Phonemes Distinctive Features Syllables Sapa6
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Transcript of Phonemes Distinctive Features Syllables Sapa6
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http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology.html
What is Phonology?
The study of phonology is the study of the patterned interaction of speech sounds. A fairly
obvious observation about human language is that different languages have different sets of
possible sounds that can be used to create words. For example, the sound is found in
languages like Navajo, Coushatta, and Secwepemc, but not in English, Spanish, or French.
When one language borrows sounds from another language, the borrowing language must often
adapt the words to fit the set of possible sounds in its inventory. For example, observe thefollowing data, which illustrate borrowings into Hawaiian from English:
English Hawaiian
rice
wine
brush
ticket
Albert
The data in the table above show that Hawaiian alters the English words in order to fit them into
the possible inventory of sounds. For example, Hawaiian does not have the sounds , , or .
Whenever the English word contains one of these sounds, it is replaced with the sound (eg.
> ). Also, Hawaiian does not have the sound . Whenever the English word
contains this sound, it is replaced with the sound (eg. > ). Similarly, the sounds
and are replaced with and , respectively.
The following chart shows the sound inventory of Hawaiian:
However, besides the replacement of one sound for another, there are other differences between
the English and Hawaiian words. In the Hawaiian forms, vowels are inserted that do not exist in
the English forms. For example, you may note that in all the examples, a final vowel is added in
the Hawaiian forms (eg. > ). Also, a vowel is inserted whenever there are two
consonants side-by-side in the English forms ( > ). Finally, in the nameAlbert, thereis a consonant added at the beginning of the word ( > ).
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This suggests that Hawaiian not only has restrictions on what sounds can occur in the language,
but also conditions on how those sounds can be used in the formation of words. Based on the
data above, we can propose three conditions on the interaction of sounds in Hawaiian:
Words in Hawaiian must not end in a consonant
Words in Hawaiian must not have two consonants in a row
Words in Hawaiian must begin with a consonant
A thorough study of Hawaiian words would show that these restrictions are not just restrictions
on borrowed words, but also on all words in Hawaiian.
One of the goals of phonology is to describe the rules or conditions on sounds and sound
structures that are possible in particular languages.
Tohono O'odham
Another major goal of phonology is to account for the similarities among human languages. That
is, even though the different languages have different sets of sounds and different ways ofarranging and patterning those sounds, there are a number of similarities across human
languages. The following are a few of these similarities, often called universals:
All consonant inventories have voiceless stops
All languages have syllables
All inventories can be split into vowels and consonants
There are also some near-universals, such as the following:
Only two languages in the University of California Segment Inventory Database
(UPSID), Rotokas and Mura, have no sonorant consonants
All languages in UPSID have some kind of , except Hawaiian
91.5% of the languages in UPSID have
One of the goals of phonology is to define the space of possible sounds and sound structures that
all human languages draw from.
Lessons
What are Phonemes?
What are Distinctive Features? What are Syllables?
What are Rules?
What is Optimality Theory?
The exercises on the following pages are designed to illustrate characteristics of phonological
analysis.
Exercises: Vowel Length in Standard English
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Phonology1.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Distinctive%20Features/Phonology2a.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Syllables/Phonology3.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/PhonologyExercises/Vowel%20Length/VowelLength.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Phonology1.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Distinctive%20Features/Phonology2a.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonology/Syllables/Phonology3.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/PhonologyExercises/Vowel%20Length/VowelLength.html -
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African-American English
American Indian English
Chicano English
New England English
Southern States English
Other Exercises
Introduction
This exercise is designed to give you practice in solving phonology problems. In this exercise,you will be shown some data from English and then you are to answer the questions that follow.
If you are unsure how to solve this problem, you may want to consult the lessons on Phonemes
and Distinctive Features.
Data
The following are data from English:
bead seem seep
creek piece reave
read breeze meek
meal reef creep
beep reek bean
Questions
1. Look at the instances of long vowels and the instances of short vowels. List the
environments for long vowels and for short vowels (for example, the word bead has a
long vowel, with b on one side and d on the other, giving it an environment like ).
