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![Page 1: Photosynthesis. This symbol in the corner of a slide indicates a picture, diagram or table taken from your textbook.](https://reader030.fdocuments.net/reader030/viewer/2022033103/56649e3f5503460f94b30356/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Photosynthesis
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This symbol in the corner of a slide indicates a picture, diagram or table taken from your textbook
![Page 3: Photosynthesis. This symbol in the corner of a slide indicates a picture, diagram or table taken from your textbook.](https://reader030.fdocuments.net/reader030/viewer/2022033103/56649e3f5503460f94b30356/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Introduction Almost all the energy transferred to all the ATP
molecules in living organisms originally comes from the energy in sunlight
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Introduction Green plants, some protoctista and some bacteria are
able to transfer sunlight energy into energy trapped in the molecular structure of carbohydrates.
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Introduction This is the process called photosynthesis. Once carbohydrates such as glucose have been made,
plants can convert some of them to other organic substances such as oils, nucleic acids and proteins
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Introduction Animals cannot make organic molecules from inorganic
one and so rely entirely on plants for their supply of organic molecules.
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Photosynthesis – a summary
Photosynthesis can be summarised by the equation:
nCO2 + nH2O (CH2O)n + nO2
This shows that photoautotrophs synthesise carbohydrate using carbon dioxide, water and light energy.
light
carbohydrate
Q. Is photosynthesis a reduction or an oxidation?A. CO2 is reduced; water is oxidised.
This simple summary hides the fact that photosynthesisis a series of reactions controlled by specific enzymes.
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Stages of photosynthesis
The light dependent stage (LDS).
In these reactions, ATP and a reduced coenzyme (NADPH) are made.
Oxygen is a waste product of this
stage.
The light independent stage (LIS).
In these reactions, the products of the light dependent reactions are used to reduce carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.
The reactions of photosynthesis can be divided into two distinct stages.
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An overview
water (H2O)light energyADPPioxidised NADP
light-dependent stage
light-independent stage
oxygen (O2) carbon dioxide (CO2)
carbohydratesADPinorganic phosphateoxidised NADP
ATPreduced NADP
Note: the light-independent stage is also known as the Calvin cycle.
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The chloroplast
outer membraneinner membranechloroplast envelope
Stroma. The site of the Calvin cycle
Small circular DNA coding for some
chloroplast proteins
Lamella. A pair of membranes containing chlorophyll
Thylakoid. A membranous sac
Granum. A stack of
thylakoid membranes
Starch grain. Produced from sugars made in photosynthesis
Lipid droplet. Made from the sugars made in photosynthesis
Thylakoid space. Space between lamellae.
Ribosomes. Smaller than cytoplasmic ribosomes.
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Structure to function: chloroplast
Internal compartmentalisation. The two stages of photosynthesis are effectively separated, thus allowing rate-determining factors such as pH and enzyme concentrations to be optimized
DNA and ribosomes mean chloroplast can code for and produce its own proteins such as RuBPC
Double membrane provides control of substances entering/leaving the organelle
Thylakoid membranes provide a large surface area for light absorption
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Trapping light energy Light energy is trapped by photosynthetic pigments. Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of
light. The photosynthetic pigments of higher plants form
two groups: the chlorophylls and the carotenoids.
Chlorophylls absorb mainly in the red and blue-violet regions of the light spectrum. They reflect green light which is why plants look green.
The carotenoids absorb mainly in the blue-violet region of the spectrum.
Pigment Colour
Chlorophylls: chlorophyll a Yellow-green
chlorophyll b Blue-green
Carotenoids: ß carotene Orange
xanthophyll Yellow
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carotenoid
chlorophyll a
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Thylakoid membranesthe possible arrangement of chlorophyll and associated molecules within the thylakoid membranes based on studies of isolated grana
electron carriers
chlorophyll combined with protein
stalked particles containing the enzymes for catalysing the synthesis of ATP
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Trapping light energy The photosynthetic pigments fall into two categories:
primary pigments and accessory pigments The primary pigments are two forms of chlorophyll a with
slightly different absorption peaks. The accessory pigments include other forms of
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and the carotenoids. The pigments are arranged in light-harvesting clusters called photosystems.
