 years o age, and
45 or more years o age. Although there is a trend that shows a higher level o satisac-
tion or older workers, no statistically signicant dierences in overall satisaction were
ound among these age groups (ANOVA, F=2.675, p=0.070, see Figure 4 below).
Figure 4. Satisaction comparison o mean satisaction by age group
Average job acet satisaction ratings by age group are ound in able 4. An analysis o
variance was computed on each acet with age groups as the independent measure. O
all the job acets, only our were ound to be statistically signicant:
Opportunity to be creative (oldest age group most satised),
Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job (oldest age group most satis-
ed),
Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie (oldest age group most satis-
ed), and
Potential or career/proessional advancement (youngest age group most satis-
ed).
Age
Gender
Personality
Values
Intrinsic Satisfiers/Motivators
Person-Job Fit
Person-Organization Fit/Person-Culture Fit
Personal Characteristics
Availability of Job Alternatives
Unemployment Rate
External Factors
Job Facets
Job Level/Rank
Occupational Level (Rank + Age)
Stress
Length of Service
Work Environment
Wages/Benefits
Organizational Vision/Direction
Organizational Culture
Organizational Communication
Organizational Values
Supervision
Work Design
Work Conditions
Coworkers
l
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 29
Research Findings
Consistent with the stereotypes o Gen Y, the younger employees were more dissatised
than the older groups on three o the our acets.
Table 4. Comparison o SPM mean job acet satisaction by age group, ordered by
mean total satisaction9
Facet Overall SPM 20-29 30-44 45+
Relationships with coworkers 1.85 1.94 1.87 1.76
Quality o service/product provided/produced 1.87 1.96 1.86 1.80
Flexibility to do your work when and how you like 1.96 2.05 2.00 1.84
Organizations goal/mission/vision 2.00 1.93 2.00 2.05
Organizations ethical standards 2.00 2.02 2.00 1.99
Level o technology employed at the company 2.08 2.13 2.16 1.97
Opportunity to be creative* 2.09 2.30 2.13 1.88
Relationship with immediate supervisor/boss 2.10 2.16 2.03 2.11
Human diversity (gender, ethnicity) 2.11 2.24 2.02 2.08
Level o challenge in work 2.11 2.24 2.06 2.04
Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job* 2.11 2.34 2.08 1.95
Job security 2.21 2.21 2.20 2.22
Respect by upper management 2.25 2.21 2.21 2.31
Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie* 2.26 2.41 2.33 2.07
Proximity o work to your home 2.29 2.22 2.41 2.23
Work environment or work culture 2.29 2.39 2.25 2.24
Fringe benets 2.51 2.54 2.37 2.59
Eectiveness o organizational leadership 2.58 2.72 2.51 2.52
Salary 2.71 2.85 2.59 2.70
Potential or career/proessional advancement* 2.75 2.54 2.75 2.94
Amount o on-the-job stress 2.84 2.93 2.88 2.73
Support or continuing education/in-service programs 2.86 2.97 2.77 2.85
Accessibility/proximity o childcare services 2.99 2.97 3.04 2.96
*The dierences among the categories or these acets are statistically signifcant (p=0.003, 0.005, 0.024,
and 0.032, in order rom top to bottom).
Statistically signicant dierences in overall job satisaction were ound between gender
groups (ANOVA, F=5.355, p=0.021) and between salary levels (ANOVA, F=5.015,
p
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)30
Research Findings
Figure 5. Satisaction comparison o mean satisaction by salary level10
10 - Salary level groupings were created in order to adjust or low numbers o respondents (n) in certain
responses. Original categories (as given on the survey) and number o respondents were as ollows: $14,999
or less: 6, $15,000 - $19,999: 0, $20,000 - $29,999:10, $30,000 - $39,999:27, $40,000 - $49,999:40, $50,000 -
$59,999:53, $60,000 - $69,999:37, $70,000 - $79,999:33, $80,000 - $89,999:28, $90,000 - $99,999:15, $100,000
or more: 69.