2. Observe the environments that you listed in (1). Do the sounds to the left of the longvowels have anything in common that makes them unique as opposed to the sounds to the
left of the short vowels? How about the sounds to the right of the long and short vowels?
3. Based on your answer to (2), are the long and short vowels separate phonemes, or are
they allophones of the same phoneme?
4. If you conclude that they are separate phonemes, explain why and give an example of a
minimal pair that gives evidence for your answer. If you conclude that they are
allophones of the same phoneme, what environment determines which allophone
surfaces?
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/PhonologyExercises/AAexercises.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/IndianPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/ChicanoEnglishPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/NEPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/SouthernPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/ExerciseIndex.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/PhonologyExercises/AAexercises.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/IndianPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/ChicanoEnglishPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/NEPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics%20Exercises/SouthernPhonetics.htmlhttp://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/ExerciseIndex.html -
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Introduction
In this lesson, the goal is to learn about the motivations for distribution, allophonic variation, and
the concept of the phoneme.
Major Terms complementary distribution
phoneme
allophone
overlapping distribution
contrastiveness
The English Stops
Observe the following English words:
Is the boldfaced letter pronounced the same in all of the words above?
English Stops Continued
When you looked at the actual transcriptions, you should have seen that the transcriptions of thesounds represented by the letterp in the words were not the same. Take a look at the words with
their transcriptions:
As you can see in the chart above, the letterp is transcribed in three ways: , , .
You can demonstrate how these sounds are different on your own. Take your hand and place it infront of your mouth. Now saypat.
Did you feel the air against your hand? Now sayspat.
When you say pat, you should feel more air against your hand than when you say spat. That
extra puff of air is known as aspiration, and is represented in the transcription by the superscript
"h".
Now, often, when one says tap, tip or top, there is no release of the "p" sound, and no air is
present when the sound is articulated. This is known as an unreleased sound, represented by the "
" next to the sound.
Spectrograms
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English Stops Continued
So now we know that the sound that English speakers hear as "p" can be pronounced in three
different ways: regular, aspirated, and unreleased.
Let's look at those transcriptions again:
Look at the distribution of the different pronunciations across these data. The distribution is not
random. That is, we can predict where each pronunciation can occur. These facts can be shown
as the following:
The "p" sound is pronounced as when it occurs at the beginning of the word.
The "p" sound is pronounced as when it occurs at the end of the word.
The "p" sound is pronounced as everywhere else.
How would you transcribe the "p" sound in each of the following words? Ex.: park, grip, speak.
The facts thus far about the data that we've been looking at are the following:
1. The "p" sound in the data is pronounced in three different ways.
2. This difference in pronunciation is not random, but predictable, depending upon where
the "p" sound occurs in the word:
o Beginning of the word
o End of the word
o Anywhere except at the beginning or the end
It is important to note that the places in which the different pronunciations occur are unique, and
do not overlap. That is, you never find at the end of the word, or at the beginning of the
word, or in either place.
Since these different pronunciations never appear at the same place in words, they are said to be
in complementary distribution.
The Phoneme
This brings us to the concept of thephoneme. A phoneme is a mental representation of a sound
that has predictable variants. Each of the variants of that sound is called an allophone.
For example, in the case of the English stops, the sounds , , and are all predictable
variants of one sound. They are in complementary distribution, as discussed above. Therefore,they must all be allophones of aphoneme.
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How do we represent this phoneme? For reasons which will become clearer in later lessons, the
phoneme is represented by the sound which has the broadest distribution, or occurs in the most
places. Since and can only appear at the beginning or end, and appears everywhere else,
has the widest distribution.
Therefore, the phoneme is . The // indicates that the representation is a phoneme, not a single
sound.
Truth, Justice and the Linguistic Way
Still confused? Ok, imagine Clark Kent and Superman. We know that Clark Kent and Superman
are the same person, right? Each persona is a variant of a single person, even though they look
and act differently.
