SKINFOLD MEASUREMENT AND BODY COMPOSITION VARIABLE OF

MALE PARTICIPANT OF HOCKEY AND FOOTBALL GAME

1

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION

Statement of the ProblemObjectivesHypothesisDilimitionLimitionDefinition and Explanation of TermsSignificance of the Study

II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

III METHOD AND MATERIAL

Selection of SubjectsSelection of VariablesReliability of dataAdministration of test and Collection of DataStatistical Design

IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

V MAIN FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CUNCLUSION AND

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FURTHER RESEARCH

SummaryDiscussionConclusionSuggestion for the Further Research

BIBLOGRAPHY

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CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCATION :

In last few decades sports have gained tremendous

popularity all over the globe. The popularity of sports is

still increasing at a fast pace and this happy trend is likely

to continue in the future also. When one looks at the

history of modern Olympic games one sees that the

number of sports for which competitions are held at

Olympic games has increased steadily. The total number

of participating countries and sportsmen has also

increased steadily. In addition to Olympic sports,

indigenous sports has also popular in each country.

Several new sports like sky diving, skating, motor racing.

Having also come into existence and are quite popular

with the masses. The television and press are giving much

more coverage to sports have become effective medium

to carry sports to millions and millions have become an

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important social or cultural activity of the modern world

which is being given the right place it deserves by the

nation and societies of the world.

History reveals that as man become more civilized,

he become more scientific and in the process invented

better ways to record the measurement of various aspects

in Physical Education. In America, the history of

measurement in Physical education parallels the growth

and developments in research and elevates Physicals

Education to a more respected position in the educational

spectrum. Like medicine, Physicals Education has also

gained a place of prominence and prestige only in

proportion to the development and refinement of its

measuring techniques.

Sports by their vary nature are enjoyable,

challenging all absorbing and require a certain amount to

skill and physical condition” Sports holds a prominent

place in the modern life. Millions of people participate in

sports activities, watch and read about them and spend

billions of dollars annually on sports related activities and

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equipments. This has lead to the competitive element in

sports as now sports man participate to win and achieve

laurels for them well as for country to earlier philosophy of

participation in sports competition for sake of

Participation.

Under modern conditions especially related to

training for sports and games with a focus on superior

performance, adequate emphasis is given for the physical

structure and body build of each individual participant for

each sports or games. Therefore it is very evident that the

body build properly known as ‘physiognomy’ gets primary

emphasis at the time of selection of players for concerned

sports where superior competition is involved. Hence the

trend in the field of games, sports and physicals education

is to assess the related components scientifically as a part

of the total body build and size of each players and also to

interpret how far these components are helpful in the

performance in games and sports under competitive

condition.

5

The performance of sportsman have become a

subject matter of national importance and prestige

particularly owing to the acceptance of international and

national competition. Sportsmen are a group of people

who have been subjected to a selection process through

various competitive tests resulting in their identity, the

best physically fit. There fore they provide suitable group

for role in this regard. At present, sportsman for superior

fatty tissue, mesmorph by large muscles and bones and

ectmorph by frail skeleton and small stringy musculature.

The Anthropometric examination is a supplement to,

and a substitute for the medical examination. It may,

however, and frequently does indicate incipient physical

disorder that are not sufficiently advanced to the detected

as a specific pathological state by the physicians, the

anthropometric measurement can be administered by

trained administrator in determining appropriate medical

follow ups. Anthropometic measurements have

contributed to knowledge in physical and health education

in relation to body build and physical growth.

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Weight for the body is a matter of universal interest.

Apart from its relation to personal appearance, emaciation

or obesity, it may have an important bearing on health. It

is generally accepted that good health is a great

importance for fruitful abundant life.

Early standard for weight were, in most cases, based

upon averages of measurements taken on persons of all

types of body builds with race, sex, age and perhaps the

nationally held constant. The same standard connot be

validly used for both the slender and stocky type of body

build, a race horse and draft horse many be of same

height and the same length of the leg, but they do not

weight the same amount or have the same amount of

strengh.

Anthropometric measurements were central

concerns of the first phase of the scientific era of

measurement, which began in the 1860’s. Current interest

in anthropometric measurements focuses on three areas :

growth measures, body type and body composition. The

uses of such measures include classification, prediction of

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growth patterns and prediction of success in motor

activities as well as assessment of obesity.

Physical Education objectives tend to include

composition and posture. By measuring body dimensions,

physical educators may estimate the effectiveness of

scientific programme. Body composition involving percent

body fat, may by estimated through the use of skinfold

calipers to determine the degree of obesity of the person.

Through the use of a posture rating scale, persons may be

identified who may need remedial work.

Body comosition is concerned in part with the obesity

of the individual. In measuring this aspect of body

composition, the total body weight is divided into two

components : lean body weight and fat body weight. Lean

body weight include muscle, bone and vital organs. the

underlying assumption is that total weight equals lean

body weight plus fat body weight. The higher percentage

of fat body weight in relation to lean body weight, the

higher the degree of obesity.

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Skinfold measures are considered to be a superior

indicator of obesity than is over weight as determined

from weight tables. Skinfold thickness gives an estimation

of total body fat in as much fifty percent of the total fat

lies immediately under the skin.

Age-height-weight tables have traditionally been

used to determine whether an indi vidual is under weight

or over weight. However research has shown that

individuals of the same height, weight and age can vary

significantly in body shape and body compo sition. for

example, most football player are over Weight according

to typical age height-weight tables, but most are not

obese. Each trained football players is compared with less

developed individuals of the same age, height and weight,

differences in the body shape and composition are

obvious, because of the emphasis of physical fitness in

today’s society, various method of assessing body

composition have been popularised.

A more appropriate evaluation of a person’s weight

can be made if measurements of body composition are

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used. Various methods of evaluating body composition

can be useful in assessing obesity and physical fitness, in

classifying students into homogeneous groups and for

prediction of success in motar activities especially those

that require strength and endurance.

Taking into account into characteristic nature of the

games/sports – soccer and athletics, and differences in the

amount and the nature of demands made by each on

various body part, it may be logically deducted that

individuals participating in these games will exhibit

differential growth in their body size and body

composition. this study was under taken to test this

deduced conclusion by comparing various anthropometric

measurements and body composition of players from

individual game.

OBJECTIVES :

The following are the objectives of the present

study :

1. To determine difference in the skinfold

measurements between Hockey and Football players.

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2. To determine difference in to Body Composition

between Hockey and Football players.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM :

Comparison of skinfold measurement and body

composition variable of male participant of Hockey and

Football games of difference universities

HYPOTHESIS :

It was hypothesized that there would not be any

significant differences between the Hockey players and

Football players in selected skinfold measurements and

body composition variables.

DELIMITATIONS :

1. The study was delimited to the 50 male players of

Hockey and Football (25 subjects of each discipline).

