Philo Sucks

8/10/2019 Philo Sucks

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Why It Is So Difficult To Define Philosophy?

Subject Matter: 1) Philosophy does not have anyspecific subject matterand hence cannotbe defined with regard to anyparticular area of investigation. It may

deal with every dimension of human life and can raise questions in any

field of study or endeavor (owing to this circumstance we have a varietyofphilosophies-of disciplineandphilosophies-of-subject). Hence trying

to tie philosophy exclusively to one or any specific sphere would be anunjustified limitation of its reach.

Questioning: 2) Philosophy pursues questions rather than answers. The responsibilityof philosophy is not so much to answer our questions as to question given

answers. It is not an exaggeration to say that a philosopher is someone

who can make a riddle out of any answer. A true philosopher is not

bound by any particular "truths" that set limits to his/her urge to continueasking questions. Hence philosophy cannot be defined with recourse to

some accepted tenets, beliefs and established class of propositions.

History: 3) Philosophy changes historically both in respect to its content and itscharacter. Over the centuries it has assumed very different forms

(wisdom, science, art, piety, critique, analysis, linguistic game, literaryenre) and has been practiced in very different settings (market place,

temple, monastery, studio, university, institute, conference, the Internet).

The only overriding notion that could encompass all these manifestationsof philosophy is something like "mental activity", but it is too general to

give an informative definition of what philosophy is. Thus we cannot

find a definition of philosophy that would be both essential and sensitive

to its historical variety.

Note:There are many other activities that are of mental nature too. One may be

tempted to say that philosophy deals with concepts (which is true) but many sciences dothe same.

A Side Approach to Philosophy

Three Regards: In view of the above difficulties philosophers tend to refrain from givingany object-related definition of philosophy and by rule are very reluctant

to single out one exemplary form of philosophizing. We are on a muchsafer ground if we choose instead to demonstrate what philosophy is not(negative way) or (at best) what distinguishes it from other intellectual

pursuits (dialectical way). While we cannot commit ourselves to one

single definition of philosophy we can formulate many pertinentdeterminations of philosophizing. Rather than by defining

its object(field) or the supposed permanent core essence) the nature of

philosophy could be (better) determined by making reference toits attitude, source andobjective.

Philosophic Attitude


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Striving: The very meaning of the wordphilosophy(derived from the Greekcompoundphilo + sophia) points at once to a special attitude of aphilosopher and her/his objective. According to this etymology,

"philosophy" is "a love of wisdom", which means that it combines both

cognitive and emotional dimension of our mind. "Love" is named first

and it is not knowledge - it is a craving and striving to attain the object oflove. But striving to learn precedes knowledge. We need the passion of

love to start and keep questioning the things that are either too familiar or

too removed from everyday concerns. The continuation of this strivingpoints to the essence of wisdom. Its posture is a passionate search for

wisdom, not the possession of it. Nothing great has ever been

accomplished without passion. Thus knowledge proves again lessdefining for philosophy than its posture. In western tradition it is not

possible to attain wisdom as a final equilibrium. Consequently,

philosophy is a state of mind (inquisitive) rather than a particular kind of

knowledge.

Love Wisdom

Emotion Cognition

Striving Accomplishment

Attitude State of Mind

The Source of Philosophy

Wonder: The main source of philosophic questioning is the sense of wonder,a childlike wonderjust about everything. Philosophy starts withbewilderment, astonishment, amazement about the world, life, and

ourselves. Philosophy arises from the workings of an inquisitive mind

which is bewildered by seemingly common things or by those that appearto be entirely impractical. It emerges out of readiness to follow the call of

human intellectual curiosity beyond common sense acquaintanceship

with the world. The same idea is expressed in the old saying that thebusiness of philosophy is to deal with the things supposedly familiar, but

not really known and cognized. Philosophy reveals the illusion of

knowledge where none in reality exists. Indeed, everything touched by

philosophic bewilderment miraculously changes its character from aknown to an unknown. B. Russell resuscitates the same idea in claiming

that philosophy "keeps alive our sense of wonder by showing familiar

things in an unfamiliar aspect". As soon as we begin to philosophize, we

find that even the most everyday things lead to confusing problems whilethose initially "impractical" issues often prove very significant even for

our mundane needs and certainly for our self-understanding.


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The Aim of Philosophy

Insight: Philosophy does not stay by pure bewilderment and amazement.Philosophers articulate their initial amazement by

formulatingquestions(mostly what- and why-questions) that guide their

curiosity toward comprehension of the problem. This does not mean thatthey seek a simple formula for all the puzzles of the world (the proverbial

"philosophic stone"). Philosophy aims at understanding and enlightenment

rather than shorthand answers. While striving to bring some light into thecomplexity of human life and the universe it pursues the old longing for

the truth about the whole. Philosophy is absolutely committed to the truth,

"the whole truth and nothing but the truth". However, the truth of

philosophy is never given and complete as we cannot definitely close outthe totality it strives to capture (as Lacan says: I always speak the truth but

only partail). Therefore the search for truth is rather like perpetual striving

for more insight than for the final word on the matters of life and the

world. Whenever one is engaged in philosophizing the chances are thatthings will become more complex and difficult than before.

