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Transcript of Phytopharmaceuticals - By Dr.U.Srinivasa, Professor and Head, Srinivas college of pharmacy,...
![Page 1: Phytopharmaceuticals - By Dr.U.Srinivasa, Professor and Head, Srinivas college of pharmacy, Mangalore, Karnataka](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022081504/55532560b4c905a7778b503f/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CALS
– QUIN
INE
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA
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QUININE
It is a quinoline alkaloid of cinchona bark. The
other important alkaloids of this drug are
quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine,
cinchonamine etc.,
B.S. It consists of dried inner bark of C.Calisaya,
C.succirubra, C.officinalis, C.ledgeriana and
hybrids of this. Family – Rubiaceae
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Quinine and quinidine are stereo-isomers .
Quinine is laevorotatory and quinidine is
dextrorotatory
Uses :
Quinine is antimalarial
Quinidine is a cardiac depressant therefore
used in cardiac arrythmias.
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ISOLATION
1. The dry powder bark material is first well mixed with
about 30% of its weight of calcium hydroxide or
calcium oxide and sufficient quantity of sodium
hydroxide solution to make a paste. It is allowed to
stand for few hours.
2. The mass is then transferred to a Soxhlet apparatus
and extraction is carried out with benzene.
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3.Subsequently the benzene extract is shaken
with successive portions of 5% sulphuric acid.
4.The aqueous acid extract is adjusted the pH
6.5 with dilute sodium hydroxide, cool. Crystals
of neutral quinine sulphate are formed.
5.These crystals are freed from cinchonine and
cinchonidine by repeated recrystallization from
hot water.
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6. Colouring matter is removed by activated
charcoal.
7.Quinine sulphate crystals are dissolved in
dil sulphuric acid and made alkaline with
ammonia. Initially amorphous quinine is
formed , which becomes crystalline .
8. Finally washed to remove sodium and
ammonium salts and dried to 45- 55 oC.
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IDENTIFICATION
1. Chemical tests
2. Thin layer chromatography
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T.L.C:
Adsorbent : Silica gel -G
Mobile phase – Chloroform –
diethylamine (9:1)
Detection – Spray with methanolic KOH
; Sulphuric acid reagent or UV Light
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
EPHEDRIN
E
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA
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EPHEDRINE
It is an amino alkaloid ( Non –
heterocyclic, proto-alkaloid or a
typical alkaloid ) present in various
species of ephedra.
Chemically , it is 1-phenyl,1-
hydroxy,-2- methyl amino propane.
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• B.S It consists of the dried aerial parts
of ephedra sinica, ephedra nebrodensis
and ephedra geridiana Family :
Ephedraceae
• The other important species are
ephedra intermedia, ephedra major,
ephedra alata.
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USES :
Ephedrine is a bronchodilator and
useful in the treatment of asthma and
allergic conditions such as rhinitis,
fever etc.
Used as mydriatic
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ISOLATION :
1.Ephedra powder is first made alkaline with
sodium carbonate and then macerated with
benzene overnight.
2.Benzene layer is separated by filtration and
treated with Dilute HCL
3.The aqueous acid layer is separated and made
alkaline with solid potassium carbonate.
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4. Then extracted with chloroform
5.The chloroform extract is evaporated
to dryness to get the residue. This is
mixed with oxalic acid and warmed.
6. Alkaloidal oxalates are formed
(ephedrine oxalate and pseudo
ephedrine oxalate)
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• Ephedrine oxalate is less soluble in cold water ,
on cooling crystals of ephedrine oxalate is
formed.
• Pseudo-ephedrine oxalate is remains in
solution
• 7. ephedrine is liberated from its oxalate by
shaking with alkali solution and then extracted
with a mixture of chloroform and ether (1:3) to
get ephedrine.
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• Identification :
• 1. A slightly alkaline solution of
ephedrine on warming with Ninhydrine
solution forms violet color.
• 2. Ephedrine gives pink to red coloration
with con.sulphuric acid and 3 to 4 drops
of 40% formaldehyde solution.
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• 3. Dissolve ephedrine in water and add dil Hcl
and test separately with 10% copper sulphate
solution and add 20% sodium hydroxide
solution. A purple or voilet colour developed.
