PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ - · PDF fileEpistemology:$Bertrand$Russell$$ 1 ......

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PHI 1500: Major Issues in Philosophy Session 6 February 19 th , 2015 Epistemology: Bertrand Russell 1

Transcript of PHI1500:$$ Major$Issues$in$Philosophy$ - · PDF fileEpistemology:$Bertrand$Russell$$ 1 ......

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PHI  1500:    Major  Issues  in  Philosophy  

Session  6  February  19th,  2015  

Epistemology:  Bertrand  Russell    1  

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•  Some  of  Locke’s  arguments  against  na,vism:  –  If  a  child  does  not  encounter  something  in  experience,  they  will  not  have  an  idea  corresponding  to  that  thing.  •  “Light  and  colours  are  busy  at  hand  everywhere,  when  the  eye  is  but  open;  sounds  and  some  tangible  qualiQes  fail  not  to  solicit  their  proper  senses,  and  force  an  entrance  to  the  mind;  

•  but  yet,  I  think,  it  will  be  granted  easily,  that  if  a  child  were  kept  in  a  place  where  he  never  saw  any  other  but  black  and  white  Qll  he  were  a  man,  he  would  have  no  more  ideas  of  scarlet  or  green,  than  he  that  from  his  childhood  never  tasted  an  oyster,  or  a  pineapple,  has  of  those  parQcular  relishes.”  (2,  §6)  

»  “The  mind  thinks  in  proporQon  to  the  maWer  it  gets  from  experience  to  think  about.  

»  Follow  a  child  from  its  birth,  and  observe  the  alteraQons  that  Qme  makes,  and  you  shall  find,  as  the  mind  by  the  senses  comes  more  and  more  to  be  furnished  with  ideas,  it  comes  to  be  more  and  more  awake;  thinks  more,  the  more  it  has  maWer  to  think  on.”  (4,  §22)  

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•  Another  argument  against  na,vism:  –  Our  ideas  become  more  clear  and  disQnct  by  reflecQng  upon  them.  

•  “…he  that  contemplates  the  operaQons  of  his  mind,  cannot  but  have  plain  and  clear  ideas  of  them;    

•  yet,  unless  he  turn  his  thoughts  that  way,  and  considers  them  aWenQvely,  he  will  no  more  have  clear  and  disQnct  ideas  of  all  the  operaQons  of  his  mind,  and  all  that  may  be  observed  therein,  than  he  will  have  all  the  parQcular  ideas  of  any  landscape,  or  of  the  parts  and  moQons  of  a  clock,  who  will  not  turn  his  eyes  to  it,  and  with  aWenQon  heed  all  the  parts  of  it.”  (3,  §7)  

»  “And  hence  we  see  the  reason  why  it  is  preWy  late  before  most  children  get  ideas  of  the  operaQons  of  their  own  minds;  

»  and  some  have  not  any  very  clear  or  perfect  ideas  of  the  greatest  part  of  them  all  their  lives.    

»  Because,  though  they  pass  there  conQnually,  yet,  like  floaQng  visions,  they  make  not  deep  impressions  enough  to  leave  in  their  mind  clear,  disQnct,  lasQng  ideas,  Qll  the  understanding  turns  inward  upon  itself,  reflects  on  its  own  operaQons,  and  makes  them  the  objects  of  its  own  contemplaQon.”  (3,  §8)  3  

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ImplicaQons  of  Locke’s  Empiricism  •  Everything  we  have  learned,  everything  we  ever  will  know,  and  

everything  we  can  imagine  will  be  the  product  of  experience.  

–  “…the  first  capacity  of  human  intellect  is,  that  the  mind  is  fiWed  to  receive  the  impressions  made  on  it;  either  through  the  senses  by  outward  objects,  or  by  its  own  operaQons  when  it  reflects  on  them.  •  This  is  the  first  step  a  man  makes  towards  the  discovery  of  anything,  and  the  groundwork  whereon  to  build  all  those  noQons  which  ever  he  shall  have  naturally  in  this  world.    

•  All  those  sublime  thoughts  which  tower  above  the  clouds,  and  reach  as  high  as  heaven  itself,  take  their  rise  and  fooQng  here:    

•  in  all  that  great  extent  wherein  the  mind  wanders,  in  those  remote  speculaQons  it  may  seem  to  be  elevated  with,    

•  it  sQrs  not  one  jot  beyond  those  ideas  which  sense  or  reflecQon  have  offered  for  its  contemplaQon.”  (4-­‐5,  §24)   4  

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ImplicaQons  of  Locke’s  Empiricism  •  …so  it  is  criQcally  important  to  consider  what  experiences  we  are  

exposed  to  throughout  our  lives.  