Philosophic Questioning

Questions Man is a questioning being. But our questions could be of very different

kinds. Some are simple and casual, some very difficult and complex, some

mindboggling or even obscure.

Type of

QuestionsAsked by Answered by

LittleQuestions

All HumanBeings.

Common Sense,Everyday

Experience.

BigQuestions

Scientists,Experts,

Technocrats.

Collecting Data,

Analyzing Facts,

AdvancingHypotheses,

Providing

Explanations.

FundamentalQuestions

Children,

CuriousIndividuals,

Philosophers.

Analyzing

Concepts,

AssessingConsistency,

Suggesting

Alternatives,Reexamining

Framework,

Evaluating


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Standards,Raising New Issues.

Inconclusive Results When we look at the history of philosophy it appears that philosophynever attains final conclusions about anything. Even though philosophy

takes its subject-matter both from our everyday experience and the

sciences, it constantly remains on the level of conceptual analysis, criticalexamination, new ideas, and so time and again fails to produce definitive

"positive results". Russell admits that philosophy is not very much

successful in providing "definite answers" to its questions but explains the

apparent inconclusiveness of philosophic answers partly as deceptive,partly as inevitable:

Answered

Questions:

(a) "Those questions that are already capable of definite answers are

placed in the sciences, while those only to which, at present, no definiteanswers can be given, remain to form the residue which is called

philosophy." Thus philosophic questions can turn into scientific truths assoon as hey are answered. In other words, many scientifically established

truths have started as philosophic questions, but once they received

definite answers they get moved to the realm of science. If one is not

familiar with the historical development of science and does not know thatits many questions originated in philosophy s/he may think that

philosophers have been doing philosophy over two thousand years without

being able to produce anything valuable ("positive results"). But this

impression of perpetually continuing futility would be a very deceptive

impression.UnansweredQuestions

(b) There are also many interesting questions both in science and

philosophy that are currently unanswered. Sometimes it is difficult to

predict whether and when they will be answered. Hence they could bepursued both by philosophy and science (just think about the cosmological

questions regarding the origin, size and future of the universe, or the

questions about the neurological foundations of our thinking and value

udgments). If it becomes clear that these questions are definitelyanswerable philosophy will deal with their general implications while

relegating them to the sciences.

Insoluble

Questions:

(c) Philosophy does not deal only with the questions that currently do not

allow complete answers. It studies the questions that are in principle notanswerable. "There are many questions - and among them those that are of

the profoundest interest to our spiritual life - which, so far as we can see,must remain insoluble to the human intellect unless its powers became of

a quite different order from what they are now." In other words, there are

questions that are in principle insoluble although very important andinteresting. For instance, the questions like "What is the meaning of life?",

"Does God exist?", "Does the universe have a final purpose?" resist


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definite answers by their very nature. Typically these unanswerablequestions tackle either Cosmology (pertaining to the whole of the

universe) or Theology (pertaining to the transcendent of the visible

world). Philosophy is interested in these two realms but it cannotencompass the whole of the universe as a given object nor conclusively

prove or disprove the transcendent content of religious beliefs.Note:There have been many philosophers, from st. Thomas Aquinas to Descartes andLeibniz, who were convinced that the content of religious belief could be proved to be

true "by strict demonstration". That was the ambition of Descartes' Meditationsthat

purported to prove the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. Based on his

epistemological and logical studies Russell came to the conclusion that we must

renounce any hope in any valid proof of that kind.

Status of

QuestionsDestination

DefinitelyAnswered

Questions

Science

In Principle

Answerable

Questions

Science

Currently

UnanswerableQuestions

Philosophy

In Principle

UnanswerableQuestions

Philosophy

Why philosophy appears to be a futile undertaking? For one, people

overlook the positive answers reached by philosophers but transferred tothe sciences. For another, philosophy does keep asking unanswerable

questions.

Futility of Philosophy Futility Reasons Outcome

ApparentAnswered Questions

Removed from Philosophy

= Residue of

unanswered

questions

RealUnanswered QuestionsRepeatedly Asked

No Results in

tackling

unanswerable

questions

ProductiveQuestions:

If philosophy is just "a residue" of unanswered questions or a pursuit ofunanswerable questions why should we keep doing it? One may ask, why

bother with problems we can not solve? The answer is simple: just dealing

with the puzzle increases our understanding of the problem and thedifficulties involved in it. Moreover, without philosophic curiosity


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displayed in this way many important issues would have been overlookedor forgotten a long ago. Thus by continuing to raise questions and

studying their implications, as Russell points out, we keep theoretical

interest alive no matter whether it can yield positive results or not. This isa pretty rational strategy as many questions that are now unanswered

could turn one day into new areas of study. Those that are unanswerablein principle are still meaningful and important both intellectually and

humanly. Therefore, despite the fact that philosophy does not providedefinitive answers it is not a futile activity of human mind. It can achieve

very profound and very significant insights into the world and the nature

of human condition. We just need to understand the special nature ofphilosophic questions, very different from everyday and scientific

inquiries.