Even if we didn't know they were the same person, we could figure it out (because we're smarter
than Lois and Jimmy) by looking at the different contexts in which we see Clark Kent and
Superman. Here are the contexts we find Clark Kent:
On the trail of a story
In the supermarket
Buying a new suit for a date with Lois
etc.
Clark Kent shows up during contexts of being a reporter, being the owner of a refrigerator, being
a suitor for Lois, etc. Now what about Superman:
The world is going to explode in 5 seconds
Jimmy is being held captive by Braniac etc.
So Superman appears only in the context of being a hero.
In other words, Clark Kent and Superman never appear at the same in the same place in the same
context. This means that they are in complementary distribution.
Since they are in complementary distribution, if they were sounds, they would be allophones of
the same phoneme.
Which is the phoneme, Clark Kent or Superman? Well, since Superman only appears in thecontext of being a hero, Clark Kent has the wider distribution. Therefore, the phoneme is /Clark
Kent/.
Overlapping Distribution
Earlier, we discussed the term complementary distribution. Again, sounds are in complementary
distribution if they never appear in the same contexts.
Sometimes, sounds do appear in at least some of the same contexts. When this happens, the
sounds are in overlapping distribution.
For example, observe the following data:
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Note in particular the sounds , , and . In each form, one of those sounds appears at the
beginning of the word. Therefore, each one of the sounds can appear in the context of the
beginning of the word.
Based on that fact, the sounds , , and cannot be in complementary distribution, because
they can appear in the same context.
This leads to the conclusion that , , and are in overlapping distribution, since in the
context of the beginning of the word, each of those sounds can appear.
Furthermore, if these sounds are in overlapping distribution, they must be variants ofseparate
phonemes. That's an important relationship. Say the following to yourself as a mantra:
complementary distribution = allophones of the same phoneme
overlapping distribution = allophones of separate phonemes
Repeat this to yourself as needed.
Holy Aspiration, Batman!
Let's go back to the superhero analogy for a moment. We'll now add Bruce Wayne and Batman
into our data set. As with Superman, Batman appears in the context of being a hero, while Bruce
Wayne appears everywhere else (i. e. they are in complementary distribution).
Hence [Bruce Wayne] and [Batman] are allophones.
Now, consider just Superman and Batman. Are they allophones of a single phoneme?
Contrastiveness
So, to answer the last question, Batman and Superman must belong to different phonemes,
because they can both appear in the context of being a hero, and are therefore in overlapping
distribution.
Another useful term to know is contrastiveness. When sounds are in overlapping distribution,
they are contrastive. This is to indicate that the sounds can create lexical contrasts.
What does that mean?
Basically, it means that you can change the meaning of a word simply by changing one of the
sounds to another. For example, if you have the word pat , you can change the meaning of
the word to something else by changing the to a , giving you the word bat . Therefore,
the sounds and are contrastive.
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Take the word pat again. If you change the to , is the result a different word? Not in
English, it isn't. It sounds a little strange, but it's still recognizable. Therefore, these sounds are
not contrastive.
Summary of Phonology Lesson 1: What are Phonemes?
In this lesson, we looked at concepts of sound distribution. If sounds are in complementary
distribution, they cannot appear in the same contexts. If sounds are in overlapping distribution.
Furthermore, if sounds are in complementary distribution, they are allophones of the same
phoneme. If sounds are in overlapping distribution, they are allophones of different phonemes.
If sounds are allophones of different phonemes, they are contrastive.
Introduction
In this lesson, the goal is to learn about the motivations for distinctive features in phonological
theory.
Major Terms
natural class
distinctive features
o [ consonantal]
o [ sonorant]
o [ approximant]
o [ voice]
o [ spread glottis]
o [ constricted glottis]
o [ continuant]o [ nasal]
o [ lateral]
o [LABIAL]
[ round]
o [CORONAL]
[ distributed]
[ anterior]
[ strident]
o [DORSAL]
[ high]
[ low] [ back]
[ tense]
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o [RADICAL]
In the first section, you will be introduced to the idea of a natural class.