–  “In  the  recepQon  of  simple  ideas,  the  understanding  is  for  the  most  part  passive  …  and  whether  or  not  it  will  have  [any  parQcular]  materials  of  knowledge  is  not  in  its  own  power.    

–  For  the  objects  of  our  senses  do,  many  of  them,  obtrude  their  parQcular  ideas  upon  our  minds  whether  we  will  or  not…    

»  These  simple  ideas,  when  offered  to  the  mind,  the  understanding  can  no  more  refuse  to  have,  nor  alter  when  they  are  imprinted,  nor  blot  them  out  and  make  new  ones  itself,  than  a  mirror  can  refuse,  alter,  or  obliterate  the  images  or  ideas  which  the  objects  set  before  it  do  therein  produce.    

»  As  the  bodies  that  surround  us  do  diversely  affect  our  organs,  the  mind  is  forced  to  receive  the  impressions;    

»  and  cannot  avoid  the  percepQon  of  those  ideas  that  are  annexed  to  them.”  (5,  §25)  

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•  Bertrand  Russell  (1872-­‐1970):  BriQsh  philosopher                                                      well  known  for  his  work  on  logic,  language,                                                                            and  epistemology    

•  His  essay  “Appearance  &  Reality”  (from  the  book                                  Problems  of  Philosophy)  addresses  the  quesQon:  –  How  can  we  be  certain  that  we  know  anything?  

•  “Is  there  any  knowledge  in  the  world  which  is  so  certain  that  no  reasonable  man  can  doubt  it?”  (1)  

- He  takes  this  to  be  “really  one  of  the  most  difficult  [quesQons]  that  can  be  asked.  

- When  we  have  realized  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  straighhorward  and  confident  answer,  we  shall  be  well  launched  on  the  study  of  philosophy  -­‐-­‐  

-  for  philosophy  is  merely  the  aWempt  to  answer  such  ulQmate  quesQons…  aier  exploring  all  that  makes  such  quesQons  puzzling,  and  aier  realizing  all  the  vagueness  and  confusion  that  underlie  our  ordinary  ideas.”  (1)   7  

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•  Whereas  Locke  was  concerned  with  where  our  ideas  come  from,  •  Russell  is  concerned  with  whether  our  ideas  really  correspond  with  reality.  

–  “It  seems  to  me  that  I  am  now  sijng  in  a  chair,  at  a  table  of  a  certain  shape,  on  which  I  see  sheets  of  paper  with  wriQng  or  print.  

–  By  turning  my  head  I  see  out  of  the  window  buildings  and  clouds  and  the  sun.    –  I  believe  that  the  sun  is  about  ninety-­‐three  million  miles  from  the  earth;          

that  it  is  a  hot  globe  many  Qmes  bigger  than  the  earth;    –  that,  owing  to  the  earth's  rotaQon,  it  rises  every  morning,  and  will  conQnue    

to  do  so  for  an  indefinite  Qme  in  the  future.    –  I  believe  that,  if  any  other  normal  person  comes  into  my  room,  he  will  see    

the  same  chairs  and  tables  and  books  and  papers  as  I  see,  and  that  the  table  which  I  see  is  the  same  as  the  table  which  I  feel  pressing  against  my  arm.    

–  All  this  seems  to  be  so  evident  as  to  be  hardly  worth  staQng,  except  in    answer  to  a  man  who  doubts  whether  I  know  anything.  

–  Yet  all  this  may  be  reasonably  doubted,  and  all  of  it  requires  much  careful  discussion  before  we  can  be  sure  that  we  have  stated  it  in  a  form  that  is  wholly  true.”  (1)   8  

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•  While  Locke  insisted  that  our  senses  supply  us  with  many  ideas,  •  Russell’s  concern  is  whether  or  not  our  senses  can  provide  us  with  

knowledge  about  reality.  

•  “In  the  search  for  certainty,  it  is  natural  to  begin  with  our  present  experiences,  and  in  some  sense,  no  doubt,  knowledge  is  to  be  derived  from  them.    

•  [He  is  affirming  that  at  least  some  (if  not  all)  of  our  knowledge  is  a  posteriori,  since  it  comes  from  experience.]  