• This is the ether extractable .On shaking with
ether the organic layer is purple but aqueous
layer is blue
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• ESTIMATION :
• 1 . Titration methods :
• A. Back titration method
• B. Non –aqueous titration method
• 2. Colorimetry
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1.Back titration method (I.P.1966)
Principle : Ephedrine can be
estimated by back titration method.
In the procedure , the accurately
weighed sample is treated with the
known excess quantity of acid and the
excess acid is back titrated with alkali.
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• Procedure :
• Weigh accurately about 0.5 gms of
sample and dissolve in 5ml of ethanol
(95%). Add 50ml of 0.1M Hcl and
titrate with 0.1M NaoH, using methyl
red as indicator until a yellow colour is
produced.
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• 2. Non –aqueous titration • Procedure :
• Weigh accurately about 0.17 gms of
sample and dissolve in 10ml of Mercuric
acetate solution, by warming gently .
Add 50 ml of Acetone and titrating with
0.1M Perchloric acid , determining the
end point by Potentiometrically
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• 3. By Colorimetry :
• PRINCIPLE :
• Being a secondary amine , ephedrine
forms a colored complex (400nm )
with Picryl chloride in benzene
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• Procedure :
• Take 1,2,3,4,5 and 6ml of 0.01% solution of
pure ephedrine in benzene into test tubes
and adjust the volume to 90ml with
benzene.
• Add 1ml of 0.3% solution of Picryl chloride
to each test tube and close tightly for 2
minutes for exactly.
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• Place them in a water bath at 75-77oC for 20
minutes.
• Remove the tubes from the water bath and
allowed to stand for 3 minutes and measure
the absorbance at 400nm against the blank
prepared by the same procedure by taking
90ml of benzene and 1ml of 0.3% solution of
Picryl chloride.
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• Estimation of the sample :
• The isolated ephedrine sample is prepared
in benzene and treated with 1ml of 0.3%
solution of picryl chloride its absorbance
is measured by keeping in the water bath
at 75-77oC for 20 min. and then allowing
to stand for 3 min at room temperature.
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• Calculation:
• The concentration of the ephedrine
in the sample is obtained by
interpolation of the standard curve
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
ANDROGRAPHOLID
E
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA, M.P
HARM,P
H.D
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ANDROGRAPHOLIDE
• It is the bitter principle of Kalmegh. It is
chemically a bicyclic diterpenoid lactone .
• Neo- andrograpolide and andrographisside
are the other important active
constituents of the plant
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• Biological source : Kalmegh consists
of dried leaves of the plant known
as Andrographis paniculata
• Family : Acanthaceae
• Uses : Hepatoprotective , bitter
tonic
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ISOLATION
• PRINCIPLE :
• Isolation is based on solubility of
andrographolide, it is soluble in
methanol and ethanol
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PROCEDURE
• 1.Extract the dried coarse powder
successively with petroleum ether
(60-80oC) ,chloroform and methanol
• 2. Collect the methanol extract and
concentrate and treat his with
charcoal for 24hrs
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• 3.Filter and collect the filtrate , keep
this filtrate for overnight for
crystallization
• 4.Then reflux the recovered charcoal
with methanol , filter and add
filtrate to the mother liquor . Keep it
for overnight for crystallization.
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• 5.Purify the combined crystals from
methanol to get andrographolide
( M.P 228-229 oC )
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IDENTIFICATION
• Chemical test :
• Sample and few drops of solution of
copper acetate gives emerald green color
• By T.L.C :
• Adsorbent – Silica gel G
• Mobile phase –Chloroform: Methanol (7:1)
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• Reference standard-
Andrographolide 1mg in 1.5ml of
methanol
• Test sample – Extract in methanol
• Detecting reagent –
• 20% sulphuric acid in methanol, heat
at 120oC for 10 minutes
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• Rf value of Andrographolide – 0.70,
brown color spot.
• ESTIMATION METHODS :
• 1.Gravimetric method
• 2.Colorimetric method
• 3.High Performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC)
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• 1.Gravimetric method :
• Known weight of the drug is taken, the
active constituents are isolated, dried to a
constant weight , the weight is determined .