Anamnesis If we piece together both the old and modern determinations of

philosophic attitude and put them along those of the source and the

objective of philosophy, we obtain the following table of its main features:

A Screening of Philosophy

PHILOSOPHY TraditionalPhrasing

ModernPhrasing

Source

Wonder

Amazement

Suffering

Curiosity

Perplexity

Doubt

Att i tude

Loving

Contemplative

Questioning

Investigative

Reflective

Critical

Object ive

Wisdom

Truth

Tranquility

Insight

Enlightenment

Understanding

Comparison With Other Intellectual and Spiritual Pursuits


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Philosophy does not emerge out of nothing nor does it live in separation from other

disciplines and subjects. On the contrary, it is in a constant interaction with them

receiving intellectual stimuli and challenges both from within and without. Therefore

trying to explain the relations philosophy bears to science, art and religion, could tell

us more about the nature of philosophy than any handy definition which takes it in

isolation from other areas. While many common links, points of contact and evenoverlaps make it sometimes difficult to ascertain whether we are dealing with

philosophy or some cognate disciplines, overall and in principle we can distinguish

philosophy from the following four areas of human endeavor.

Science - Philosophy

(1) Scienceis the methodical study of the universe in its various aspects

(physical, chemical, biological, social, mental). Science deals withquestions that can be decided by experiment andobservation.

Consequently, it can attain a "definite body of truths" ("positive results")at least in some domains. Says Russell: "If you ask a mathematician, a

mineralogist, a historian or any other man of learning what definite bodyof truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long

as you are willing to listen." Wherever science is effective, it achieves

not only "well defined" but accurate andvalidknowledge as well.Scientific knowledge advances

byaccumulationconstantlysupersedingits previous historical stages.

Scientific language is univocaland its propositions have unambiguous

reference.However, science has its limits. It cannot tell us what is beautiful, good

or just, what is the meaning of life, and what we can hope for. Sciencedoes not provide evaluative and interpretive knowledge. Moreover,science does not include full knowledge about itself. As Russell points

out, the sciences cannot attain the unity of scientific knowledgeby

themselves. For that purpose they need to turn into a meta-study, whichsurpasses their methods and competence and leads to philosophy.

Philosophy deals with thosefundamentalquestionsthat underlieeveryday notions or lay ground for scientific concepts.Examples:Who

am I? Where I am coming from? What is the meaning of life? Does the

history of mankind lead somewhere (or anywhere)? What is time? "Has

the universe any unity of plan or purpose, or is it a fortuitous concourse

of atoms? Is consciousness a permanent part of the universe, giving hopeof indefinite growth in wisdom, or is it a transitory accident on a small

planet on which life must ultimately become impossible? Are good and

evil of importance to the universe or only to man?" (Russell) Thesequestions are as important as the big questionsof science dealing with

the structure of matter or the evolution of organic life. They are about

meanings and ends, not simply about facts.Facts are relevant to philosophic study as well, but they alone cannot


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resolve philosophic questions. The latter both precede and transcendscientific procedures. Although philosophic questions receive different

answers throughout history, the cognitive effort of philosophizing is not

futile. If previous answers are seen to be inadequate this means that wecan learn from them which is a strong indication that past philosophies

do not become obsolete by the mere flow of time. On the contrary, thehistory of philosophy is itself an area of intensive philosophic study that

constantly reveals new insights and brings old ideas in new light.Note: It seems that in this early work (written in 1912) Russell views the historical

relation between philosophy and science as a development from "speculation" to

"positive knowledge". Philosophy and the sciences were one at the beginning of

Western culture but that unity fell apart for the benefit of scientific progress. A remnant

of the initial unity is the practice of calling philosophy a science or treating physics and

mathematics as theoretical philosophies. As Russell indicates, well into the 18th century

the natural sciences were regarded as a variety of philosophy, the fact which is reflected

in the title of Newton's work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (= The

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). There is no other reason why we

should still apply the Ph.D. (=PhilosophiaeDoctor) title to as different disciplines as

mathematics or chemistry. As time passes by the emancipated sciences strip away moreand more of the original body of philosophic knowledge. It is likely that some currently

puzzling philosophic questions will be resolved with the new advances in neurology,

physiology, and physics. But many will remain for ever in that "residue which is called

philosophy". This means that "positive knowledge" will never entirely replace

philosophy, and "speculation" will never become absolutely pointless.

Art - Philosophy

(2) Art is a very diverse phenomenon which resists any simple and

exhaustive definition. Like philosophy, the concept of art is also an openone both historically and in terms of its possible current applications.

Hence, different definitions only stress different dimensions of art:

formal signification, emotional expressiveness, intuitive character,meaningful organization of interrelated parts, etc. We are on the safe

ground if we say that art is a creative activity aimed at producing objects

of appreciation. No matter what is its form or content, art is orientedmore toward subjective expression of views, unconscious desires, andemotions than toward argumentation, cognition or transmission of

information. It emits powerful messages but the language of art is

more visual, acoustic, metaphorical,allusive and therefore more

ambiguous than the language of philosophy.