•  …But  any  statement  as  to  what  it  is  that  our  immediate  experiences  make  us  know  is  very  likely  to  be  wrong.”  (1)  

Ø This  is  because  there  is  a  disQncQon  between  appearance  &  reality:    

Ø “between  what  things  seem  to  be  and  what  they  are.”  (2)  

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•  “To  make  our  difficul,es  plain,  let  us  concentrate  a@en,on  on  the  table.    •  To  the  eye  it  is  oblong,  brown  and  shiny;  to  the  touch  it  is  smooth  and  cool    

and  hard;  when  I  tap  it,  it  gives  out  a  wooden  sound.    •  Any  one  else  who  sees  and  feels  and  hears  the  table  will  agree  with  this  

descripQon,  so  that  it  might  seem  as  if  no  difficulty  would  arise;    –  but  as  soon  as  we  try  to  be  more  precise  our  troubles  begin.    

•  Although  I  believe  that  the  table  is  'really'  of  the  same  color  all  over,  the  parts  that  reflect  the  light  look  much  brighter  than  the  other  parts,  and  some  parts  look  white  because  of  reflected  light.    

•  I  know  that,  if  I  move,  the  parts  that  reflect  the  light  will  be  different,  so  that  the  apparent  distribuQon  of  colors  on  the  table  will  change.    

•  It  follows  that  if  several  people  are  looking  at  the  table  at  the  same  moment,  no  two  of  them  will  see  exactly  the  same  distribuQon  of  colors,  because  no  two  can  see  it  from  exactly  the  same  point  of  view,  and  any  change  in  the  point  of  view  makes  some  change  in  the  way  the  light  is  reflected.”  (1)   10  

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•  “It  is  evident  from  what  we  have  found,  that  there  is  no  color  which  preeminently  appears  to  be  the  color  of  the  table,  or  even  of  any  one  parFcular  part  of  the  table  –    

•  it  appears  to  be  of  different  colors  from  different  points  of  view,    

•  and  there  is  no  reason  for  regarding  some  of  these  as  more  really  its  color  than  others.  

–  And  we  know  that  even  from  a  given  point  of  view  the  color  will  seem  different  by  arQficial  light,  or  to  a  color-­‐blind  man,  or  to  a  man  wearing  blue  spectacles,  while  in  the  dark  there  will  be  no  color  at  all….  

•  This  color  is  not  something  which  is  inherent  in  the  table,    •  but  something  depending  upon  the  table  and  the  spectator  and  the  way  the  

light  falls  on  the  table.”  (2)  –  Another  way  of  expressing  this  idea  is  that  color  is    

–  not  a  primary  quality  of  an  object,  which  is  the  same  under  any  and  all  circumstances,  independent  of  our  percepQon,  

–  but  rather  a  secondary  quality,  which  can  vary  depending  how  we  relate  to  the  object  through  percepQon.  

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•  “In  daily  life,  we  assume  as  certain  many  things  which,  on  a  closer  scruQny,              are  found  to  be  so  full  of  apparent  contradic,ons  that  only  a  great  amount  of  thought  enables  us  to  know  what  it  is  that  we  really  may  believe.”  (1)  

 

–  When,  in  ordinary  life,  we  speak  of  the  color  of  the  table,  we  only  mean  the  sort  of  color  which  it  will  seem  to  have  to  a  normal  spectator  from  an  ordinary  point  of  view  under  usual  condiQons  of  light.    

–  But  the  other  colors  which  appear  under  other  condiQons  have  just  as  good  a  right  to  be  considered  real;    

–  and  therefore,  to  avoid  favoriQsm,  we  are  compelled  to  deny  that,      in  itself,  the  table  has  any  one  parQcular  color.  

»  So,  on  the  one  hand,  •  the  table  appears  to  have  some  parQcular  color.  

»  But  on  the  other  hand,  •  it  appears  to  have  no  parQcular  color  at  all.  

–  This  is  a  paradox!  These  two  facts  contradict  each  other,  so  only  one  of  them  should  describe  the  true  reality  of  the  table.  

» Which  one  is  true?   12  

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•  “The  same  thing  applies  to  the  texture.    –  With  the  naked  eye  one  can  see  the  gram,  but  

otherwise  the  table  looks  smooth  and  even.  –   If  we  looked  at  it  through  a  microscope,  we  

should  see  roughnesses  and  hills  and  valleys,  and  all  sorts  of  differences  that  are  impercepQble  to  the  naked  eye.    

•  Which  of  these  is  the  'real'  table?    –  We  are  naturally  tempted  to  say  that  what  we  

see  through  the  microscope  is  more  real,    •  but  that  in  turn  would  be  changed  by  a  sQll  more  powerful  microscope.    