In a photosystem, several hundred accessory pigment molecules surround a primary pigment molecule and the energy of the light absorbed by the different pigments is passed to the primary pigment.
The primary pigments are said to act as reaction centres.
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Absorption spectra: An absorption spectrum is a graph of
the absorbance of different wavelengths of light by a pigment.
Action spectra: An action spectrum is a graph of the
rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light.
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Absorption spectra:
400 450 500 550 600 650 700Wavelength of light (nm)
ab
sorb
an
ce
chlorophyll a chlorophyll b
carotenoids
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Action spectrum:
400 450 500 550 600 650 700Wavelength of light (nm)
Rate
of
ph
oto
syn
thesi
s
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Photosystems Photosystem I
This is arranged around a molecule of chlorophyll a with a peak absorption at 700nm
The reaction centre of photosystem I is therefore known as P700
Photosystem II This is arranged
around a molecule of chlorophyll a with a peak absorption at 680nm
The reaction centre of photosystem II is therefore known as P680
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400 450 500 550 600 650 700Wavelength of light (nm)
ab
sorb
an
ce
chlorophyll a
Found in PS1Found in PS2
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A photosystem:
thylakoid membrane
photosystem
light
accessory pigments
primary pigment reaction centreP700 or P680
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An overview
water (H2O)light energyADPPioxidised NADP
light-dependent stage
light-independent stage
oxygen (O2) carbon dioxide (CO2)
carbohydratesADPinorganic phosphateoxidised NADP
ATPreduced NADP
Note: the light-independent stage is also known as the Calvin cycle.
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The light-dependent reaction Occurs in the thylakoids
Results in photophosphorylation
This can be either cyclic photophosphorylation (CPP) or non-cyclic photophosphorylation (NCP)
CPP produces – ATP– Hydrogen ions
NCP produces– Oxygen– Reduced NADP– ATP
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Once the light energy is passed to the reaction centre, electrons are energised to a level where they are emitted from the chlorophyll.
These are used in the light dependent stage to:– Produce reduced NADP [NADPH]– Transfer light energy to ATP by the process
of photophosphorylation
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Depending on the route taken by the released electrons this can be either – non-cyclic photophosphorylation or – cyclic photophosphorylation.
Non cyclic photophosphorylation produces oxygen, NADPH and ATP
While cyclic photophosphorylation produces just ATP and hydrogen ions
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At the same time water molecules are split to produce electrons
These replace the electrons ejected from the chlorophyll and hydrogen ions.
Oxygen is given off as a waste product
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Cyclic photophosphorylation
PSI
2e-
electron carrierelectron carrier
electron carrier
electron carrier
ADP + Pi
ATP
light
Electrons are cycled (PSI carriers PSI carriers etc.)
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PSI
2e-
electron carrierelectron carrier
electron carrier
electron carrier
ADP + Pi
ATP
light
PSII
light
2e-
H2O O2 + 2e- + 2H+21
NADP NADPH
2e-
waste product
to LIS
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NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
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The production of ATP in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
When light energy is passed to the reaction centre in PSII, electrons are energised to a level where they are emitted from the chlorophyll
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The production of ATP in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
As the result of the flow of electrons from PSI to PSII and the breakdown of water there is a build up of hydrogen ions.
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The production of ATP in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
These accumulate within the thylakoid space and create a concentration gradient.
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The production of ATP in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
The consequent passage of H+ across the thylakoid membranes provides the energy for the production of ATP in the presence of ATPase. (chemiosmosis).
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When light is absorbed by the chlorophyll in photosystem I (PSI), an electron is ejected and taken up by an electron acceptor (ferredoxin).
The production of NADPH in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
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This in turn passes the electron to a molecule of NADP, which is thus reduced to NADPH.
The production of NADPH in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
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This process would eventually stop if the released electrons were not replaced in PSI. This happens as a result of light energy displacing electrons from PSII.