Philosophy, in contrast, is rather a theoreticalthan productive activity. Itseeks to find some inter-subjectivemethods of inquiring truthand to

establish the standards of evidence and norms for evaluating our beliefs,

ideas and arguments (Russell). It aims at rational knowledge and uses

discursive methods in dealing with the views drawn from experience,history, work, or any other realm of human life. Its language is

conceptual although not so standardized as scientific terminology.

Philosophical language is very oftenequivocaland its references cannot


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be easily (if at all) checked by observation and experiment. But its ideasare organized according to more rigorous procedures that are bound to

the truth and not only exposition of our opinions.Note: Russell does not explicitly discuss the relation between philosophy and art, but

his critique of subjective urge to subsume the universe under the self indicates that he

repudiates artistic approach to the world if it is supposed to provide more profound

cognition than science or philosophy. He rejects the "view which tells us that Man is themeasure of all things, that truth is man-made". For him, this is a kind of subjectivism

which is determined solely by "the here" and "now" of our own self - which is by

definition limited and cannot encompass the universe from within itself. In contrast, he

thinks that a "free intellect will value more the abstract and universal knowledge" than

the knowledge "brought by the senses, and dependent, as such knowledge must be, upon

an exclusive and personal point of view and a body whose sense-organs distort as much

as they reveal". Translated to our comparison, art is a great source of emotional

satisfaction, but its products are cognitively inferior to objective study and cannot

replace science and philosophy.

Religion/Theology - Philosophy

(3) Religionand its conceptual articulation (theology) are grounded ona revealed truth. The former preaches certain beliefs that make a claim to

aprivileged truth, the latter tries to make these beliefs understandable

and believable by explaining rationally the content of the main tenets.The attitude of all religions is well represented through the self-

proclamation of Jesus: "I am the truth." This identification between the

Person and the truth is essential for religion and cannot be overcomewithout losing the tautological mystique of religious message. If you ask

God who is He the only appropriate answer would be the biblical one: "I

am who I am." Man cannot get more than this about God. Religious

beliefs cannot and do not need to be derived from controlled experience,let alone proved by strict demonstration (Russell). Their certainty is

based on personal acceptance of religious tradition and authority. The

common aim of both religion and theology is to strengthen ourconvictions and to give us an overarching sense of life and the universe.

Philosophy, by contrast, is a critical (sometimes evenskeptical) activityof human mind based on the ability of natural reason to understand and

follow logical implications. Its aim is not to uphold any set of beliefs but

rather to undermine everything that tends to get inculcated in the mind. It

is Pontius Pilate with his skeptical response "What is truth?" whoassumes a philosophical stance, not Jesus. In general, philosophy is a

systematic effort to avoid any kind of dogma or clich that can arrest ourquestioning and suspicion. This is why philosophy often challenges faith

and dogmatic tenets offering instead only doubt and uncertainty. On theother hand, in regard to the intelligibility of the universe, it prefers the

audacity of human mind over religious epistemological modesty.

However, while striving to capture the the essence of the universephilosophy does not construe extemporized theories but attempts to

provide inter-subjectively acceptable reasons for proposed hypotheses.


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Note:Russell recognizes that both philosophy and religion arise from the concern forfundamental questions of meaning and purpose. As he puts it elsewhere, they both

emerge from the insight that the whole and infinity transcend our finite self. However,

religion accounts for the quality of infinity by invoking the idea of other (true) world,

whereas philosophy "does not divide the universe into two hostile camps"and in fact

combats the religious doubling of the world. It strives to achieve more impersonal

("impartial") and more comprehensive contemplation of this world in its totality. Its

goal is to enlarge our own self by contemplatively partaking in the infinity of the

universe (this is a kind of "objective Platonism" which negates the subjective moment as

a distortion of the truth). In this sense philosophy, for Russell, is "a contemplative

vision" or "speculation". (Russell uses the word "speculation" without any negative

connotation because he takes it in its Aristotelian sense of "sightseeing adventure for its

own sake".)

Later on (in the forties) Russell started to regard the allegedly "residual character" of

philosophical questions as an unavoidable consequence of philosophy's placement "in-

between" science and religion. According to this view, philosophy is a neglected and

uncertain area ("No Man's Land") stretching between the certainties of science and

theology.

Eastern Wisdom - Philosophy

(4) Eastern Thought, has different forms ranging from Taoism to Zen-Buddhism and Transcendental Meditation; despite some practically

oriented strains (Confucianism), it is mostly intuitive, directed toward the

Self and introspection; its insights come from our inwardness that needsto be emptied from all external influences; the Self is meditative, with

ready made precepts for the resolution of all life problems; this is why so

many self-help books draw on this tradition; Eastern sage is balanced,

poised, silent; his/her prototype is the Buddha. The findings of Eastern

wisdom are not fully communicable which prevents it from beingentirely discoursive and argumentative.