2. The study was delimited to the male players in the

age group of 18 to 24 years.

3. The study was confined to men Hockey players and

Football players of North zone Inter University.

4. Estimation of skinfold measurements was delimited

to

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a) Biceps skinfold

b) Triceps skinfold

c) Subscapular skinfold

d) Suprailiac skinfold

e) Mid Axilary skinfold

f) Thigh skinfold

g) Calf skinfold

Taken on the right side of the body.

5. Estimation of body composition was delimted to

skinfold measurements of

a) Total body weight

b) Lean body mass

c) Fat percentage

LIMITATIONS :

1. Non availability of the sophisticated instruments for

measuring certain anthropometric measurements

and body composition variables were accepted as

limitation for the study.

2. The effect of uncontrollable factors such as subjects

diet and their participation in various activities as a

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part of their professional preparation which might

have had influenced the selected variables was

recongnised as limitations of the study.

DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS :

The various terms which are used in the present

study have been defined as under :

ANTHROPOMETRY :

The measurement of structure and proportion of the

body is called Anthropometry. Mathew’s (1978) is

Anthropometric variables are dimension of the structure of

the human body taken at specific sites to give measure of

length, girth and width.

BODY COMPOSION :

Body composition generally refers to the type and

amount of tissues which make up the body. The most

widely accepted model is two component scale, lean body

mass and fat weight. The lean body mass consists of

skeleton, organs and other tissues which are

approximately 40 to 50 percent muscles mass and is used

to represent the active energy fat (Behuke, 1963).

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Karpovich (1971). “The study of body composition can be

approached in number of ways : organ system, fluid

compartments, kinds of tissue and so forth.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY :

1. The findings of the study will be helpful to the

coaches and teachers to construct their training

programe according to their physical and body

composition characteristics.

2. Result of the study would provide a criteria for

selecting talented players for various game.

3. The findings of the study will be helpful for the self

assessment of physical characteristics and body

composition of various games and sports.

4. The study man motivate others to take up a similar

type of study in other sports or events – which will

help us in gathering more and more scientific

information in sports.

Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of a discriminant

function that predicts risk of pathogenic eating in

comparison with a standard self report measure (EAT) and

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a clinical interview. In addition, to determine the

effectiveness of this discriminant function using a variety

of collegiate athletes.

Methods: A total of 319 participants were asked to

complete a series of self report measures that assessed

dietary practices. In addition, anthropometric measures

were obtained, and a random sample of 15% participated

in a structured clinical interview.

Results: Correlational analyses indicated that the

discriminant function categorisation of risk was

significantly related to both the clinical interview and EAT

(p 0.05). The discriminant function was accurate in

predicting risk category in this diverse group of athletes,

particularly with respect to those at low risk (83.1%) and

those at high risk (72.7%).

Conclusion: This information may be helpful in the

development of a simple, accessible tool to identify

athletes at risk of engaging in pathogenic eating

behaviours.

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CHAPTER – 2

REWIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE :

“As the competent Physician must constantly be

abreast to latest discoveries in the field of medicine, the

successful lewyer must be able to locate the information

pertaining to the care in hand, obviously the careful

student and investigator should become familiar with the

location and use of sources of educational information.”

Good Barr and Scates For any investigation, a review of

related studies in the field of investigation is of great help

to the investigator. These studies reveal as to how much

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work has already been done in a certain field which

methods have been used to collect and analyze data and

what have been their findings, suggested solutions and

recommendations etc.

Survey of related literature avoids the risk of

duplication, provides, theories, indeas, explanations of

hypotheses valuable in formulating the problems and

contributes to the general scholarships of investigator.

The review of the literature may assist the researcher by

pointing out deficiencies in existing research. It may help

the researcher to avoid errors that played other

researchers studying the same or similar variables. It

helps the researchers to develop a theoretical framework.

The researcher using questionnaires, check-lists,

observation, schedules as interview often is uncertain of

what should be asked, observed or recorded and review of

literature may help him. In short, review of literature helps

the investigator have clear graps of meaning and scope of

subject of study with all its variations and implications.

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Goods, Barr and Scates analyzed the reason for

survey of related literature as :

1. To provide ideas, theories, explanation or hypothesis

valuable information of problem.

2. To suggest method of research opporpriate to the

problem.

3. To show whether the evidence already available

solve the problems adequately without further

investigation and thus to avoid the risk of duplication.

4. To located comparative date successful in the

interpretation of results.

5. To contribute the general scholarship of investigator.

So, seeing the importance of related literature, the

investigator conducted a survey of it.

The review of the literature is for the present study

has been given as under.

THE LITERATURE RELATED TO PRESENT

STUDY :

Thomson, Bushkirk and Goldman (1956) summarized

the result of number of studies that had to do with

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athletes in respect of skinfold thickness and body density.

In their sudy, they found that body fat, particularly

subcutaneous fat could be altered by strenuous training

and that body density usually increased even if no loss in

body weight occurred.

According to Behnke et al (1963) Keys and Brozek (1953)

and Navak (1968) in the proportion of organism. The

relative proportion of these components, while different in

male and females through much the life span are

dynamically dependent on development level and thus

one of interest to those concerns with human growth and

development. Further more the significant interaction

between body composition and energy turn over is among

others things, closely related to the functional capacities

of the consequence in physical fitness and performance of

children and adults.

Parizokova (1963) investigated that impact of age,

diet and exercise on men’s body composition and

observed that the proportion as well as the absolute

amount of lean body mass increased-significantly at the

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expense of fat. Trained adolescent body were found to

have a higher lean body mass also slightly increased

creatinine exertion than untrained youth. Cross sectional

comparison, however, did not bring into clear focus the

change in body composition and physique which were

attributed to in intensive muscular exercise.

Leedy and Others (1965) established that physical

performance items, where the whole body of an individual

is in motion, are dependent on the percent lean body

weight rather than the absolute (L.B.W.) lean body weight.

Novak (1985) conducted a study on high school

Football and Basketball boys and concluded that their

average total body fat amounted to be 7.2% and lean

body mass 92.8%.

Navak (1968) in his study, “Body composition and

psychological fitness of athletes.” Concluded that

collegiate athletes 20 year old on an average, showed

13.8%, 12.2%, 4%, 3.3% and 3 of body fat respectively for

Football players, Basketball players, Swimmers, trackman

and Gymnasts.

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Kal, Fukunaga and Toheda (1969) studied body

compositon of Judosists of age varying from 18 to 21. The

following results were obtained.

1. The cross-sectional area of the upper and forearm

was photographed by mean of ultrasonic radiation.