MeanOverallSatisfaction
Salary Level (SPM Respondents)
Completely
Satisfied
Mostly
Satisfied
Somewhat
Satisfied
Unsure
Somewhat
Dissatisfied
Mostly
Dissatisfied
Completely
Dissatisfied
$39,999
or less
$40,000 -
$49,999
$50,000 -
$59,999
$60,000 -
$69,999
$70,000 -
$79,999
$80,000 -
$99,999
$100,000
or more
n=43 n=40 n=53 n=37 n=33 n=43 n=69
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 31
Research Findings
3. What are the predictors of overall job satisfaction?
Correlates of Overall Job Satisfaction
Te rst regression analysis was conducted using the job acet satisaction measures aspredictors or overall satisaction. Results o the regression were as ollows: an rvalue
o 0.720, which indicates that a strong correlation exists. Te r2value o 0.518 and the
adjustedr2value o 0.47811 indicate that 47.8% o the variation in overall job satisaction
can be explained by the job aspect satisaction measures. An ANOVA test revealed that
this relationship was statistically signicant, with F=12.853 and p
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)32
Research Findings
F=53.090, p
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 33
Research Findings
4. What predicts the intention to change industries?
Among SPM alumni, it appears that overall job satisaction was important in determin-
ing uture career plans. Te dierence in overall satisaction between career planning
categories was statistically signicant (ANOVA, F= 8.9, p< .0001). As shown below inFigure 6, those who had the lowest average satisaction scores planned to Return to
school to pursue another degree (mean satisaction score o 3.08), Look or a dierent
job within a dierent company in a dierent industry (mean = 2.96), and Look or a
dierent job within a dierent company in a similar industry (mean = 2.91). Tis indi-
cates that the most dissatised graduates are possibly looking to change their level/rank
or eld o work, although they may or may not also change industries as a result.
Figure 6. Comparison o mean satisaction among uture career plan responses
Among SPM graduates, it appears that the ulllment o employer promises upon hire
was also important in determining uture career plans. As shown below in able 7,
respondents who elt that their employer had not ullled the promises made to them
upon hire tended to plan to leave the rm and a ew may also leave the industry. Tis
MeanOverallSatisfaction
Current Career Plans (SPM Respondents)
Completely
Satisfied
Mostly
Satisfied
Somewhat
Satisfied
Unsure
Somewhat
Dissatisfied
Mostly
Dissatisfie
d
Completely
Dissatisfied
Look fordifferent jobw/in samecompany
n=39 n=46 n=28 n=44 n=14 n=12 n=46 n=95
Stay in samejob
Look fordifferent jobw/in differentcompany in
similarindustry
Look fordifferent jobw/in differentcompany in
differentindustry
Look forsimilar job
w/in differentcompany in
similarindustry
Look forsimilar job
w/in differentcompany in
differentindustry
Return toschool topursueanotherdegree
Unsure
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Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)34
Research Findings
indicates that companies who do not ulll promises to their employees are more likely
to lose them.
Table 7. Comparison o employer promise ulllment to uture career plan responses
Future Career PlansPromises by
Employer MetPromises by
Employer Unmet
Stay at current rm 38.46% 8.16%
Stay in current industry but change rm 43.08% 63.27%
Change current industry and rm 18.46% 28.57%
Total 65 49
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Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 35
Discussion of Findings
Discussion of Findings
Summary of Results
Te results can be summarized as ollows:
Te majority o School o Print Media (SPM) respondents (87.9%) were
employed, and over hal o them (72.3%) worked at traditional graphic arts
companies such as commercial printers, publishers, advertisers, in-house
marketing or printing departments, nancial printers, printing equipment
manuacturers, paper and printing supplies, etc.
Most SPM respondents (62.2%) worked at large companies with over one
hundred employees. Additionally, most o the companies where SPM respon-
dents were employed have been in business or at least 20 years (71.9%).
Beore starting with their current employer, SPM respondents were likely to
have worked or more than three other employers (57.9%). Tis level o experi-
ence is reected in the act that 21.3% o respondents earned $100,000 or more
a year.
A high percentage o SPM respondents had a job that is related to their most
recent degree (60.7%). More than hal (59.4%) o SPM respondents believed
that their experiences in school helped to prepare them or their jobs, and
60.7% believed that the graphic arts degree they received is important to their