• 2.Colorimetric method :
• Andrographolide gives red color with
alcoholic KOH, which is measured at 400-
800 nm
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• 3.High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC)
• Column – 5µm Spherical silica gel (3mm X 15cm)
• Mobile phase – Chloroform – Methanol (9:1)
• Flow rate – 0.7 ml/ minutes
• Detector – UV at 254nm
• Standard preparation – Known concentrations of
andrographolide (0.5- 10µg/ml )
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• Sample preparation –
• Drug extracted with methanol, evaporated
and residue dissolved in methanol ( 50µg/ml )
• PROCEDURE : 10µg/ml of standard and test
preparations are subjected to HPLC , record
the chromatogram and calculate the
percentage (%) of andrographolide from the
respective peak areas.
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
RUTI
N
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA, M.P
HARMA, P
H.D
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RUTIN
• There are around 200 types of
Quercetin, Flavanoid glycosides, among
this the rutin is the one of most
important type. It is chemically
Quercetin-3- rutinoside . On hydrolysis ,
it yields the aglycone quercetin and the
sugars glucose and rhamnose.
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SOURCES OF RUTIN
• 1. Buck wheat ( Fagophyrum esculentum- Family –
Polygonaceae )
• 2. Rhubarb – ( Rheum emodi- Family - Polygonaceae )
• 3.Tobacco – (Nicotiana tobaccum – Family –
Solanaceae )
• 4. Ruta – (Ruta graveolens – Family – Rutaceae )
• 5. Tea – Thea sinensis – Family – Theaceae )
• 6. Eucalyptus macroryncha ( Myrataceae )
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ISOLATION
• Source - • Eucalyptus macroryncha ( Myrataceae )
• Boil the powder drug with boiling water .
Filter while hot and collect the filtrate .
Cool for the precipitation of the rutin.
Recrystallize it from boiling water , dry
the product.
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IDENTIFICATION
Paper chromatography -
Solvent system –
n- butanol- acetic acid – water - 5% acetic acid
Detection – Visible, UV light
Standard reference – Rutin
Sample – Extract powdered drug with 70% alcohol
Extract fresh drug with 90% alcohol
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ESTIMATION :
• By colorimetry :
• Standard solution – Rutin in alcohol ( 100µg/ml)
• Test sample – weigh sample equivalent to
10mg rutin and add 80ml of ethanol. Boil on
water bath and cool to room
temperature .make up the volume to 100ml
with ethanol.
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• PROCEDURE :
• Take 1,2,3,4,5 and 6ml of solution of pure
rutin in alcohol into test tubes and add
alcoholic aluminium chloride, acetic acid and
1N Hcl adjust the volume to 25ml with
distilled water. Measure the absorbance of the
sample against sample ,blank and standard at
420nm. Calculate the amount by comparison.
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
PHYL
LANTH
IN
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA, M.P
HARMA.P
H.D
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PHYLLANTHIN
• Phyllanthin and Hypophyllanthin are
the two major constituents of the
drug phyllanthus. They are Lignans .
• Chemically , Phyllanthin is a diaryl
butane, where as hypophyllanthin is
an aryl tetra-hydronaphthalein
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• Lignans are a group of chemical
compounds found in plants .Lignans are
one of the major classes of phyto-
estrogens, which are estrogen like
chemicals and acts as antioxidants.
• The other classes of phyto-estrogens are
the isoflavones, they are polyphenolic in
nature.
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• Biological source : It consists of the aerial
parts of the plant Phyllanthus amarus
• Family – Euphorbiaceae
• Uses :
• Phyllanthin and Hypophyllanthin are
reported to have Hepatoprotective
activity.
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• The drug (Phyllanthus) exhibits
antiviral activity , particularly on
Hepatitis B in humans
• It exhibits Diuretic and Hypotensive
effects in humans .
• The plant possesses antibacterial
and antifungal activities.
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ISOLATION
• PROCEDURE :
• 1.Mix the powder drug with lime water
, It is allowed to stand for overnight .
• 2.The mass is then transferred to a
Soxhlet apparatus and extraction is
carried out with petroleum ether.
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• 3.Collect the petroleum ether extract and
concentrate under reduced pressure.
• 4. Mix the extract with methanol and boil ,
collect the dewaxed methanol extract ,
evaporate to dryness, collect the residue.