Philosophyas practiced in the Western tradition also tackles the Self but

it, as Russell notes, believes that the Self must be enriched by embracing

the outside universe. Otherwise it is regarded as void and worthless.Philosophizing in the manner of Western thought means engaging

ourselves in a discursive activity of our intellect, rather than divining the

blank slate of the supposed Self; Western philosophy is also reflexive butmore methodical and analytic; a Western philosopher is extrovert,talkative, suspicious, relentless in the quest to think things through;

his/her model isFaust = expanding knowledge even at the cost of our

soul.Despite many deserved attempts to integrate Eastern thought (primarily

Indian and Chinese) into Western intellectual tradition the differences areso huge that it is advisable not to apply the same term "philosophy"

(itself of Western origin) to both.


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Discipline SCIENCE ART RELIGIONEASTERN

TRADITIONPHILOSOPHY

Means ExplanationExpression IlluminationEnlightenmentUnderstanding

Form Knowledge Creation Revelation Wisdom Insight

Goal Mastery Fulfillment Salvation Tranquility Truth

What does Philosophy know?

Knowledge: A deep commitment to knowledge is what unites Philosophy with the

sciences. Yet the knowledge of science is not the same as the knowledgeof philosophy.The common origin, kindred procedures and obvious

congruencies cannot conceal big differences between philosophic andscientific knowledge. Philosophic knowledge is not "demonstrably true"whereas scientific knowledge seems to be well established and accepted

as truly supported by factual evidence.

Methodology and

Epistemology

What kind of knowledge does philosophy boast if it does not consist in

"definite" and "positive" answers? According to Russell, philosophy aims

at the knowledge that could be described in one of the following ways:

(a) The knowledge that gives unity and system to the body of science

(this is what we would nowadays call the methodologyor philosophy ofscience).(b) The knowledge that critically examines the grounds for our beliefs

(this comes down to epistemology ortheory of knowledge).

Are these two realms the only ones that are amenable to philosophiccognitions? Obviously not. Russell does not say that these two kinds of

knowledge are the only kinds of philosophic knowledge. He mentions

them only as representative examples of philosophic cognition (a tributeto his rationalistic and scientific preferences).

Truth: If we stayed only by (a) and (b) our conception of philosophy would betoo narrow. Philosophic knowledge cannot be reduced to the study ofsciences or to the study of reasons for our beliefs. It is a pursuit of truth

in a very broad sense. Philosophy asks border and transcendent questions

with regard to the sciences. It strives to give unity to all humanknowledge - not just the sciences. It is the best rational substitute for the

ultimate truth in the absence of full demonstrability for a whole range of

"fundamental" questions. In order to keep "speculative interest" in truth

alive philosophy is permitted to go beyond "positive knowledge" and


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other fields of human knowledge, particularly applied sciences,philosophy really seems to be deprived of any practical value and

effectiveness. This is generally regarded as its most serious defect,

especially nowadays when everybody values usefulness andeffectiveness. As Einstein has noticed: "People like chopping wood,

because it shows immediate results." For good or for bad, philosophydoes not have any utility of that kind. (Russell) It is, therefore, widely

perceived as a completely otiose activity in the world of universal nitty-gritty (know-how). In short, it is worth of nothing. At best it is "innocent

but useless trifling, hair splitting distinctions, and controversies on

matters concerning which knowledge is impossible." (Russell)

Maladjustment: Consequences:Philosophers appear as maladjusted and bunglingindividuals (for an illustration of how people typically react to thisinability of philosophy to be "successfully" engaged in world affairs, cf.

The story of Thales and a Thracian maid). Or worse, they are perceived

as a threat for the accepted life routine or thestatus quo in society. With

its protracted questioning philosophy only complicates our life anddisturbs the peace of our mind. We live in a world of efficiency and

effectiveness, not reflectiveness. Making things more difficult and more

uncertain in a culture wherein the ease of living becomes the law ofeveryday grooving makes philosophy embarrassing, subversive and even

dangerous.

Negative Attitudes:Russell names two main sources of negative attitudes toward philosophy:

(A) The influence of science (it would be more accurate to speak

aboutscientism andtechnocratic consciousness),

and

(B) The influence of practical affairs (in fact ofpragmatistic, philistine

consciousness).

The former recognizes only definite, applicable knowledge derived fromscientific questions, while the latter values only practical action as an

immediate response to everyday trivial (= little) questions. The former

does not bear the indefinite, uncertain character of philosophic study, thelatter does not tolerate philosophic procrastination and the ineffectiveness

of thinking. Both are insensitive toward the beneficial effects of the

uncertainty philosophers cultivate as their typical state of mind.Misconceptions: Russell is convinced that both attitudes espouse a superficial view of

philosophy based on some misconceptions. These misconceptions pertain

to:

(a) the ends of human life,and (b) the goods of philosophy.


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MisconceptionsFormed Under

Influence of

(A) PracticalAffairs:

(B) Science CorrectConceptions of

Life Ends and

Goods of

Philosophy:

(a) Ends o f

Human Li fe

Wealth,

Possession

Power,

Fame

Pleasure

Gratification

Know-How

Calculation,

Control

Application,Utility

Self-

Knowledge

Self-

Realization

Self-

Contentment

(b) Goods of

Phi losophy

Mind Game

Annoyance

Waste of

Time

Arbitrariness

Speculation

Ineffectiveness

Understanding

and Reflection(Giving Unityto HumanKnowledge)

Critical

Insights(Testing

Grounds for

Beliefs)

Foresight and

Direction(Keeping

SpeculativeInterest alive)

The first group of misconception identifies ultimate human goals withacquisition, power or pleasure, whereas the other inappropriately

measures philosophical goods upon the yardstick of positive, tangibleand useful results of other human endeavors. These misconceptions are

only prejudices of the people who are fascinated by material goods and

the effectiveness of technology (Russell calls them "instinctive men").Who are they? And why are they "wrongly called practical men"?