2. The maximum muscle strength of the arm flexor was

observed about 26 per cent higher in Judosists. No

significant difference was observed in strength per

unit cross-sectional area of the arm flexor between

both group 6.4 0.1 kg/cm2 in Judosist, 6.7 1.1

kg/cm2 in non-judosists could be improved by 30 per

cent through intensive strength training.

3. That total mass of b body fat, solid and body water

was about 18 per cent higher in Judosists. No

significant difference were observed between both

groups.

Nemour (1971) did a comparative study of

anthropometric measurement of causasion and Negro

bodys and girls to find out the difference in performance in

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anthropometric measurements of the body and girls of

both races. A total of 900 subjects were taken. Subjects

were of difference age groups of six to ten years.

Anthropometric measurements were, standing height,

sitting height, weight, length of arm, a length of fore arm,

length of the hand length of the upper extremity, length of

the thigh, length of the leg and length of the lower

extremity. He found that age of six to eight and ten year,

boys differed from girls in most anthropometric

measurements. However, there was no difference on

standing height, leg and lower extremity length. Negro

boys and girls had longer appendages and were taller than

Caucasians.

Willmore and Haskell (1972) conducted a study on

body composition and Endurance capacity of professional

Football players and concluded that the professional

Football backs and wide receivers were lean (% fat 8.1)

but had a much greater amount of fat free weight

Brongdon (1973) compared the physical fitness and

anthropometric measurement of pre-adolescent Maxican-

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American and Anglo-American males. 300 subjects were

tested from each group of AAHPER Youth fitness test and

thirteen anthropometric measurements were made. The

findings revealed significant difference between the

Maxican American and Anglo-American in certain physical

fitness and anthropometric measure, few significant

difference were evident. The result indicates that the

Anglo American males are larger in gross body size and

they were superior in performing selected physical fitness

items. Both groups exhibited higher body measurements

and fitness scores at each succeeding age level. That

denoted a relationship between age, physical, fitness and

physical growth. Age as a predictive factor is equally

important to Anglo American Students.

Martin (1976) conducted a study by comparing the

selected anthropometric measurements and physical

performance between Maxican-American and Anglo-

Amercian adolescent boybs. Also comparisons of body

size, body structure, and physical performance were

between the subjects at adjacent age levels within each

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individual recial groups. The Body size was as sessed by

standing height and body were measurements. Body

structure was interpreted as upper arm girth, chest girth,

abdominal girth, thigh girth and calf girth measurements.

The physical performance was determined by selected

motor ability tests. It was concluded that excluding

standing height. The Maxican and Anlgo-American subject

did not differ in body size and body structure and also

there two reces did not differ in body size and body

structure and also these two races did not differ in

physical performance.

Bhatnager (1980) conducted a study on 23 rural

sportsman (Athletics-8), Kabaddi-7, Volleyball-8) of

Madhya Pradesh (India) pertaining to their weight, height,

sitting height and subcutaneous tissue fold at biceps,

triceps, suprailiac and subscapalar region. They have been

found to be lighter. Shorter with less amount of fat as

compared to normal urban Punjabis. Morephological

differences pertaining to sportive activities indicate that

Volleyball player are lightest, shortest with maximum

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amount of fat compared to Kabaddi players and athletes,

whereas Kabaddi players are heaviest and fallest among

all the rural sportsman of Madhya Pradesh.

Kansal and Others (1980) conducted a research on

the physique and body composition of Indian University

Soccer player. The zonal champions of the all Indian Inter

University Football Tournament and the runner-up of the

North Zone were taken as the subject. The concluded that

defense line player were significantly taller and heavier

and higher value to most of the parameters examined.

The femur bicondylar diameter accompanied by better

development of thighs and calf’s was seen in comparison

to the defensive player. The forward line players had also

slightly less fat and more of lean body mass.

Baacke conducted a study to find out the three

anthopometric and eight physical performance measures

by correlation methods to the performance of eighty

seven secondary school boys in the running hop, step and

jump. All variables showed a significant relationship with

the criterion beyond the .05 level of confidence. The

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criterion could be employed as measure of motor ability :

the running broad jump (r = .889), 50 yards dash (r

= .815), and standing broad jump (r = .778), there were

significant beyond the 0.01 level of confidence. A

regression equation developed from the optimal set of

variables that was considered to be feasible for

administration in school system consisted of two items for

the Youth Fitness Test Manuals : The standing broad jump

and 50 yards dash.

Terral studied the relation of re and post puberty

anthropometic measurements and physical fitness tests

scores of American Negroes and Caucasian females. to

measure physical fitness AA PHER Youth fitness Test was

used. Anthropometic measurement and physical fitness

scores of 50 pre and post puberty Negro females of junior

high school, age were the date used for determining

relationship between anthropometic measurements and

physical fitness. Negros have significantly longer legs,

longer arms and hands, longer feet ,a wider shoulder

girdle and narrower pelvic girdle than Caucasians and

26

therefore they proved better in 50 yards dash and soft ball

throw for distance.

Nemour did a comparative study of anthropometric

measurements of Caucasian and Negro boys and girls to

find out the differences in anthropometric measurements

and at the same time difference in standing board jump

medicine ball put and zig-zag run performance of the boys

and girls of both races. A total of 900 subjects were taken.

Subjects were of different age group of 6 to 10 years.

Anthropometric measurements were standing height,

sitting height, weight, length of arm, length of fore arm,

length of the had, length of the upper extremity, length of

the lower extremity. It was found that at the age of 6 to 8

and 10 years, boys differed from girls in most

anthropometric measurements.

However there were no difference in standing height,

leg and lower extremity length. Negro boys and girls had

longer appendages and well taller than Caucasians. Still

Negro boys and girls were not superior in the event of

power and agility.

27

Yoest investigated the relationship between cardio

vascular fitness and selected anthropometric

measurements in eight grade boys and college male

subjects. He concluded that age, height, Lean body mass

and body surface area did significantly limit performance

in Ohio State University Step Test. However, body

composition representing bodyfat, limited the

performance of college men only. In adolescent scores in

the step test improve larger percentage of lean body

tissue.

Cureton and other determined the relationship

between total body density, total body potassium, skinfold

thickness measurements and AAHPER Youth Fitness Test

performance on 49 pre pubescent boys, 8 to 11 years of

age. Zero-order correlation between body composition

measures and performance scores were low as moderate

however, using multiple regression analysis it was found

that body composition measures significantly (p .05)

increased the variance accounted for above that explained

by age, height and weight in predicting all performance

28

items except sit ups. It was concluded that not only

variation in body size, but also variation in body

composition should be considered when interpreting

results of the AAHPER Test for individual children and for

comparison of groups of children who differ in body

comparison of groups of children who differ in body

composition.

Hall studied the anthropometric estimation of body

density of women athletes in selected athletic activites.

Twenty two anthropometric measurements were

evaluated to determine there relationship to body density

of women varsity athletes on four inter collegeiate teams.