• 5. Dissolve the residue in petroleum ether ,
concentrate and allow to stand (Yellow oil
gets separated)
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• 6. The residue is subjected to column
chromatography on Alumina and elute with n-
hexane: ethyl acetate (99:1)
• 7. 99- 108 fractions corresponds to
hypophyllanthin and 109- 137 fractions
corresponds to phyllanthin
• Subject them to chromatography further to
yield pure phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin
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IDENTIFICATION • BY T.LC :
• Adsorbent – Silica gel GF254
• Solvent system – n- hexane: ethyl acetate (2:1)
• Detection – Vanillin in sulphuric acid reagent
• Rf value – Phyllanthin – 0.20 ( Blue spot)
• Hypophyllanthin – 0.25 ( Brown spot)
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ESTIMATION :
• By HPLC :
• Column - µ- Bondapak-18 ( 3.9mm X
30cm)
• Mobile phase – Methanol – Water (66: 34)
• Flow rate – 1.8ml/Minute
• Detection – UV at 230nm
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• Standard – Known concentration (0.05- 2µg)
• Sample –
• Macerate 1gm of the drug powder with lime water at
room temperature for 18hrs .Reflux with 30ml
methanol containing 3% KOH for 1hr .cool and
filter .collect the filtrate
• Reflux mark with methanol containing 3% KOH . Filter
and collect the filtrate . Combine the extracts and
concentrate under reduced pressure. Make up to
50ml.
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• Sampling –
• Apply 10µl of both standard and sample
solutions
• Determination –
• Note the peak areas corresponding to
phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin in both
standard and samples and calculate their
percentages accordingly.
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL -
DIGIT
OXIN
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA, M.P
HARMA,P
HD
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DIGITOXIN
It is the primary active constituent of
Digitalis purpurea
Family – Scrophulariaceae It is a
cardiac glycoside exert highly specific
and powerful action on cardiac muscle.
They make the heart to function more
efficiently.
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• Thus they are used therapeutically
to strengthens the weakened
heart. as the aglycone part of
these glycosides is the steroidal
moiety, they are also called
steroidal glycosides.
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ISOLATION
• 1.Macerate powdered drug with water at
45oC for 4- 5 hrs and collect aqueous
extract.
• 2. Macerate mark with 20% methanol for
24hrs and collect methanol extract.
• 3. Combine aqueous and methanol extracts
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• 4.Make alkaline the above extract with
sodium hydroxide solution ( Hydrolysis).
• 5.Extract with chloroform.
• 6.Collect the chloroform extract and
evaporate to dryness.
• 7.Subject the residue to column
chromatography for isolation of digitoxin
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Synopsis of column chromatography –
Adsorbent –
Silica gel G
Solvent system –
Follow gradient technique , initially with
carbon tetrachloride, followed by ethyl
acetate and methanol.
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• Carbon tetrachloride fraction : Colouring
matter (Pigments)
• Ethyl acetate fraction : Flavones and
anthraquinones
• Methanol fraction : Digitoxin ( Rf value-
0.486)
• Digitoxin is purified by recrystallization
from alcohol and diethyl ether (1:1) mixture
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IDENTIFICATION
• 1. Legal test – Dissolve the extract in
pyridine and add sodium nitroprusside
solution – Pink to red colouration on
making alkaline.
• 2. Baljet test – Extract with few drops of
sodium picrate solution – Yellow to
orange colour
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• 3.Keddes test –• Sample with few drops of 3,5-
dinitrobenzoic acid in methanol and few drops of potassium hydroxide solution – Reddish / bluish colour.
• 4. Raymond's test – • Sample with few drops of
dinitrobenzene and few drops of methanol potassium hydroxide solution – Bluish voilet colour.
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ESTIMATION • By Spectroscopic method • By Bioassay • By Spectroscopic method – ( I.P .1966)• Weigh accurately about 40mg of
digitoxin and dissolve in 100 ml of ethanol. Dilute 5ml of this solution to 100ml with ethanol. Add 3ml of alkaline picric acid solution to 5ml of this diluted solution.
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• Allow to stand for 30 minutes and
measure its absorbance against
blank at 495nm
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• By Bioassay method-
• Digitalis and its preparations can be
biologically assayed for their potency.
• Principle –
• Comparison of the effect of a known
dilution of the drug with that of the similar
dilution of standard preparation forms the
basis of bioassay.