Natural Classes
Recall the previous lesson, which discussed the distribution of aspiration in English. In that
lesson, it was shown that certain consonants are aspirated at the beginnings of words. However,
observe the following data, remembering that a * refers to an ungrammatical form.
The data above illustrate that the consonants that are aspirated at the beginnings of words forms
a subset of the English consonants.
The sounds , , aspirate at the beginnings of words, but consonants such as , , do not
aspirate at the beginning of words.
Since there are rules of language that apply to only certain sets of words, it is useful to refer to
such sets as being composed of a certain feature or features that are not shared by other
consonants in the larger set. These subsets are known as natural classes.
Further, the features that define natural classes are known as distinctive features. The next
sections will further elaborate the idea of distinctive features and introduce many of the specific
features that have been proposed for human language.
Distinctive Features
So, we have the concept of distinctive features. These distinctive features allow us to define
natural classes of sounds. But how do we define these features?
Well, first of all, the features we define should be adequate to define some natural class of
sounds. But remember that a natural class is composed of sounds that share a certain feature or
group of features. Clearly, different sounds should not share all of the same features. So, if the
proposed set of distinctive features in human language is adequate, every sound should have a
unique set of features.
In the phonetics lessons, it was discussed that different sounds are classified by the features
associated with their specific articulations. For example, consonants are classfied in terms of
their place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. Each sound was represented by a
unique combination of these features.
So, a good place to approach distinctive features might be those used in the phonetic
classifications discussed in the phonetics lessons. Are these features adequate? If they are, they
should be able to define all natural classes of sounds, and every sound should be definable in
terms of those features.
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To test all the natural classes of human language is a long drawn out process, and such features
are still being tested. However, we don't have to go too far afield to discover that places of
articulation, manners of articulation, and voicing are not adequate. Observe the following data
from Scottish English:
Data from Aitken
(1981; 1984)
Question: Based on the above data, before which consonants do the vowels
appear, and before which consonants do the vowels appear?
The previous section presented you with some data from Scots English. In that data, it was
shown that the vowels and the vowels appeared before the
following sets of consonants
Question: In looking at these two sets of environments (environments are those sounds that
follow or come before a particular sound), are the vowels and the vowels
in complementary or overlapping distribution? If you're not sure, review the
section on phonemes (hint: remember Superman and Clark Kent?).
Based on the data shown in the previous section, it is clear that the vowels and
the vowels are in complementary distribution.
Let's run through the argumentation.
The vowels can appear before the following set of consonants:
.
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The vowels can appear before the following set of consonants:
.
The two sets of consonants are not the same.
Therefore, the vowels do not appear in the same contexts as the vowels
.
Therefore, the two sets of vowels are in complementary distribution.
Now that we know that the two sets of vowels are in complementary distribution, we can
theorize that they are allophones of the same phoneme.
Question: if they are allophones of the same phoneme, which set represents the phoneme?
(Which one is Clark Kent?)
Remember from the section on phonemes that the phoneme is represented by the allophone that
has the broadest environment. In this case, the vowels from the set wouldrepresent the phonemes , , , , , , .
The other set of vowels represent allophones of those phonemes. When we discussed English
stops, we defined the contexts in which the aspirated stops appear and when the unreleased stops
appear. We want to do the same here for the vowels .
This is where natural classes come in handy. In order to define where the vowels
appear, we simply have to define the features of the natural class of
consonants that can follow those vowels. These features should define this class uniquely; that is,
the features that define that natural class should not also define the class of consonants that
follow the short vowels, as that would defeat the purpose.
So, to begin with let's look at the set of consonants in question in terms of the phonetic
classifications that we determined before.
Here's the set of consonants: .
Let's start with Place of Articulation. Do all these consonants share the same Place of
Articulation?
So, the question is: do all of the consonants in the set share the same place ofarticulation?
The answer is no. The consonant is a labiodental consonant, the consonant is an interdental
consonant, the consonants and are alveolar consonants, and the consonant is an
alveopalatal consonant.