Hydro static weighing was used to determine body

density, with residual volume determined by nitrogen

wash out technique. A step-wise regression analysis of the

data indicated that women athletes must be considered as

distinct population by sports.

Slanghter and Others determined the association of

somatotype and body composition to physical

performance measures in seven through eleven years old

29

girls. Somatotype were measured by Heath and Carter’s

anthropometric method. Body composition was estimated

as fat and lean body mass from 40 km measurement

using a whole body counter. Physical performance

measures consisted of three tests of running a mile run,

600 yards run and 50 yards dash, and two test of

jumping : standing broad jump and vertical jump.

Moderate relationship was found between somatotype

components, measures of body size and measures of body

composition with the physical performance variables of

running and jumping. The first and third components were

more closely related to physical performance than second

component. Percent fat and first component when each is

combined with age , height and weight accounted for a

similar amount of the variation in running and jumping

performance. Lean Body Mass when combined with age,

height and eight accounted for significantly more of the

variation in running and jumping performance than the

second component when combined with, age, height and

weight.

30

Woodward and Associates observed in their study

relating to maximal Oxygen consumption, body

composition and anthropometry on selected Olympic male

athletes. They observed that the latest rowers and water

polo players had significantly larger skeletal width and

length measurement. The skinfold measurements showed

larger fat folds on the trunk and extremities in water polo

Player compared to the other three groups leanness of the

upper extremity was significantly larger in rowers and

water polo player, while that of the lower extremities was

significantly larger in rowers only. Total body fat in

absolute values was found significantly higher in water

polo players, percentage wise there was no significant

differences between the groups even throughout water

polo players the highest percentage of body fat.

Cascell measured and compared the moter abilities

and physical characteristics of collegiate soccer players of

the four position of play : forwards, half backs, full back

and goal keepers, by taking 111 college soccer players in

the Ohio State. Each subject was somatotyped and his

31

percent body fat was estimated. The motor ability items

included an agility test, a leg power test, a soccer ability

test and an upper body strength test. Somatocharts were

made for different positions with all the subjects being

plotted. The results showed that differences do exist in

relation to motor abilities and physical characteristics

between some of the positions. A difference existed in

endomorphic component of somatotype with half backs

significantly (p .05) lower than all other positions. No

differences were found in the other components of

mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Differences (p .05) were

also found in height, with goal keepers and full backs were

also found be heavier than forwards. There were no

differences found in leg power, with full backs more

powerfull than forwards. Soccer ability with half backs

were more skillfull than goal keepers. No differences were

evident in the abilities of agility, upper body strength and

endurance.

Benny (1988) conducted a study of anthropometric

measurements and body composition variables on judo

32

players. Nine anthropometric measurements and three

body composition variables were taken for this study. Judo

players ability was taken as the criterion measure and all

the variables were taken as the independent variables.

Pearson’s product correlation was used to find our the

relationship between anthropometric measurements and

criterion measure. A multiple correlation was compound to

find the combined effect of the anthropometric

measurements to judge performance. He concluded that –

1. Performance in Judo is positively and significantly

related to chest girth.

2. Judo performance is negatively and significantly

related to Ponderal Index which means that for

better Judo performance Judeka should possess

greater body weight in proportion to body height.

3. Lean body mass, upper arm/force arm ratio and

sitting height are the most important predicting

variables under the limitation of the study.

33

CHAPTER – 3

METHOD AND MATERIAL :

In this chapter the investigator explained the

selection of subjects. Selection of variables, reliability of

measurement, administration of test, collection of data

and statistical design job analysis of data.

34

Selection of Subjects :

For this study the investigator selected 25 subjects of

each discipline i.e. Football from Srinagar Garwal and

Hockey from A.M. University, during North Zone Inter

University Championship, for particular games.

Selection of Variables :

The following variables were selected for the

investigation.

Independent variables :

1. Age

2. Body Weight

Skinfold Measurement :

1. Biceps skinfold

2. Triceps skinfold

3. Subscapular skinfold

4. Suprailiac skinfold

5. Mid Axilary skinfold

6. Thing shinfold

7. Calf shinfold

35

Body Composition :

1. Body density

2. Fat percent

3. Fat weight

4. Lean body mass

Reliability of Data :

The reliability of data was insured by establishing the

instrument reliability.

Instruments Reliability :

Skinfold caliper, weighing machine and sketch pen

used in the sudy were obtained form research laboratory

of physical education, L.N.I.P.E. Gwalior and Department

of Physical Education Gurukul Kangri University Haridwar.

All the instruments were calibrated and reliable.

Tester Competency & Reliability :

To ensure that the investigator was well versed the

techniques of conducting the test, the investigator had a

number of practice session in the testing procedure under

the guidance of expert Mr. Vivek Pandey, Testes

competency was evaluated to gather with the reliability of

36

tests. Reliability of tests wasestablished by test-re-test

method using person’s product movement of correlation.

TABLE – 3.1

Reliability of Skinfold Measurements :

Sr. No. Variables Cofficient of Correlation (r)

1 Biceps .91*

2 Triceps .96*

3 Subscapular .88*

4 Suprailiac .89*

5 Mid Axilary .91*

6 Thigh .92*

7 Calf .89*

N = 20

Df = 18

* Significant at .01% level.

37

From the table it is evident that this reliability was

significantly at 1% level. This establishes the competency

of the scholar to administer the test.

Subject Reliability :

The above test retest coefficients of correlation

method also established that subject reliability was

significant at .01 level of confidence, as the same subjects

were used under similar conditions by the same tester and

zero motivational techniques were used nor any training

was given.

Administration of tests and collection of data

All the test were administered at the sports Stadium

of, A.M. University, Aligarh and Srinager, Garwal. The

anthropometric measurements, where side was involoved

were taken on the right side of the individual. Standard

technique decribed by Weiner and Lourie (1969) was

followed for measurements. The necessary anatomical

landmarks and sites for skinfold were marked with a

sketch pen. The body weight was recoded to the nearest

of half a kilogramme and all other measurement were

38

recorded to the nearest of a millimeter. Skinfold

Measurements

The most widely used a practical method for

determining obesity is based on the thickness of skinfolds.

Skinfold have several advantages :

1. The necessary equipment’s is inexpensive and need

little space.

2. The measures can be obtained quickly and easily.

3. The measures when performed correctly have a high

correlation (r-o.80+) with body density from

underwater weighting. Skinfold variables provide

more accurate estimates of body fat then the various

high-weight ratios do.

Body fat was estimated through skinfold

measurements, which were taken with the help of a Indian

version of Lange’s skinfold caliper, manufactured by Una

and company, New Delhi.

The measurement of skinfold are based on the

knowledge that approximately 50 percent of the depot fat

is a stored in special cells within thesubstaneous areas.