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• Test animals –• I.P. Suggests the use of both pigeons
and guinea pigs.• Procedure – • Adult guinea pig are anaesthetized
lightly with ether. The jugular vein of immobilized guinea pig is exposed and cannulated. Definite volumes of diluted preparations are introduced at 5 minutes of interval until it dies from cardiac arrest.
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PHYTOPHARM
ACEUTI
C
AL - D
IOSGEN
IN
DR.U.SRINIVASA,D.PHARM, M.PHARMA,M
PHIL,PH.D
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DIOSGENIN
IDENTIFICATION – By thin layer
chromatography
Synopsis –
Adsorbent – Silica gel 60
Solvent system – Toluene : Ethyl acetate ( 7:3)
Reference standard – 1mg/ml Diosgenin in
chloroform
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• Preparation sample –
• Reflux the powder with 50ml of 10%
hydrochloric acid for 2hrs , collect the residue.
Wash the residue with dilute sodium carbonate
solution , collect the residue. Extract the residue
with solvent ether successively , combine the
ether extracts and concentrate. Dissolve the
residue in 2ml of chloroform .
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• Procedure – Apply 20µl of test and standard
solutions on prepared plate.
• Detecting reagent – Spray with anisaldehyde
sulphuric acid reagent
• Rf value – 0.37 ( Dark green spot)
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ESTIMATION – BY HPTLC• Standard preparation –
• Prepare known concentration of solution in chloroform The amount of substance in the spot is 2- 25µg.
• Sample preparation –
• Reflux 1gm of drug with 2.5N Hcl for 4hrs, cool and filter through Whatman filter paper , collect the residue and dry at a temperature less than 80O in an oven . Extract with petroleum ether in a soxhlet for 4 hrs and evaporate the petroleum ether extract to dryness.
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• Dissolve the residue in chloroform , make up the
volume to 10ml with chloroform
• Solvent system – Toluene – Ethyl acetate (7:3)
• Procedure - Apply known volume of standard and
sample preparations in triplicate on precoated HPTLC
plates and develop the plate to a distance of 8 cm.
• Detecting reagent – Liberman- Buchards reagent and
heat at 120o
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• Cool and scan in a densiometer in reflection
mode at 600nm.
• By comparing the areas corresponding to
diosgenin in sample and standard
preparations , the amount of diosgenin in the
sample is estimated.
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
ASIATI
COSIDE
DR.U.SRINIVASA,
D.PHARM,M.PHARM,M
.PHIL,PH.D
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ASIATICOSIDE
• Asiaticoside and medecassoside are the
important triterpenoidal saponins of
Mandukaparni ( Brahmi).
• Source : It consists of dried aerial parts
preferably leaves of Centella asiatica.
• Family: Apiaceae (umbelliferae)
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• Uses :
• Brain tonic
• Nerve tonic
• Sedative
• Spasmolytic
• Anti-anxiety
• Anti-stress
• In Ayurveda it is described as ‘Rasayan’.
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ISOLATION -
• Percolate the powdered drug with 90% alcohol.
Collect the alcoholic extract and extract
successively with petroleum ether, diethyl ether,
ethyl acetate and n- butanol.
• Collect the n- butanolic extract and concentrate
and the residue is extracted with acetone. Filter
while in hot, filtrate on cooling forms precipitate.
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• Subject the precipitate for preparative HPLC
with Methanol : water (1:3)
• Isolation of Asiaticoside and Medecassoside
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• Identification:
Give test for triterpenoidal saponins
• 1) Salkowski test.
• 2) Lieberman Burchard reaction.
• 3) Trichloro acetic acid test.
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a) Salkaowski test: -
A few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid were added to
the chloroform solution, shaken and allowed to stand.
Lower layer turned yellow.
b) Lieberman Burchardt test: -
To the chloroform solution a few drops of acetic
anhydride and 1ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was
added. A deep red color was produced.
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c) Trichloro acid and Stannic Chloride test: -
To the chloroform solution a few drops of
thionyl chloride and a pinch of stannic chloride
were added. A range of colors green, blue,
purple and finally turning to red were
obtained.
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• ESTIMATION : By HPLC method.