Therefore, we cannot define the natural class in terms of Place of Articulation. Now, let's see if
we can define this set in terms of Manner of Articulation. Do the consonants in the set
share the same manner of articulation?
So, the question is: do all of the consonants in the set share the same manner ofarticulation?
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The answer is almost, but no. The consonants , , , and are all fricatives. However, the
consonant is a trill, not a fricative.
Therefore, we cannot define the natural class in terms of Manner of Articulation. Now, let's see if
we can define this set in terms of voicing. Do the consonants in the set share the
same voicing?
Try to determine this for yourself and then go for the answer.
So, the question is: do all of the consonants in the set share the same voicing?
The answer is yes. All of the consonants are voiced.
Therefore, we can define the natural class at least partially in terms of Voicing. However, the
classification of voicing doesn't uniquely define this set of consonants as opposed to the
consonants that define the other environment. That is, if we were to define the consonants
as voiced consonants, we would have to say that the vowels
appear only before voiced consonants. However, the vowels appear before theconsonants and four of those consonants are voiced.
Therefore we need some other feature besides place of articulation, manner of articulation and
voicing to define the set as a natural class of consonants. This is where distinctive
feature theory comes in.
One can think of distinctive features as a set of binary "switches" that all sounds have as part of
their mental representation. Every sound has a unique configuration of these "switches". For
each sound, some of the switches may be turned on, while others are turned off. Which switches
are turned on and which are turned off determine what kind of sound is produced.
To represent these switches, every switch is given a name, such as [voice], [distributed], etc.
(See the last section of this lesson for a more complete list of the features)
To represent whether the switch is turned on or off, either a + or - is placed before the name. For
example, if the switch [voice] is on, it is represented as [+voice]. If it is off, it is represented as [-
voice].
We noted that the consonants in the set are all voiced. Therefore, each of the sounds
has the feature [+voice], which indicates that the switch [voice] is turned on.
The only real exceptional features are the place features [LABIAL], [CORONAL], [DORSAL],
and [RADICAL]. For a number of linguists, these features do not have an on-off switch like
other features. Instead, some sounds have the feature, and some don't. The reasons for this, and
the implications of this will not be discussed here. You need only remember that these particular
features act a little differently.
In the case of Scots English, what we need is to define a feature that is shared by all of the
consonants in the set that is separate from voicing. One such feature that has been
proposed is the feature [continuant]. Sounds that are [+continuant], that is, that they are
characterized has having this feature, are produced with continual airflow through the oral
cavity. Sounds such as fricatives and some approximants have this feature, but stops and nasalsdo not. Thus this feature divides speech sounds into two sets that are not part of the classification
system learned in the phonetics section.
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Now if we look at the set again, we see that they are all fricatives or approximants.
So now we have two ways of defining this set as a natural class. These consonants are all both
[+voice] and [+continuant]. Can any of the consonants in the set be defined by
both of these features?
Well, the consonants are [+continuant], being fricatives, but they are not [+voice]. The
consonants are [+voice], but not [+continuant].
What about ? The consonant is often discussed as being ambiguous. In some languages, is
[+continuant], and in some languages it is [-continuant]. It would appear that in Scots English,
the consonant is [-continuant].
Therefore, the features [+continuant] and [+voice] do, indeed, define the set as a
unique natural class.
In the lesson What are Rules?, you will learn about how to use phonemes and distinctive features
to create phonological rules. In the next lesson, What are Syllables?, you will learn about the
concept of the syllable, and the evidence to support this phonological entity.
The next part of the lesson gives a list of distinctive features that have been proposed for human
language.
The following is a list of proposed distinctive features, compiled in Gussenhoven and Jacobs
(1998):
[ consonantal]
Sounds which are [+ consonantal] are those which have some kind of constriction along
the center of the vocal tract. This constriction must be at least as narrow as that required
for a fricative.