39

Skinfold is a fold consisting of two layers of skin and

subcutaneous structures, which can be picked up with the

help of thumb and index finger.

The thickness of the field will depend upon the

amount of stored fat and can be measured with a special

instrument called a skinfold caliper. A caliper is designed

to excert a pressured on caliper face of 10 gm, per square

millimeter.

The calipers are actually designed for measured the

thickness between indisured on caliper face of 10 gm, per

square millimeter. The calipers are actually designed for

measured the thickness between individuals in the

thickness of the skin, so he resulting value in an indirect

estimate of individual differences in the thickness of

subcutaneous fat. When measuring skinfold thickness, it is

essential to determine precisely location of the site. Like-

wise, it is important to hold the skinfold firmaly and

maintain a constant distance between the caliper and

thumb and finger holding the site. The number of sites at

which skinfold can be measured are practically limitless,

40

but only a few have been found to be of value in

estimating body density, percent fat, fat weight and lean

body mass. In the present study following sites were

selected for skinfold measurement :

1. Biceps

2. Triceps

3. Subscapular

4. Suprailiac

5. Mid axilary

6. Thigh

7. Calf

All measurements were taken with subjects in the

standing position and taken on the right side of the body.

1. Biceps : Front of the upper arm :

The subject was directed to stand in anatomical

posture with arm dangling freely and relaxed. A point on

the biceps mid way was located and skinfold

measurement was taken with the caliper.

41

2. Triceps : Back of the upper arm :

The subject was asked to stand in anatomical posture

with both arm freelydangling beside he was asked to flex

the arm at elbow at 90 degress. A point on the triceps mid

way between the acromiale process of the shoulder and

aberenon process of the ulna was located an skinfold

measurement was taken:

3. Subscapular :

It was measured by picking up the skinfold just

beneath the inferior angle of scapula of scapula in a

direction which is obliquely downwards and outwards. The

measurement was determined was determined with the

help of skinfold caliper.

4. Suprailiac :

The subject was made to stand in anatomical

posture. A site on the abdo men (one side of trunk) above

the iliac crest at the level of ambebious was selected. The

thick ness of the skinfold was measured as per desription

given above.

5. Mid axillary :

42

It was vertical fold on the mid axillary line

approximately at the level of fifth rib. The fold was held

firmly between the thumb and finger and the

measurement was taken with the help of skinfold caliper.

The measurement was recorded in millimeters. Two

consecutive measurements were taken and mean was the

taken the final score.

6. Thigh :

The front of the thigh skinfold was recorded while

standing keeping equal weight on both feet and then one

foot was placed on a 20 cm. Step with knee slightly flexed

and thigh raised. The skinfold was raised midway on the

anterior of the thigh between the trochnterion and the

proximal border of the patella. The fold was lifted parallel

to the long axis of the thigh. The skinfold caliper was

applied about 1 cm. From the fingers holding the skinfold

and at a depth that was about to the thickness of the fold.

The reading was recorded in millimeter.

7. Calf :

43

The skinfold was measured at the level of the

maximum circumference at the calf on the medial border

at the leg. The reading was recorded in millimeter.

Estimation of Body Composition :

The four skinfold measurements were used to

estimate the density, percent fat, lean body mass and fat

weight as the main constituents of body composition. The

description of these variables and the methods of their

estimation are given below :

1. Body Density :

This indicates the weight in grammes per cubic

centimeter of body tissues. Body density is estimated from

the sum of four skinfold measurements biceps, (triceps,

subscapular and suprailiac). In the present study, body

density was estimated according to Durnin and Rehman’s

equation (1967). The formula is given below :

Body Density Y = 1.1533 – 0.0643 X

X – Sum of four skinfold in millimeters converted into

logarithms

2. Percent Fat :

44

This is the amount of fat in 100 kilogrammes of body

weight. Percent fat is calculated from body density. The

Siri’s (1951) formula used by Durnin and Rehman was in

estimating the percent fat in the present study. The

formula is given as under.

Percent Fat = (4.95/Body density)-4.50) 100

3. Fat weight :

This is the weight of the overall body fat, which is

deposited in the subcutaneous area (under the skin) of the

body. Fifty per cent of the deport fat is stored in

specialized cells under the skin, the thickness of which

depends upon the amount of fat in the body. This is

calculated from the weight of the body and percent fat.

The formula of Durnin and Rehman was used to estimate

fat weight. The formula is given below :

Fat weight = Body weight percent fat/100

4. Lean Body Mass :

This is the amount of muscle mass in the body. Lean

body mass is considered to be divisible into biological

constant proportions. These would include water

45

(70.72%), minerals (7%) and organic substances including

an undermined but probably constant percentage (2-3%)

of essential liquids in bone marrow, the central nervous

systems and other organs. In other words, the lean body

weight includes the weight of the essential fat (Behnke

and Wilmore, 1974). This is calculated y subtracting the

fat weight from the total body weight. Again Durnin and

Rehman’s formula is used in the present study to estimate

the amount of lean body mass.

Lean Body Mass = Body Weight – Fat Weight.

Statistical Design :

The data has be presented analysed and interpreted

by a suitable statistical technique for a comprehensive

understanding of the inherent facts. In present study,

investigator wanted to compare the skinfold measure

ments and body composition variable of Hockey and

Football players of North Zone Inter University, at Aligarh

and Srinagar.

The collected data were tabulated and statistically

analysed. Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Error

46

Deviation and ‘t’ ratio were used as a statistical technique

and tools.

To compare skinfold measurements and body

composition of Hockey and Football player ‘t’ test was

used as devised by Garrett (1981). (Independent T-Ratio

as two groups are comparing different sets of Players).

i.e. ‘t’ = M1 M 2

SED

Where M1 = Mean score of Ist group.

M2 = Mean score of IInd group.

SED = Standard Error of the difference

Where SED = (SD1)2 + (SD2)2

N1 N2

Where SD1 = Standard deviation of Ist group

SD2 = Standard deviation of IInd group

N1 & N2 = Total number of subjects of both

group.

47

The statistical parameters and test was computed by

using the electronic computers available at computer

center of Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar. The

computer programmers fist developed, tested and verified

and then applied to the present data. The ‘t’ test values

where however computed with the help of the electronic

computer.

48

CHAPTER – 4

ANALYIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA :

In the present chapter the investigator made an

attempt of make the group comparison of Hockey and

Football players on selected skinfold measurements and

Body Composition. In order to present these findings

clearly and systematically the chapter has been divided

into different parts.