They are modern philistineswho view philosophical questioning as an


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idle game played by lazy, intellectual slackers who avoid real problemsof everyday life. These philistines present themselves as advocates of

practical needs and concerns. But the philistine notion of useful thinking

is obviously formed upon the model of instrumental thinking ("what is

the utility of this?") and doe s not take into account practical concerns

regarding our personal existence, identity and the sense of life. Andprecisely these concerns make up the realm of the traditional "practical

philosophy" which deals with the problem of "good life" and "justcommunity". In view of this, the notion of "useful" practicality in the

sense of immediate and everyday "utility" is very narrow. This is the

reason why Russell indicates that in fact it is wrongly calledpractical (itshould be perhaps namedpragmatistic).

What is the Value of Philosophy?

Why it is necessary to consider the question of value with regard to philosophical thinking?Simply put, because its value is not self-evident. On the contrary, philosophy is under suspicion

of being not only practically useless but of being deprived of any value. We have admitted that

philosophy is not useful in producing tangible, immediate results. It is so helpless that it cannot

even pull a dog out of its house (Hegel). The fact is that philosophical questions do not bringincome, do not fix broken gadgets, do not help us attract the person we may like. But they are not

worthless for that matter. They satisfy intellectual and spiritual needs (the "needs of the mind").

They achieve their value indirectly, through their effect "upon the lives of those who study"philosophy.

A comparison with the sciences as to the respective impact on people gives the

following picture (after Russell):

Impact of /on

Sciences Philosophy

Students (In)directImpact on

Personality

Direct Impacton

Personality

Obvious,

Tangible

Indirect


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Humankind Impact

(through

common

applications)

Impact

(through some

individuals)

Impact of Science: The impact of the sciences on mankind could be described as "direct"only if we accept technology as an immanent extension of science, which

is a very plausible supposition for modern science. Technology is therealm where scientific discoveries find their practical applications. But

what about the impact of science on those who study it? That Russell

believes it exists follows from the phrasing that "the study of physical

science is to be recommended not only, or primarily, because of theeffect on the student". This must mean there is some impact on those who

study and do science. This effect could be either external (mentally

absorbing or materially rewarding for the student) or of a more cognitive

nature (enlarging their knowledge, influencing their current scientificviews). But if we have in mind the potential influence of the content of

the study on the personality and the general outlook of the students, then

it is difficult to see how it could be anything else but "indirect". Whatshapes the identity, the character, the attitude and the views of a scientist

is not what he does as scientist but what he experiences as a human

being.

Impact of

Philosophy:

While the impact of philosophy on mankind must be viewed as only

"indirect", coming through those who study it, its impact on studentsthemselves must be recognized as "direct". By critically examining the

grounds for our beliefs and convictions philosophy inevitably influences

our identity and stature (we are by and large what we believe). Owing to

the ability of philosophy to influence our individual existence in thismanner, its value does not have to be measured in terms of positive

material gains. Philosophizing is not like gambling which makes sense

only if we are winning. It is a worthwhile activity even if you are notwining (or solving the problems for that matter). It is desirable for itself

not because of some prize that should result from it but because of the

potential to autonomously shape and guide our lives.

Food for the Mind The needs of the mind are no less important than the needs of the body."Each of us has an intellectual dimension to his experience. we need

ideas as much as we need food, air or water. Ideas nourish the mind asthe latter provide for the body. In light of this, it's clear that we need good

ideas as much as we need good food, good air, and good water." (Tom

Morris,If Aristotle Ran General Motors, 1997)

Uncertainty: Philosophy may be very embarrassing in shattering our beliefs but itcould be no less liberating in releasing us from the bondage of prejudices.


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It can keep spurring human mind to new intellectual adventures againstany kind of dogmatism and prejudices precisely because it is not bound

to any set of doctrines and the demand to abide by accepted beliefs and

customs. Yes, in some areas we need certainty and definite answers. Butwe have other resources to tap from for certainty. Science and

mathematics meet that need effectively and progressively on a very largescale, common sense supplants certainty in everyday situations.

Philosophy would be redundant if it tried to replicate what research,common sense and faith already provide. It has its own objectives and

should be judged based on its specific merits.

Apparent

UncertaintyReal

Uncertainty

Scientific

Progressappropriates

Philosophic

Achievements

Unascertainable

Non-

Demonstrative

Knowledge

Value Thus the value of philosophy appears to be twofold:

-Overcoming narrow-mindedness by contemplating the whole of the

universe impartially.

- Discovering unsuspected possibilities by becoming uncertain about

those that are given;

These two aspects separate philosophy both from common sense and

religion.

