Pests, Diseases & Weeds · Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds is the most important aspect of an...

Pests, Diseases & Weeds

Level 5

Title: Apply Integrated Pest Management Principles in a Citrus Production Environment

Field: Agriculture and Nature Conservation

Sub-Field: Primary Agriculture

SETA (SGB): PAETA

Skills Area: Pests, Diseases & Weeds

Context: Citrus Farming

US No: 116429 Level: 5 Credits: 10

CitrusGrowers Associati

Copyright ©

P.O. Box 461, Hillcrest, 3650

Learner Guide Skills Area: Pests, Diseases & Weeds Level: 5 US#: 116429

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Directions This learning material has been developed to assist the learner wishing to complete this unit standard. The guide contains all necessary learning to ensure that the learner will attain the competencies required by the unit standard. The learner guide is accompanied by a Learner Assessment Guide. Please ensure that you have access to this guide as well. The learner guide was designed to be used by a learner during the presentation of a skills program based on the unit standard, and to be kept afterwards by the learner for reference purposes. The learner assessment guide was designed to be completed during and after the presentation of the skills program, and forms part of the assessment process. Although this learner guide contains all the information required for attaining competency in this unit standard, references to additional resources, both printed and electronic, are provided for further study by the learner. Information in boxes is indicated by tags that show:



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Introduction 1. Purpose

A learner achieving this unit standard will be able to recognise common insects, disease symptoms and weeds and know where to have those that are not common identified. Additionally, the learner will understand the basic principles of integrated pest management with basic control measures as per agricultural enterprise. The learner will also be able to assist in developing an integrated pest management (IPM) plan for the specific agricultural enterprise. A learner achieving this unit standard will be able to identify and monitor beneficial arthropods, identify, monitor and control pests, plant disease symptoms and weeds in a responsible manner by applying Integrated Pest Management Principles to conserve the environment. Learners will gain an understanding of sustainable agricultural practices as applied in the orchard farming sub-field. This unit standard focuses on the application of integrated pest management in primary agriculture. They will be able to participate in, undertake and plan farming practices with knowledge of their environment. This unit standard will instil a culture of maintenance and care for both the environment as well as towards farming infrastructure and operations.

2. Learning Assumed to be in Place It is assumed that the learner has successfully completed the unit standards listed below:

NQF Level Unit Standard Number Unit Standard Description

NQF4 Literacy and Numeracy

4 116301 Apply effective and responsible integrated pest, disease and weed control


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Table of Contents Directions ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Revision of Level 4 ................................................................................................................................ 6 Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 9 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9 2. The Importance of Monitoring ......................................................................................................... 9

2.1. Pests and Beneficial Organisms ................................................................................................ 9 2.1.1. The Fruit Fly ................................................................................................................. 10 2.1.2. Attractants .................................................................................................................... 10 2.1.3. Laying out Traps ........................................................................................................... 10 2.1.4. Thresholds .................................................................................................................... 10

2.2. Diseases .............................................................................................................................. 10 2.3. Weeds ................................................................................................................................. 11

3. Unknown Pests, Diseases or Weeds ............................................................................................... 11 4. The Importance of Regular Data Collection ..................................................................................... 11 5. Pest, Disease and Weed Control Processes ..................................................................................... 12

5.1. Biological control .................................................................................................................. 12 5.1.1. Classical biological control (CBC) ........................................................................................ 12 5.1.2. Conservation .................................................................................................................... 13 5.1.3. Augmentation ................................................................................................................... 13 5.2. Cultural Control .................................................................................................................... 13 5.2.1. Managed Application ......................................................................................................... 13 5.2.2. Sanitation ......................................................................................................................... 13 5.3. Chemical Control .................................................................................................................. 14

Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 16 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 16 2. The Importance of Receiving Data in a Particular Format ................................................................. 16 3. Other Data ................................................................................................................................... 16

3.1. Weather .............................................................................................................................. 17 3.2. Growth Stage ....................................................................................................................... 17 3.3. New Methods ....................................................................................................................... 17 3.4. Product Information .............................................................................................................. 18

4. Gathering Data ............................................................................................................................. 18 4.1. Scouting Records .................................................................................................................. 18 4.2. Weather Prediction ............................................................................................................... 18 4.3. Internet Research ................................................................................................................. 18 4.4. Publication ........................................................................................................................... 19

5. Identifying Pests, Beneficial Insects, Diseases ................................................................................. 19 6. Determining Pest and Beneficial Insect Population Levels ................................................................. 19 7. Analysing Data ............................................................................................................................. 19 Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 22 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 22 2. IPM Components .......................................................................................................................... 22

2.1. Acceptable Pest Levels .......................................................................................................... 22 2.2. Preventive Cultural Practices .................................................................................................. 23 2.3. Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 23 2.4. Mechanical controls .............................................................................................................. 23 2.5. Biological controls ................................................................................................................. 23 2.6. Chemical controls ................................................................................................................. 23

3. Control Measures ......................................................................................................................... 23 3.1. Mating Disruption ................................................................................................................. 23 3.2. Sterile Insect Technique ........................................................................................................ 24


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4. The Implementation Factors of the Different Control Measures ......................................................... 24 5. Resistance Management Strategies ................................................................................................ 24 6. Basic Health and Safety Measures .................................................................................................. 26 6.1. Employers ............................................................................................................................... 26 6.2. Employees ............................................................................................................................... 26 7. Chemical Use Control Measures ..................................................................................................... 26