Analysis of the Study :

Finding of the present study was analysed and

interpreted in different table as follow :

TABLE 4.1

Comparison of Skin fold Measurement between the Hockey and

Football players

VariablesHockey Football

SED t-RatioMean-I SD-I Mean-II SD-II

49

Biceps

Skinfold 3.44 1.44 4.12 1.26 .32 2.11*

Triceps

Skinfold 4.01 1.12 5.15 2.13 .44 4.46**

Subscapular

Skinfold 4.28 1.28 4.88 1.76 .51 0.76

Suprailiac

Skinfold 5.17 2.08 6.00 2.58 .43 1.51

Mid axilary

Skinfold 6.10 2.71 7.04 3.19 .72 1.44

Thigh

Skinfold 5.11 2.03 6.11 2.18 .61 3.46**

Calf

Skinfold 6.19 2.21 6.23 2.23 .68 3.12**

** Significate at .1 % = 2.68

* Significant at .5% = 2.01

N = 50 df = 48

Table 4.1 indicated mean, SD’s, SED and ‘t’ ratio’s of

Hockey and Football player. It shows comparison of

skinfold measurement variables between Hockey and

Football players.

50

Table 4.1 (Row-1) Shows the mean scores of the Biceps

skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio (2.11) is

found significant at .5% level of confidence. This mean

that difference in mean scores of Biceps skinfold

measurements of found between the players of Hockey

and Football. The mean score of Football players is (4.12)

where score of Hockey players is (3.44). It means that

Football players have more Biceps skinfold measurements

than that of Hockey players.

Table 4.1 (Raw-2) Indicates the mean scores of the

triceps skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio

(4.46) is found significant at .1% level. This mean that

difference in mean scores of triceps skinfold

measurements is found between the Hockey ball and

Football players. The means score of Football players is

(6.15) whereas mean score of Hockey players is (4.01). It

means that Foot ball players have more triceps skinfold

measurements than that of Hockey players.

Table 4.1 (Raw-3) Illustrates the difference in mean

score of subscpular skinfold measurements of Hockey and

51

Foot ball players. The ‘t’ value (0.76) is not found

significant. It manes that there is no significant difference

is subscapular skinfold measurements between the

players of Hockey and Foot ball.

Table 4.1 (Raw-4) Indicates the difference in means

cores of suprailiac skinfold measurements of Hockey and

Foot ball players. The ‘t’ value (1.51) skinfold

measurements between Hockey and Foot ball players.

Table 4.1 (Raw-5) Shows the difference mean scores of

midaxilary skinfold measurements of Hockey and Foot ball

players. The ‘t’ value (1:44) which is not significant. It

means that there is no significant difference in midaxilary

skinfold measurements between the players of Hockey

and Foot ball.

Table 4.1 (Raw-6) Illustrates the mean scores of the

thigh skinfold measurements. The calculated ‘t’ ratio

(3.46) have found significant at .1% level of confidence.

This means that difference in mean scores of thigh

skinfold measurement is found between Hockey and

Football players. The mean scores of Foot ball players is

52

(6.11). Where as mean score of Hockey players is (5.11). It

means that Football players have more thigh skinfold than

that of Hockey players.

Table 4.1 (Raw-7) Indicates the mean scores of the calf

skin fold measurement. The calculated ‘t’ ratio (3.12) is

found significant at .1% level. This means that difference

in mean scores of calf skin fold measurement is found

between Hockey and Foot ball players. The mean score of

Foot ball players is (6.23) where as mean score of Hockey

players is (6.19). It means that Foot ball players have

more calf skin fold measurements that of Hockey players.

53

TABLE - 4.2

Comparison of Body Composition between the

Hockey and Football Players

Variables Hockey Football

Mean-I SD-I Mean-II SD-II SED T-Ratio

Body

Density 1.070 .008 1.0641 0.009 1.012 0.006

Fat

Percentag

e 12.461 3.146 13.08 2.448 0.81 3.18**

Fat

Weight 7.044 2.422 7.841 1.791 0.716 2.83**

Lean Body

Mass 47.061 5.440 47.641 4.48 1.081 1.46

**Significant at .01% = 2.68

* Significant at .05% = 2.01

N = 50 df = 48

Table 4.2 (Raw) Shows mean, SD’s, SED and ‘t’ ratio of

Hockey and Foot ball players of the comparison of body

composition.

54

Table 4.2 (Raw-1) Illustrates the difference in means of

Body density which is one of the variables of body

composition. the ‘t’ value (0.006) is not found significant.

It means that there is no significant difference in body

density between the Hockey and Foot ball players.

Table 4.2 (Raw-2) Shows the difference in means scores

of fat percentage possessed by the players of Hockey and

Football. The ‘t’ value (3.18) is found significant at .1%

level of confidence. The means score of Football players is

(13.08) where as mean score of Hockey players is

(12.461). It means that football players have more fat

percentage than that of Hockey players.

Table 4.3 (Raw-3) Indicates the difference in means of

fat weight possessed by players of Hockey and Football.

The ‘t’ value (2.83) is found significant difference in fat

weight between the players of Hockey and Football. The

mean score of Basketball players is (7.841) where as the

mean score of Hockey players is (7.044). It means that

Football players have more fat weight than that of Hockey

players.

55

Table 4.2 (Raw-4) Shows the difference in means of lean

body mass of the players of the Hockey and Foot ball. The

‘t’ ratio value (1.46) is not found significant. It means that

there is not significant difference in lean body mass

between the Hockey and Football players.

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

A preliminary study was done in order to confirm apparent

gender-typing and determine which sports were to be

used in the main study. Twenty-three Introductory

Psychology students were asked to rank eight sports on

their masculinity/femininity: figure skating, swimming,

baseball/softball, tennis, gymnastics, volleyball, karate,

and ballet. These eight sports were selected to fit the

categories of highly masculine (karate and

baseball/softball), neutral (tennis and swimming), or highly

feminine (figure skating and ballet) (see Matteo, 1986).

Each student ranked these sports on a 5-point scale

ranging from masculine (1), through neutral (3), to

feminine (5). The means of each sport were computed,

revealing that karate was perceived as highest in

masculinity, tennis was perceived as most neutral, and

ballet was perceived as highest in femininity. Thus, these

three sports were chosen for our study.

Participants

66

Seventy-two volunteers from two high schools in

Greenville, South Carolina participated in the study. All

were recruited from Physical Education and Biology

classes at these schools. Three volunteers were dropped

from the study due to substantial missing data. Of the

remaining 69 participants, 33 were male and 36 were

female. Based on self reports, 52 were white, 9 were

black, and 1 was hispanic (7 participants did not report

their race). The participants ranged from 14 to 18 years of

age, with a mean age of 16.0 for males and 15.5 yrs. for

females.