Correlation Common Sense Philosophy

Definite AnswersUnascertainable

Knowledge

Certainty Uncertainty

Confidence Shattered Convictions

Prejudices Critical Scrutiny

Dogmatism Skepticism

Compensation As Russell indicates, the value of philosophy could lie precisely in its

uncertainty and incompleteness. Its uncertainty is not just a deprivationof scientific, common sense and religious certainty. Its uncertainty is

very stimulating both cognitively and practically (see below). As Russell

says, while diminishing our confidence and certainty as to what things

actually are it immensely increases our ability to envision them in termsof what they may be if viewed from a different angle or from a more

viable standards. Hence "unascertainable knowledge" is worthy both of

the effort and of the name of knowledge, especially if it helps overcome


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the bondage of prejudices.

Reversal Philosophy is perceived as a departure both from common sense and

reality. It is very often regarded as their distortion. In a sense it presents a"topsy-turvy world" of what appears to be real. But if this appearance is

itself an illusion, what philosophy does is in fact a reversal of a previous

inversion and in that sense a recovery of reality that was distorted before.Comparison The nature and the quality of our knowledge determines our attitude and

our own nature. The world is perceived differently by "practical"("instinctive") men and those who have "tincture of philosophy". An

open-minded person sees more (and more differently) than the one

imprisoned in habitual and un-reflected beliefs. How these postures looklike and how their respective world-views differ? The following chart

summarizes Russell's comparison between these two kinds of human

existence and attitudes:

Two Styles Kind of Person World Life

Instinctive Man DefiniteFiniteObvious

NarrowEnclosedFeverish

Philosophic ManOpenInfiniteStrange

InclusiveFreeCalm

Benefits: While philosophy cannot boast many "positive results", its study isvaluable for many reasons that go beyond an individual's immediate

livelihood. Studying or doing philosophy could be beneficial in manyregards out which the following appear to be the most important ones:

Educationally and

intellectually:

Philosophy enlarges our understanding of the world, it expands ourintellectual horizons and freedom of thought. Philosophy releases from

the "prejudices derived from common sense", from the "habitual belief of

an age or nation", and from convictions that have grown up "without thecooperation or consent of (our) deliberate reason". (Russell) Philosophy

may help develop the capacity to look at the world from the perspective

of other individuals and cultures. Perhaps it is not as effective as scienceand religion, but it is the most free and valuable of all intellectual

endeavors. (Aristotle) The old idea of liberal arts survives in the study of

philosophy that liberates from prejudices and creates free spirits. It

develops at once tolerance and critical sense.

Sociall y and

politically:

By discussing political and social issues philosophy raises public

awareness and helps in forming engaged and responsible citizens. Byperforming critical examination of current social and political conditions

it can enlighten people as to the shortcomings of the current order. By

viewing social practices from the perspective of a better and more justfuture it can foster necessary social change. "While diminishing our

feeling of certainty as to what things are, it greatly increases our


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knowledge as to what they may be." (Russell) In this sense, althoughindirectly, philosophy can make a difference and even change the world.

If the ambition to change the world is not shared by all philosophers the

fact is that some philosophical theories have practical intent and thatsome had ignited the energy for change (think about the Great French

Revolution and the role ofLes Philosophesin stirring the masses).Morally and

practically:

Philosophy can increase our sensitivity for universalistic moral values

and stimulate our readiness to stand up for the principles of justice and

fairness. Since it provides tools and opportunity to reflect on our basicvalues and concepts, it may prove very practical in defining our choices

and acts. In view of all potential benefits we can argue that studying

philosophy is a very practical undertaking. Philosophy ispracticalin the

sense that its questions pertain to the value of our personal existence aswell as to our relations with others. Remember: practical life is not

necessarily an acquisitive life, but life focused on self-reflection and

ethical issues.

Psychologically andpersonally:

On a personal level, philosophy can give oneself-knowledge, foresight,and a sense of directionin life. It touches upon our own existence (in a

way we are fully humans only if we are capable to reflectupon ourhumanness) and tackles the questions of our personal identity. It can lead

to self-discovery, expansion of consciousness, and self-renewal.

Philosophy nurtures individuality and self-esteemand broadens the rangeof things one can understand and enjoy. It enhances one's ability to

understand other disciplines and to perceive the relationship among

various fields of study.If studying philosophy can bring all these benefits why people do not study it in great

numbers? Why students do not throng around philosophy departments? The answer is:

they are afraid that a degree in philosophy is not marketable. But even this seems to be a

prejudice.

Pragmatic Uses of

Philosophy:

While studying philosophy does not help directly one's job search, it has

an indirect impact even in nonacademic fields. Contrary to the wide

spread view, employers prefer candidates with general and flexible skillsthat could adjust to new situations rather than high specialists. They look

for and reward many of the capacities developed by the study of

philosophy, for instance, the ability to analyze problems, to organize

ideas and issues, to assess pros and cons, and to boil down complex data.A report of the American Philosophical Association cites that majors in

liberal arts with philosophy as the core discipline "continue to make a

strong showing in managerial skills and have experienced considerable

business success". A congressman from Indiana has noticed "thatphilosophers have acquired skills which are very valuable to a member of

Congress." These skills include:

Transferable Skills

General Problem Solving

Communication Skills


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Persuasive Powers

Writing Skills

Ability to Conceptualize

Anticipatory Capacity

These capacities are transferable skills, meaning - they are applicable in agreat variety of ways and areas.Moreover, they represent basic abilities

on which other skills depend or build. No wonder that philosophy majors

score better than any other humanities major on the LSAT (the lawschool admission exam) and the GRE (aptitude test for graduate

programs). Thus, at a closer look philosophical questioning proves both

very useful and effective even in a very pragmatistic sense.(Cf. The story

of Thales' renting all the olive mills.)