–  If,  then,  we  cannot  trust  what  we  see  with  the  naked  eye,  why  should  we  trust  what  we  see  through  a  microscope?  •  Thus,  again,  the  confidence  in  our  senses  with  which  we  began  deserts  us.”  (2)  

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Appearance  vs.  Reality  •  Russell  concludes  that:    

–  “the  senses  seem  not  to  give  us  the  truth  about  the  table  itself,  but  only  about  the  appearance  of  the  table.”  (2)  

•  “…it  becomes  evident  that  the  real  table,  if  there  is  one,  is  not  the  same  as  what  we  immediately  experience  by  sight  or  touch  or  hearing.    

•  The  real  table,  if  there  is  one,  is  not  immediately  known  to  us  at  all,  but  must  be  an  inference  from  what  is  immediately  known.  •  In  other  words,  we  do  not  really  know  that  there  is  a  real  table  –  but  we  form  a  belief  about  the  table’s  existence  anyway.  

» Hence,  two  very  difficult  ques,ons  at  once  arise;  namely,    •  (1)  Is  there  a  real  table  at  all?    •  (2)  If  so,  what  sort  of  object  can  it  be?”  (3)  

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•  “The  real  table,  if  there  is  one,  is  not  immediately    known  to  us  at  all,  but  must  be  an  inference  from  what  is  immediately  known.”  (3)  

–  “Let  us  give  the  name  of  'sense-­‐data'  to  the  things  that  are  immediately  known  in  sensaQon:  such  things  as  colors,  sounds,  smells,  hardnesses,  roughnesses,  and  so  on.  

–  We  shall  give  the  name  'sensa,on'  to  the  experience  of  being  immediately  aware  of  these  things.    

»  Thus,  whenever  we  see  a  color,  we  have  a  sensaQon  of  the  color,  but  the  color  itself  is  a  sense-­‐datum,  not  a  sensaFon…  

–  …It  is  plain  [i.e.,  obvious]  that  if  we  are  to  know  anything  about  the  table,  it  must  be  by  means  of  the  sense-­‐data  -­‐-­‐  brown  color,  oblong  shape,  smoothness,  etc.  -­‐-­‐  which  we  associate  with  the  table;  

–  but,  for  the  reasons  which  have  been  given,  we  cannot  say  that  the  table  is  the  sense-­‐data,  or  even  that  the  sense-­‐data  are  directly  properQes  of  the  table  [i.e.,  primary  qualiQes].    

» Thus  a  problem  arises  as  to  the  relaFon  of  the  sense-­‐data  to  the  real  table,  supposing  there  is  such  a  thing.”  (3)  

•     

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•  Let’s  take  stock  of  Russell’s  arguments.  –  [Empiricist]  AssumpFon:  If  we  can  to  know  anything  about  the  table,                    

it  must  be  through  sense-­‐data.  

1.  If  we  can  know  anything  with  certainty  about  the  real  table,  we  need  reliable  evidence  for  its  existence.  

2.  Our  sense-­‐data  might  not  provide  reliable  evidence  about  the  table.  3.  Therefore,  we  may  not  be  able  to  know  anything  with  certainty  about  the  

real  table.  

» What  argument  form  does  1-­‐3  (roughly)  have?  

3.  We  may  not  be  able  to  know  anything  with  certainty  about  the  real  table.  4.  If  we  may  not  be  able  to  anything  for  certain  about  the  real  table,  we  can  

doubt  whether  it  really  exists.  5.  Therefore,  we  can  doubt  whether  the  table  really  exists  or  not.  

Ø  With  3-­‐5,  Russell  is  arguing  that  we  should  be  skepHcal  about  our  belief  in  the  existence  of  physical  things  (like  tables).  

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•  “The  real  table,  if  it  exists,  we  will  call  a  'physical  object'.    •  Thus  we  have  to  consider  the  relaQon  of  sense-­‐data  to  physical  objects.    •  The  collecQon  of  all  physical  objects  is  called  'maWer'.    

–  Thus  our  two  quesQons  may  be  re-­‐stated  as  follows:    •  (1)  Is  there  any  such  thing  as  maWer?    •  (2)  If  so,  what  is  its  nature?”  (3)  

•  Russell  explains  a  view  held  by  idealists,  like  Bishop  George  Berkeley  (1685-­‐1753),  on  the  nature  of  maIer.  –  Berkeley  aimed  “to  prove  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  maWer  at  all,  and  

that  the  world  consists  of  nothing  but  minds  and  their  ideas.”  (Russell  3)  

»  Idealism  is  a  metaphysical  doctrine  (about  the  nature  and  structure  of  the  world)  which  challenges  the  widely  held  assumpQon  that  physical  objects  exist  independently  of  our  minds  (called  materialism).  