Materials

Each subject was given a one page survey form containing

three paragraphs. Each paragraph described a target

individual who participated in karate (highly masculine),

ballet (highly feminine) or tennis (neutral). The individuals

were described as having a uniform level of involvement

in the sport (e.g., they all practiced "four to six hours per

week") and were all described as "confident" about being

67

"better than most" of his or her counterparts. In addition

to identifying a sport, each paragraph specified the age,

race, and sex of the individual. The target's age--16, 17, or

18--was randomly assigned (mean age = 16.7). The

target's race and sex were assigned in such a way that a

black female, black male, white female, and white male

were described as participating in each of the three sports

once and only once in our descriptive paragraphs. Thus, a

total of 12 different descriptive paragraphs were used in a

2 (race) x 2 (sex) x by 3 (sport) design. Each of these

paragraphs, although short, ascribed a variety of traits

that could be seen by raters as the independent variables:

name (initials only), age, race, gender, hours of practice

per week, number of competitions/performances per year,

sport, and self-confidence. For this reason, raters were

highly unlikely to surmise that sex and sport were the

primary independent variables in our study.

Below each paragraph were two 5-point rating scales, one

for femininity and one for masculinity. The scales were

labeled at the extremes (1 being "Not at all

68

feminine/masculine" and 5 being "Very feminine/

masculine"). Separate masculinity and femininity scales

were used rather than a single bipolar scale, since people

can have both feminine and masculine characteristics (see

Bem, 1974). This is also in keeping with evidence that

female athletes often do have both feminine and

masculine characteristics (e.g., Myers & Lips, 1978).

Demographic information concerning the subjects' age,

sex, and race was collected at the end of the survey.

A number of variables may modify the impact of sex-

stereotyping on sports participation. There is evidence

that grade school (Selby & Lewko, 1976) and teenage

(Sherif, 1971) boys have less favorable attitudes than girls

about female participation in sports. Likewise, women are

more accepting than men of female participation in "male"

sports (Nixon, Maresca, & Silverman, 1979). Sports

participation may be more acceptable for females before

puberty since femininity probably becomes more

important about this time (Selby & Lewko, 1976). In

addition, sex-typed subjects appear more concerned

69

about the gender appropriateness of sports, and are more

likely to draw sex-typed conclusions about fictional

participants (of unspecified gender) in masculine and

feminine sports (Matteo, 1988). Finally, there is evidence

that sex-stereotyping of sports will have a much greater

impact on regular participation requiring a substantial

commitment (as in our study) than on occasional or one-

time participation (Matteo, 1986).

Research by Eagly and Steffen (1984) suggests that

women participating in very agentic roles such as karate

might be seen as even more agentic and masculine than

men in the same role. Our results, however, indicate that

the masculizing effect of competing in karate is not

sufficient to overpower the perceived masculinity that

accompanies being male or female. Whatever the strength

of this effect on the perception of others, the self-

perceptions of athletes may be less affected by sports

participation (Snyder, Kivlin, & Spreitzer, 1975).

Nonetheless, our results add support to the belief that

participation in "masculine" versus "feminine" sports may

70

have significant effects on the social interactions of

adolescents.

CHAPTER – 5

MAIN FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF THE

RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR THE

FURTHER STUDY

In light of the interpretation of the results of the

present investigation the main findings are mentioned

below :

(A) Comparison of skinfold measurement the

Hockey and Football Players.

(i) Football players have more Biceps skinfold

measurements than that of the Hockey Players.

71

(ii) Football players have more triceps skinfold

measurements than that of the Hockey players.

(iii) There is no significant difference in subscapular

skinfold measurements between Hockey and Football

players.

(iv) There is no significant difference in suprailic skinfold

measurements between Hockey and Football players.

(v)There is no significant difference in midaxilary skinfold

measurements between Hockey and Football players.

(vi) Football players have more thigh skinfold

measurements than that of the Hockey players.

(vii) Football players have more calf skinfold

measurements than that of the Hockey players.

(B) Comparison of Body Composition Between the

Hockey and Football players.

(i) There is no significant difference in body density

between Hockey and Football plaers.

(ii) Football players have more fat percentage than that of

the Hockey players.

72

(iii) Football players have more fat weight than that of the

Hockey players.

(iv) There is no significant difference in lean body mass

between the Hockey and Football players.

Summary :

The purpose of the study was to compare some

selected skinfold measurements and body composition of

different intervarsity players of Hockey and Football.

The subjects for the study were 50 male players of

north zone Hockey and Football. Intervarsity

Championships Their age from 18 to 24 year. The selected

skinfold measurements were Biceps, Triceps, Subscapular,

Suprailiac, Midaxillary, Thigh and calf to the nearest one

tenth of a millimeter using the conversion Table as

suggested by Durnin and Rahaman.

In order to ascertain significance of difference

between the two groups. The ‘t’ ratio was employed and

the level of significance was set at 0.1% level of

confidence. The ‘t’ ratio on selected variables obtained

Biceps skinfold measurements 2.11. Triceps skinfold

73

measurement 4.46, Subscapular skinfold 0.76 suprailiac

skinfold 1.15 midaxilary 1.44, Thigh skinfold 3.46 calf

skinfold 3.12, Body Density 0.006, fat percentage 3.18, fat

weight 2.83 and Lean body mass 1.46. The findings

indicated that Football players have more skinfold

measurements than that of Hockey players and Football

players are found higher percentage of fat and fat weight

than that of Hockey players.

DISCUSSION

Skinfold Measurements

The above results show Football players have more

skinfold measurement in comparison of Hockey players.

i.e. the Hockey players have least amount of

subcutaneous tissues than the players of Football. It may

be the reason that the Hockey players do more vigorous

physical workout than Football players.

Body composition

In case of body composition results, Football players

have more percentage of fat and fat weight than Hockey

74

players due to consuption of more diet and less sports

activity.

An Hockey players require less fat percentage and fat

weight due to more workout in bent body position. A

Hockey players has optimum fat percentage (12.46) and

fat weight (7.044) and they can perform better at the age

level of 18 to 24 years.

On other hand Football is a combat game and

requires balanced fat percentage and fat weight. A

Football players has fat percentage (13.08) and fat weight

(7.841) can perform better at the age level of 18 to 24

years.

CONCLUSION

From the above discussion it is concluded that the

Football players have more fat percentage and fat weight

as compared to the Hockey players. Hockey players

possess least amount of fat percentage and fat weight

which is essential for better performance.

75

Suggestions for Further Research

Keeping in view the findings of the present study the

following suggestions for the further research are being

put forward.

1. The present study can be reqlicated on female of

different courses and different levels.

2. The present study can be done on a wider field with

larger sample and under changed cultural and

environment set ups to get better results.

3. Skinfold measurements & other factors can be under

taken in further research for complete knowledge of

the anthropometric characteristics the players.