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
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Electrons from PSII are passed along a series of electron carriers (cytochromes) andeventually replace the lost electrons in PSI
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
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If there is sufficient NADPH then the plant will
automatically switch to CYCLIC
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
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In this, the electrons follow a different route; PSI is both the donator and acceptor of the electrons; i.e. they follow a cyclical route.
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As light enters PSI electrons are lost from the chlorophyll and pass along a chain of electron carrier molecules before re-entering PSI.
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The accumulation of H+ still occurs in the thylakoid space, with the consequent synthesis of ATP, but no NADPH is formed
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The Hill Reaction The photolysis of water was first shown by Robert Hill in 1939 Working on isolated chloroplast he showed that they had
‘reducing power’ In the presence of an oxidising agent, oxygen was liberated
from water He used a substance that changed colour on reduction This can be demonstrated with a variety of substances but is
usually shown using the blue dye DCPIP (dichlorophenolindophenol)
This is substituting for the plant’s NADP. DCPIP becomes colourless when reduced
oxidised DCPIP reduced DCPIP
H2O O2 21
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The Hill ReactionC
olo
rim
ete
r re
ad
ing
s
colourless
blue
time
Chloroplasts in the light
Chloroplasts in the dark for 5 minutes and then in the light
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An overview
water (H2O)light energyADPPioxidised NADP
light-dependent stage
light-independent stage
oxygen (O2) carbon dioxide (CO2)
carbohydratesADPinorganic phosphateoxidised NADP
ATPreduced NADP
Note: the light-independent stage is also known as the Calvin cycle.
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The light-independent reaction
Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
The product is sugar which can be converted into fats, amino acids etc
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The light-independent reaction Also known as the Calvin cycle. This is the stage that fixes
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme RuBPC. [ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase]
The 6-carbon compound formed is unstable and immediately splits to give two molecules of a 3-carbon compound called glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).
GP is reduced to 3-carbon triose phosphate (TP) in the presence of ATP and reduced NADP [from the light-dependent stage]
The triose phosphate is then either used to regenerate RuBP or to make carbohydrates and other metabolites for the plant
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unstable intermediate(6C)
2 x glycerate 3-phosphate
(3C)
2 x triosephosphate (3C)
ATP
ADP + Pi
reduced NADP
NADP
CO2
(1C)
RuBP(5C)
ATP
ADP
The Calvin cycle
Glucose (6C), amino acids and lipids
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The Calvin cycle
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Fate of triose phosphate
Some is used to regenerate RuBP
Some molecules condense to form hexose phosphates, sucrose, starch and cellulose
Some are converted to acetyl coenzyme A to make amino acids and lipids
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The light-independent reaction
This cycle of events was worked out by Calvin, Benson and Bassham between 1946 and 1953
The cycle is usually called the Calvin cycle
The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (ribisco or RuBPC for short), which catalyses the combination of carbon dioxide and RuBPC is the most common enzyme in the world!
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Photosynthesis – a summary
6O2
24 electrons
6CO2
+
6CO2
12H2O
chlorophyll
12H2O
Light energy
ADP + Pi
ATP
24H+ +
6H2O + C6H12O6
24H+
1
2
3
4
5
6
Light-dependent stage (thylakoid membranes) Light-independent stage (stroma)
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Structure to function:the leaf Thin, therefore rapid light
penetration Waxy cuticle reduces water
loss Upper epidermis
transparent to light Palisade mesophyll
arranged at 90o to surface thus minimising amount of light absorbed by cell walls
Chloroplasts in mesophyll can be moved to maximise absorption Spongy mesophyll has many air sps spaces for rapid gas diffusion
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Light and shadeA variety of environmental factors can affect the size and thickness of leaves. In many species, leaves grown under high light intensity (sun leaves) are smaller and thicker than those grown under low light intensity (shade leaves). Increased thickness of sun leaves is due to greater development of palisade parenchyma.
Acer : mapleShade leaf Sun leaf
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