»  Berkeley  held  that  there  are  no  mind-­‐independent  things:  instead,  ‘to  be  is  to  be  perceived’.  

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•  “[Berkeley]  admits  that  there  must  be  something  which  conQnues  to  exist  when  we  go  out  of  the  room  or  shut  our  eyes…  

•  …but  he  thinks  that  this  something  cannot  be  radically  different  in  nature  from  what  we  see,  and  cannot  be  independent  of  seeing  altogether,  though  it  must  be  independent  of  our  seeing.    –  He  is  thus  led  to  regard  the  'real'  table  as  an  idea  

in  the  mind  of  God.    –  Such  an  idea  has  the  required  permanence  and  

independence  of  ourselves,    –  without  being…something  quite  unknowable,  in  

the  sense  that  we  can  only  infer  it,  and  can  never  be  directly  and  immediately  aware  of  it.”  (4)  

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•  So,  the  idealist  view  explains  what  we  think  of  as  ‘physical  objects’  as    -  things  that  exist  apart  from  ourselves,  -  yet  can  really  be  known  by  us,  because  they  are  mental  phenomena  just  

like  the  sense-­‐data  that  are  immediately  known  to  us.    

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•  Russell  offers  that  “we  might  state  the  argument  by  which  [idealists]  support  their  view  in  some  such  way  as  this:  –  'Whatever  can  be  thought  of  is  an  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  person  thinking  of  it;    

–  therefore  nothing  can  be  thought  of  except  ideas  in  minds;    –  therefore  anything  else  is  inconceivable,  and  what  is  inconceivable  cannot  exist.’  “  (4)  

Ø …But  he  thinks  the  idealist  noQon  “that  there  can  be  …nothing  known  to  be  real  except  minds  and  their  thoughts  and  feelings”  is  fallacious.  

•  Basically,  he  thinks  that  the  idealists  don’t  really  believe  their  own  conclusion,  

•  since  they  sQll  think  there  is  a  real  table  –  just  not  one  that  is  wholly  independent  of  minds.  

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•  Russell  remarks  that  most  philosophers  conQnue  to  believe  there  is  a  real  table,  even  though  we  do  not  really  know  that  it  exists:    –  “…they  almost  all  agree  that,  however  much  our            

sense-­‐data  -­‐-­‐  color,  shape,  smoothness,  etc.  -­‐-­‐  may  depend  upon  us,  

–  yet  their  occurrence  is  a  sign  of  something  exisQng  independently  of  us,  

–  something  differing,  perhaps,  completely  from  our    sense-­‐data  whenever  we  are  in  a  suitable  relaQon  to  the  real  table.”  (4)  

•  Nevertheless,  the  mere  fact  that  many  philosophers  (and  ordinary  people)  believe  there  is  a  real  table  does  not  guarantee  that  it  really  exists.  –  “…  if  the  reality  is  not  what  appears,  have  we  any  means  

of  knowing  whether  there  is  any  reality  at  all?    And  if  so,  have  we  any  means  of  finding  out  what  it  is  like?”  (5)  

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•  Russell  concludes:  –  “Thus  what  we  directly  see  and  feel  is  merely  'appearance',          which  we  believe  to  be  a  sign  of  some  'reality'  behind.”  (5)  

» …and  since  appearances  don’t  allow  us  to  know  what  reality  is  like,  

» we  ought  to  be  skepFcal  about  our  beliefs  in  the  existence  of  real  things.  

– “…doubt  suggests  that  perhaps  there  is  no  table  at  all.”  (5)  

•  But  some  “bewildering”  quesQons  sQll  remain:  –  “…if  the  reality  is  not  what  appears,  have  we  any  means  of  knowing  

whether  there  is  any  reality  at  all?    –  And  if  so,  have  we  any  means  of  finding  out  what  it  is  like?”  (5)  

•  Russell  remarks  that:  •  “Philosophy,  if  it  cannot  answer  so  many  quesQons  as  we  could  wish,  has  at  least  the  power  of  asking  quesQons  which  increase  the  interest  of  the  world,  and  show  the  strangeness  and  wonder  lying  just  below  the  surface  even  in  the  commonest  things  of  daily  life.”  (5)   21