Research has found remarkably consistent and stable

gender stereotypes within our society. In brief, to be

feminine is to be "communal" or expressive, while to be

masculine is to be "agentic," instrumental, and

competitive (Cann, 1991; Spencer & Helmreich, 1978;

Williams & Best, 1982). Our society also has many

stereotypes about participants in sports, including gender

stereotypes (see Kaplan, 1979). Despite legal and social

76

changes, "sexist ideology still pervades sport" (Eitzen &

Sage, 1993, p. 347). Following what Sage and Loudermilk

(1979, p. 89) call "one of the oldest and most persistent

folk myths,... athletic achievement has been equated with

a loss of femininity." Sports participation is seen as a

masculine activity; sports are a traditionally male domain,

male sporting events receive far more media coverage,

and participation in competitive sports violates females'

traditional sex-roles and movement patterns (Eitzen &

Sage, 1993; Snyder & Spreitzer, 1978).

The belief that participation in competitive sports tends to

masculinize females has been found in research using a

variety of subject populations (e.g., Harres, 1968; Sherif,

1971). This is to be expected given that the stereotypic

beliefs about females sharply contrast with the traits

associated with successful athletes (Cann, 1991; Harris,

1981). While there is evidence that female athletes are

indeed seen as somewhat masculine, even when people

respond to photographs in which the athletes are not

identified (Atkins, Morse, & Zweigenhaft, 1978), this may

77

stem more from the stronger tendency of already

"masculine" (e.g., large and strong) women to pursue

sports than from masculinization of female athletes.

When examining these issues, it is important to keep in

mind that some sports are seen as more masculine than

others, and many sports attract disproportionate numbers

of male (e.g., football) or female (e.g., ballet) participants.

Cratty (1983) suggests that sports such as golf and

swimming as well as sports such as gymnastics that

"emphasize beauty of line" are believed to be acceptable

for female participation, whereas sports associated with

high levels of contact, such as ice hockey and football, and

others such as baseball and basketball are thought of as

appropriate for males but not for "ladies" (p. 172). Other

reports indicate that the most appropriate sports for

women are individual rather than team sports (DeBacy,

Spaeth, & Busch, 1970) and sports emphasizing lean

bodies (Hallinan, Snyder, Drowatzky, & Ashby, 1990).

78

Through socialization individuals learn which sports are

considered masculine, neutral, or feminine. Gender

stereotypes for certain sports appear to be learned by

grade school. Corbin and Nix (1970) found that grade

school girls and boys both considered a competitive task

that requires power, speed, and strength to be a "male"

activity. Even female athletes see sports such as soccer

and rugby as very unfeminine compared to tennis or

volleyball (Salisbury & Passer, 1982).

These gender-based stereotypes probably influence sports

participation. For those who do participate, these

stereotypes may lead to role conflict and distinct attitudes

about athletes that depend on whether they participate in

gender "appropriate" or "inappropriate" sports (Snyder &

Kivlin, 1977). These stereotypes may lead to perceptions

of males and females as more or less masculine or

feminine depending on the sport(s) in which they

participate. While there is some evidence for this,

surprisingly little research has been reported on these

issues (Matteo, 1988). Sage and Loudermilk (1979) found

79

that although women competing in more gender-

inappropriate sports may not themselves perceive more

role conflict, there is evidence that they will experience

more role conflict (but see Anthrop & Allison, 1983).

Masculinity and femininity are often viewed as bipolar

opposites, yet many theorists (e.g., Bem, 1974; Spence &

Helmreich, 1978) now view masculinity and femininity as

separate traits rather than as opposite ends of a

continuum. From this more contemporary perspective,

female athletes may retain their femininity even if they

are "masculinized" by participation in competitive sports.

Unfortunately, most research has taken a uni-dimensional

view of masculinity and femininity, perhaps obscuring

independent variation of these traits. Indeed, there is

evidence that female athletes are more likely to possess

both masculine and feminine characteristics (Harris,

1981).

This study was designed to examine how males and

females are seen in terms of femininity and masculinity by

80

their peers (age cohorts) due to their participation in

female- or male-oriented sports. Consistent with the

conceptualization of masculinity and femininity as (at least

partially) independent traits, raters were asked to provide

ratings of both. For this study, teenagers were presented

with descriptions of male and female participants in one of

three sports and asked to judge the femininity and

masculinity of these participants.

Procedure

All participants were given one survey form containing

three different paragraphs. They were then asked to rate

the individual on two 5-point scales concerning the

femininity and masculinity of the athlete in the paragraph.

To ensure anonymity, the subjects were not asked to

provide their name or other identification. After

completing their responses to all three descriptive

paragraphs, demographic data were collected and the

subjects were debriefed.

RESULTS

81

The results were collapsed across the race of the raters

because there were insufficient data to determine if race

differences existed. The data from all of the 5-point scales

was coded such that high scores signified high femininity

or high masculinity.

As expected, women were perceived as more feminine (t

= 3.50, p < .0001) and males were perceived as more

masculine (t = 3.44, p < .002). This pattern held for

participants in all three sports considered individually (see

Table 1).

To determine if males and females would be perceived as

more or less feminine or masculine depending upon the

sport in which they participated, the mean scores for each

sport (ballet, tennis, and karate) for each sex were

calculated. Looking at the mean ratings for each sport

(see Table 1) reveals a consistent decrease in femininity

and increase in masculinity as one goes from participating

in female- to male-oriented sports: i.e., from ballet to

tennis to karate. T-tests showed that there were

82

significant effects for both traits and both sexes. Both

females and males were seen as more feminine when

described as participants in ballet as opposed to

participants in karate. For those ratings by subjects given

paragraphs describing participants of the same sex in

karate and ballet, the mean difference in rated femininity

was 1.78 (t = 5.76, p < .0001) for females and 1.93 (t =

4.18, p < .001) for males. Likewise, both females and

males were seen as less masculine when described as

participants in ballet as opposed to karate, with mean

differences in masculinity of 1.72 (t = 4.46, p < .001) for

females and 1.44 (t = 3.82, p < .002) for males.

DISCUSSION

Common stereotypes and previous research suggest that

sports participation may have a significant effect on the

attitudes of peers and others, and vice versa (Coakley,

1993). Our results showed the specific sport in which

males and females participate may alter how they are

perceived by others. Although we found that women were

83

perceived as more feminine than men and vice versa

regardless of the sport in which they participated, our data

demonstrate that females may be perceived as more

masculine and males as more feminine if they frequently

participate in a "sex-inappropriate" athletic activity. This

finding indicates that our society maintains gender

stereotypes pertaining to participation in some sports, at

least for dedicated athletes. This stereotyping of athletes

may have an important impact on the willingness of

athletes to participate in certain sports. Likewise, these

stereotypes may tend to filter out certain types of

potential participants--e.g., macho males, individuals with

a high need for social approval or those high in self-

monitoring (Snyder, 1987)--in athletic activities which are

"inappropriate" for one's gender. Matteo (1986) found that

sex-typed males and females were less likely to report

being committed to sex-inappropriate sports.

84

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