[ sonorant]
Sounds which are [+sonorant] are those which are produced with a constriction in the
vocal tract that allows the air pressure both behind and in front of the constriction to be
relatively equal. This feature generally divides the sound system into sonorants
([+sonorant] sounds), which are nasals, approximants, glides, and vowels, and obstruents
([-sonorant] sounds), which are oral stops, fricatives, and affricates.
[ approximant]
Sounds which are [+approximant] are those sounds whose constriction allows for a
frictionless escape of air.
[ voice]
Sounds which are [+voice] are those which are produced with vibration of the vocal
folds.
[ spread glottis]
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Sounds which are [+spread glottis] are those produced with a glottal configuration that
produces audible glottal friction. For example, the aspirated stops in English are [+spread
glottis]
[ constricted glottis]
Sounds which are [+constricted glottis] are those which are produced with the vocal foldsdrawn together and tense.
[continuant]
Sounds which are [+continuant] are those which are produced without a central blockage
in the vocal tract. For example, fricatives have a central constriction, but there is no
complete blockage of the air, and they are therefore, [+continuant].
[nasal]
Sounds which are [+nasal] are produced with nasal airflow.
[lateral]
Sounds which are [+lateral] are produced with airflow passing through one or both sides
of the tongue, which is in contact with the central part of the oral cavity.
Place Features
These features, [LABIAL], [CORONAL], [DORSAL], and [RADICAL] are features that
are often characterized as not being + or -, but rather, either a consonant has the feature or
not.
Introduction
In this lesson, the goal is to learn what syllables are, and the evidence that motivates them.
Major Terms
syllable
nucleus
onset
coda
syllabification Maximum Onset Principle
syllabic resonants
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The Beat Goes On
To begin with, you should be made aware of the fact that you, as a speaker of language, have
some intuitions about what a syllable is. In fact, you may already have learned about syllables in
your previous education.
In rather basic terms, a syllable is a timing unit for language. Words in language take certain
amounts of time to utter. This time can be measured in terms of syllables.
Each of the preceding words had differing lengths, each measureable in terms of syllables. The
first word is composed of one syllable, the second word is composed of two syllables, and the
final word is composed of five syllables.
In the next sections, there will be a discussion of the structure of the syllable, and the motivations
for considering the syllable as a phonological entity.
How do we know that syllables exist?
One reason is that we can count them. On the previous page, we talked about syllables as timing
units. Language users can perceive those units and even count them. If I give you the word
antidisestablishmentarianism, you know that there is more than one syllable involved. You even
know that it's probably more than two or three. So, you have some perception of some wordsbeing perceptually longer than others in terms of syllables.
Here's another reason.
In English, we use an alphabetic system to write sounds. More or less. An strict definition of an
alphabetic system is one in which one symbol refers to one sound. For example, the word mat
has the following phonological representation: . In this word, the symbol m can be said to
refer to , the symbol a can be said to refer to , and the symbol tcan be said to refer to .
Of course, when we get to words like rough,show, and the like, this breaks down a bit. But you
get the idea.
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Other languages use a system in which one symbol refers not to a single sound, but a group of
sounds. Observe the following from Cherokee, and Iroquoian language spoken in Oklahoma and
North Carolina:
ganeli 'married person'
gadu 'bread'
newada 'hominy'
suli 'buzzard'
The wordgadu has one of the same symbols asganeli, the symbol . Bothganeli andgadu have
the 'ga' combination. The words newada and suli also have one of the same symbols as ganeli,
the symbols and . Further, they each have one of the same sound combinations asganeli, 'ne'
and 'li'.
Therefore, one can see that there is a match between a Cherokee symbol and a combination ofconsonants and vowels.
If we separate consonant and vowel sequences into syllables, then we can say that Cherokee uses
a writing system in which one symbol represents a syllable.
In the next section, another piece of evidence regarding the existence of the syllable is discussed.
Other Evidence
Observe the following data from English:
Atlantic
Atlanta
hitlist
potlatch
In each of these examples, there is a sequence in the middle of a word.
However, in English, there is no way to begin a word with the sequence . So, words like *tlap,
*tling, etc. are not possible words of English.
Using the idea of syllables, can you explain why?