Philosophical Lexicon

Reflection = (from Latin: reflectere= bend back): the way of thinking which is "mirrored" back

to itself; reflexive thinking is one that takes itself as an object of thought.

Contemplation = (from Latin: contemplari = gaze at attentively): activity of thinking,theoretical thinking.

Demonstration = (from Latin: de=from, monstrare = show): indirect knowledge based on theproof that clearly shows the inferences that lead to the conclusion.

Speculative = (from Latin:speculum = mirror): theoretical thinking that reflects the totality of

objects involved. Speculation leads thinking from visible effects of a distant cause to the ultimate(first, most general) principles.

Equivocally = (from Latin: aequivocus = with equal voice, but different meaning):

speaking ambiguously, using one nominal designation (Latin: vox) for different things.

Univocally = (from Latin: unus vox, one voice) using one expression in only one sense, speaking

unambiguously.

Scientistic = stemming from uncritical trust into sciences which are considered to cover the

whole realm of sensible questions (don't confuse with "scientific"!).

Pragmatistic= focused only to immediate useful consequences (from the Greekpragma, thing):

to be distinguished from thepracticalin the sense of ethical and political concerns(Greekpraktikos,pertaining to human conduct).

Common sense= ordinary, everyday knowledge of ourselves and our surroundings.

Little questions =conventional questions that can be answered by relying on our common sense


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(what time is it?).

Big questions= questions that require systematic technical and scientific research (how did theozone hole come into existence?).

Fundamental Questions= questions that make sense but cannot be answered by relying oncommon sense or scientific procedures (what is time?).

Doing Introduction To Philosophy:

If philosophy is concerned with the "fundamental questions", then its study obviously

cannot be exhausted within the limits set by a single course of study. One semester is

not enough time for more than a beginning in a realm that is as rich and limitless as

human experience. It's a life task.

However, there are many things we can and have to do - here and now. First of all, we

need to acquire some philosophical skills, like asking meaningful questions,

understanding philosophical texts, discussing issues at stake and arguing rationally.

Thus we have some long-term and some short-term objectives in philosophy.

The chief long-term task is to introduce ourselves to philosophy as much as to

introduce philosophy to ourselves. Meaning, we should try to expose our values and

convictions to philosophical scrutiny and in that way we may discover that philosophycan do a lot for us and with us in our lives!

On the other hand, just because we recognize the immense life-value of doing

philosophy, we do not want to hide hypocritically that studying philosophy has many

burdensome and unpleasant sides. There is no royal way in philosophy. On the

contrary, studying philosophy requires a lot of hard work for class and in the class.

The three following aspects are perhaps the most important in our work:

Philosophical Language: The capacity to understand and correctly apply fundamental

philosophical concepts is of paramount importance in doing philosophy. A seriousstudent must pay particular attention tophilosophical terminology. One of the earliest

and most persistent difficulties in doing philosophy is the complex language used by

philosophers. Philosophers need to express thoughts that sometimes push the language

beyond its limits, not because they like to be obscure, but because they consider new

ideas and unusual aspects of reality. That is the reason why they often coin new terms

or use already existing words in a new peculiar sense. Nominal familiarity with some


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expressions could be very deceptive. Looking up into philosophical dictionaries has,

therefore, to become student's regular habit. Among other things, philosophy is about

words and their meanings.

Reading: We'll try to acquire a workable command of philosophical language by

reading and interpreting selected philosophical texts. As first understanding of whatphilosophy is cannot be conveyed by producing a definition of the word "philosophy",

it is essential to become acquainted with a range of its specimens. To read

philosophical texts correctly one must read slowly and attentively. This goes against

the prevailing stream of our time, which requires quick and often superficial reading.

However, the measure of success in philosophy can hardly be expressed as a fraction

of read pages and a time unit. Successful reading is one that starts with a careful

interpretation of the text and ends up with an examination of the arguments that

support the conclusions.

Writing: Writing is an area of philosophical training equally important as our oralteaching and in class exercising. Expressing your thoughts in a written form helps you

and your readers better understand what you mean. It reveals both strong and weak

points in your position. Therefore it is vital that you practice writing as often as

possible. As in all other skills: practicing raises your ability and keeps you in shape.

Did you know?

Celebritieswho have studied philosophy include: Martin Luther King, Iris Murdoch, Angela Davis, Jim Morrison,

Tom Stoppard, The Pope (Karol Voytila), Lewis Carrol, John Ellway, Steve Martin Could you continue the list?


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Philo Sucks

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