• Column - µ - Bondapack C 18 (8mm X10 cm)
• Mobile phase - Acetonitrile : water (1:3)
• Flow rate - 1.5 ml/minute
• Detection - UV at 205nm
• Standard - known concentration of Asiaticoside: 0.02 to
0.4 mg/ml in methanol, Madecasosside: 0..2 to 4mg/ml.
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• Sample preparation –
• 2 gm of the drug , reflux with 90% methanol
on water bath , cool and filter, collect the
filtrate, concentrate under vaccum, make up
to 50ml , dilutions can be made as per the
requirements.
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• Procedure:
Inject 10ul sample and standard. Record the
peak areas of asiaticoside and madecassoside
of test and standard. Accordingly, the
percentage of asiaticoside and
madecassoside present in the sample can be
calculated.
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PHYT
OPHARMACEUTI
CAL –
SENNOSIDES
DR.U.S
RINIV
ASA, MPH
ARM,PHD
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• Sennosides are the active constituents of
Senna. They are Sennoside A,B,C and D.
They are dimeric anthraquinone glycosides.
• Biological source: It consists of dried
leaflets of cassia angustitolia and cassia
acutifolia.
• Family: Leguminosae.
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• Uses:
• Senna is a purgative drug, it is
irritant purgative due to presence of
Anthraquinone derivatives.
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Methods of Isolation:
Various methods are available for isolation of
sennosides. But essentially, they are isolated as
calcium sennosides because of better stability.
The various methods are:
1.Extraction of Sennosides as their Calcium salts
2.Ahmed and Samia method
3. Stoll and samia method,
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4. Modification of stoll and Becker
method
5. Notherman and lick method
6. Mauzaram et.al method.
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EXTRACTION – AS CALCIUM SENNOSIDES
• 1. Extract the powder drug with benzene
for 2hrs on an electric shaker.
• 2. Filter and collect the marc. And dry the
marc.
• 3.Extract the dried marc with 70% methanol
for 4hrs and collect the methanol extract .
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• 4. Re- extract the marc with methanol.
• 5. Combine the above( 3 & 4) extracts and
reduce the volume to 1/8 of original volume .
• 6. Acidify the concentrated extract to pH 3.2
with dilute hydrochloric acid and set aside for
2hrs at 50 oC .
• 7. Filter and add anhydrous calcium chloride in
spirit to the filtrate.
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• 8. Adjust the pH to 8 with the help
of ammonia and set aside for 2hrs.
• 9.Finally collect and dry the
precipitate (Calcium
sennosides)
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IDENTIFICATION - • Borntragers test –
• Boil powdered leaves with dilute sulphuric
acid . Filter and collect the filtrate. Cool it.
• Now shake with an organic solvent like
benzene /chloroform. Separate the organic
layer and add equal quantity of ammonia
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• Ammonia layer becomes pink or red
indicating the presence of
anthraquinone glycosides.
• By Thin layer chromatography –
• Adsorbent – Silica gel 60F254
• Solvent system – n- propanol: ethyl
acetate: water (4:4;3)
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• Detection – Nitric acid in potassium
hydroxide reagent or visible / UV- 366
• Test sample –
• Extract 1gm of powdered drug with
5ml methanol by heating on a water
bath for 15minutes . Filter and use
filtrate as sample.
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• Visualization –
• UV 366nm – Lemon yellow or Light
blue.
• Rf values – Sennoside A –0.4
• Sennoside B - 0.2
• Sennoside C - 0.7
• Sennoside D - 0.5
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ESTIMATION -
• It is estimated by Calorimetrically ( IP 1996)
• 1. The drug is powdered and extracted with
water or hydro- alcoholic solution. The
aqueous phase is extracted with chloroform
or ether ( Eliminates free anthraquinones)
• 2. The aqueous solution is oxidized with
Ferric chloride and hydrolyzed with Hcl
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• 3. The resulting anthraquinones are
extracted with organic solvent chloroform or
ether. The solvent is evaporated and the
residue is redissolved in a methanolic
solution of magnesium acetate, whose
absorbance is measured at 515nm (Red
colour)
• Standard solution–1:8 dihydroxy
anthraquinone
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• By Bioassay –
• The bioassay is carried out on mice
or rats by counting the number of
wet faecus after administration of
the drug according to the weight of
animal for determining the activity.