The next section will discuss a possible solution.
Why Can't English Words Begin with "tl"?
Well, we could just say that this is a special rule of English, but that would only restate the
problem. We still would want to find out what the underlying reason is.
But, if we have the concept of syllables, then there is a possible solution.
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As we noted earlier, is perfectly acceptable in words like atlantic and hitlist. It is also possible
to state that, in each such case, the and are conceivable part of two separate syllables:
Atlantic
hitlist
In a hypothetical word such as [tlap], there is only one syllable, and both and are part of thatone syllable.
So, perhaps the rule is that a combination can't be in the same syllable.
Such an explanation is only possible if syllables exist as phonological entities.
In the next part, there is discussion about the parts of syllables.
What's in a Syllable?
What sorts of things are in a syllable? Let's take a simple example to start with: cat.
Let's take that one step further and use IPA to represent the word cat: .
It's not very hard to determine that has one syllable. In some varieties of English, the word
cat is pronounced with two syllables, but that would have a different IPA representation. The
pronunciation , however, has one syllable.
So, what's in it? Well, there's a , a , and a . If we simplify that a little, there is are two
consonants with a vowel in the middle, or we have a CVC sequence, where C is a consonant, and
V is a vowel.
Based on this, we know that a syllable can be composed of a consonant followed by a vowel,
followed by a consonant.
What other structures can a single syllable have? Think of different single syllable words.
What's in a Syllable?
Observe the following monosyllabic words and decide what kind of structure each word has:
tea
a
at
tree
ask
skit
task
stamp
strap
stray
strength strengths
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Since each of these is monosyllable, they should represent a possible syllable.
Thinking in terms of just consonants and vowels for the moment, what are the possible syllable
structures represented above (for example, the word tea represented the structure CV, since it
is composed of a consonant and a vowel . .
What's in a Syllable?
In terms of consonants and vowels, the following words represent the following structures:
tea CV
a V
at VC
tree CCV
ask VCC
skit CCVC
task CVCC stamp CCVCC
strap CCCVC
stray CCCV
strength CCCVCC
strengths CCCVCCC
One fact that one may notice from these structures is that they all contain a vowel. This vowel is
known as the nucleus of the syllable.
Another fact is that a syllable may have a consonant or string of consonants before the vowel.
These consonants that are before the vowel are called onsets.
Finally, a syllable may have a consonant or string of consonants after the vowel. These
consonants that are after the vowel are called codas.
The following diagram is an illustration of a syllable such as the one in cat:
In the next section, there will be a discussion on syllabification.
Syllabification
In this section, there will be a discussion on how to separate polysyllabic words into syllables.This is called syllabification.
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Let's take a word like banana :
Now, we can look at the word banana in terms of consonants and vowels: CVCVCV.
The first step is to find the nuclei of the syllables in the word. There are three vowels, and since
vowels are usually nuclei, there are three nuclei, and thus, three syllables.
Therefore, at this point, we have the following structure:
Now, we have to decide which consonants are onsets, and which consonants are codas.
In working with English, it is usually best to give every syllable an onset, where possible. So, if
we give every syllable an onset, we have the following structure:
In the above structure, every segment is syllabified, and thus, we are done.
Let's take another word: racket .
In terms of consonants and vowels, the word racket has the following structure: CVCVC. As
stated above, the first step is to find the nuclei of the syllables in the word. In this case, there aretwo vowels.
Now, we can give both syllables an onset:
Now, we have a consonant that is not associated to some syllable structure. Therefore, we can
associate it to the end of the final syllable:
Since this consonant is at the end of the syllable, it is considered a coda.
Now try the wordfloodon your own. As practice in transcribing words into IPA, which of thefollowing transcriptions offloodwould be correct? To see if you're correct, place your mouse
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pointer over the transcription that you think most closely matches the pronunciation of the word
flood.
If you had trouble with the transcription, you might want to review the section on the
International Phonetic Alphabet.
Once you've determined what you think the syllabification offloodis, go the the next section.
Syllabification II
Well, we know that the consonant-vowel structure offloodis CCVC. Move your mouse pointer
over the structure to see if you chose the right syllable structure.
In this structure, you can see that there is only one syllable, and two onsets. This results because
it is the only way to incorporate all consonants and vowels into the syllable structure. Such
groups of onsets (or codas, in some cases) are called tautosyllabic consonant clusters.
Now, what about a word like cutlass ?
First, we syllabify the vowels:
Then we provide onsets where possible:
Now, the final consonant clearly has to be syllabified as the coda of the final syllable (just like in
racket), since it has no other option:
But, what about the other consonant? There would appear to be two possible syllabifications:
Which of the two possibilities would you choose? Why?
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Go on the next section to see a discussion of which of the two is argued for here.
Decisions, Decisions
Which one did you choose? There is a strong argument for the following structure, an argument
that we discussed earlier.
Remember the discussion of words like atlantic and atlas? The hypothesis put forth in that
section is that the [tl] combination was possible in the middle of these words because they had to
be from different syllables. Otherwise, they would also be possible at the beginnings of words.
This hypothesis basically states that [tl] is not a possible onset cluster. Therefore, a
syllabification in which [tl] is parsed as a consonant cluster should be disallowed.
What about a word like caprice ? Which of the following structures would you choose?
Maximum Onset Principle
In the case of the word caprice, by the rules that we have defined so far, it would seem that both
of the following structures are possible.
(a) (b)
How could both structures be possible in caprice, but not in cutlass?
Remember how structure (b) was disallowed forcutlass. Structure (b) was disallowed, because itwould include a [tl] as a tautosyllabic consonant cluster. We knew that [tl] was not a good onset
cluster in English because of the fact that it could not appear at the beginning of English words.
In the case ofcaprice, structure (b) would have a [pr] as a tautosyllabic consonant cluster. Words
such as price, pride, probably, etc. show us that [pr] is a perfectly acceptable onset cluster,
because each of those words begin with [pr].
Therefore, we could not rule out structure (b) forcaprice, as we did forcutlass.
So, which is it then? One possible answer is that structure (b) is the correct structure, because it
fills up the onset of the second syllable with as much content as is possible, given the restrictionson onset clusters. This is known as the Maximum Onset Principle, which states that as many
consonants as possible will be syllabified into the onset. This principle is an extension of the idea
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that onsets are syllabified before codas. This is generally accepted as a universal concept:
syllables prefer onsets, and disprefer codas.
In the next section, syllabic resonants will be discussed.
Syllabic Resonants
Earlier in this lesson, it was stated that nuclei of syllables were generally vowels. This is not
always the case. In English, it is possible for some types of consonants to serve as nuclei of
syllables.
Say the word babble.
How many syllables does it have?
Hopefully, you said two.
The transcription of the word babble used in this website would be , where is a
consonant.
Let's try to syllabify this. The consonant-vowel sequence would be CVCC. However, we know
that there are two syllables, but only one vowel. So, something has to serve as the nucleus of the
second syllable.
Certain consonants, like [l], [r], [m], and [n] can serve as nuclei for syllables. When they are
used as syllabic nuclei, they are calledsyllabic resonants, and are written as , , , .
Therefore, the syllabification of the word babble would be:
The next section summarizes all that has been discussed in this lesson.
Summary
In this lesson, there was discussion of the timing units of language that are known as syllables.
To begin with, there was discussion of the evidence supporting their existence as phonological
entities. The following are the types of evidence discussed:
Syllables are countable
There are writing systems that are arguably based on the concept of the syllable
The concept of the syllable allows for an elegant explanation for limitations on consonant
clusters in English
There was also discussion of the different parts of the syllable: onset, nucleus, coda. These parts
are schematized below:
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Finally, this lesson provided instruction on the syllabification of words in English. The basic
process is as follows:
find a nucleus for each syllable in the word
give every syllable an onset, and fill up the onset position with as many consonants as are
allowed in the syllable structure
associate any remaining consonants to the coda position of the syllable.