7.1. Avoid Poisoning of Non-Targeted and Beneficial Organisms ...................................................... 27 7.1.1. Avoid Contamination of Natural Resources such as Soil and Water ..................................... 27 7.1.2. Avoid drift onto non-targeted organisms and areas .......................................................... 27

7.2. Disposing of empty containers ............................................................................................... 27 7.3. Managing Rinse Water .......................................................................................................... 28 7.4. Storage of Chemical .............................................................................................................. 28

7.4.1. Chemical Storage Requirements ..................................................................................... 28 7.4.2. Ventilation .................................................................................................................... 29 7.4.3. Lighting ........................................................................................................................ 29 7.4.4. Safe Storage of Chemicals .............................................................................................. 29

7.5. Emergency and Safety Plans .................................................................................................. 29 8. After Application Procedures .......................................................................................................... 30

8.1. Resistance Development ....................................................................................................... 30 8.2. Chemicals ............................................................................................................................ 30 8.3. Climatic Conditions ............................................................................................................... 30

Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 32 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 32 2. Filing Systems .............................................................................................................................. 32 3. Collecting and Filing Information ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 4. IPM Audits and GAP standards ....................................................................................................... 33

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 38


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Revision of Level 4 Demonstrate a basic understanding of the principles of integrated pest management.

Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for any farming enterprise.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an important component of IFP and entails the complementary integration of various pest control measures into a system which strives to balance maximisation of returns, long term sustainability and minimisation of environmental impact.

Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds is the most important aspect of an Integrated Production Management strategy since the monitoring activities will alert the grower early on, rather than later when infestation might be more difficult to manage.

Monitoring of pests and diseases is a useless exercise if it is not properly planned, followed up and recorded. It is thus important that all strategies used in the monitoring plan work effectively.

Without a well structured and maintained recordkeeping programme, decision regarding pests controlled will be uninformed, and the effectiveness of measures taken will not be determined.

Identify and differentiate between economically damageable pests, sporadic pests, diseases and symptoms using guides or resource material.

The IPM regime can be quite simple, or sophisticated enough to be a farming system in its own right. The main focus is usually insect pests, but IPM encompasses diseases, weeds, and any other naturally occurring biological crop threat.

Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests, weeds and diseases in agriculture that relies on natural predation, parasitism or other natural mechanism, rather than introduced chemicals.

Recognition of both harmful and beneficial organisms impacting on citrus production is essential to development of a sound IPM program.

In order to make more informed decisions concerning biological pest control, beneficial organisms must be identified and collected in the orchard to determine how many organisms are in the orchard.

The most important tool that you could use in learning how to scout is to take the CRI scouting guide and go out into the orchard and try to find some of the specific pests or pests symptoms depicted there.

It is helpful to consult specialists and publications in terms of new developments and research in the field of pest, disease and weed identification and IPM.

Pest and disease causing organisms can be identified in different methods. Most diseases are identified through the symptoms that are displayed and the damage that is seen gives

a detailed account of the symptoms observed. Monitoring and scouting frequencies vary between farms and production areas, but are usually set at

specific intervals and time periods per orchard with an indication of specific scouting points. The weather plays a very important part in how pest populations behave and how they are affected by

any actions taken against them. Understand the different types of control measures that can be applied in integrated pest management program for pests, diseases and weeds.

An IPM system is designed around six basic components: • Acceptable pest levels • Preventive cultural practices • Monitoring • Mechanical controls • Biological controls • Chemical controls

The three general approaches available for managing pests of citrus are: cultural control, biological control and chemical control.


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Biological control may be seen as consisting of three major components, namely classical biological control, conservation of bio control agents and augmentation.

Classical biological control (CBC) relies on the co-evolution of the host plant, pests and their natural enemies over long periods.

Conservation of bio control agents relies on the cultural control practices described below and the minimisation of the effect of plant protection products on an existing bio control complex.

Augmentation of critical components of the bio control complex relies on the timeous release of insectary-reared bio control agents.

Surprisingly simple modifications of a pest's environment or habitat often prove to be effective methods of pest control. As a group, these tactics are usually known as cultural control practices because they frequently involve variations of standard horticultural, silvicultural, or animal husbandry practices.

Good management philosophy for selection of pesticides embraces the premise that for a given pest situation, a particular pesticide or combination of pesticides will provide the most appropriate and cost-effective control among those available.

Mating disruption (MD) involves the use of pheromones, i.e. the chemicals produced by an insect which evoke a specific response in the other individuals of the same species.

Though not widely practiced in agriculture, a biological control method to take heed of is the Sterile Insect Technique. SIT is the first insect pest control method that uses genetics. It is most simply described as a form of insect birth control that is carried out on an area-wide basis.

A strategy which works hand in hand with IPM is pesticide Resistance Management (RM) because the reduction of pesticide use in an IPM program is the most effective strategy for reducing the development of resistant pests.

Assist in developing a plan to assist the decision making process on the type of control to apply.

Monitoring, scouting and trapping are the major methods used to collect information about the presence of pests, weeds and diseases in the citrus orchard. These methods are also used to monitor the effectiveness of the IPM and any control methods that might have been implemented on the farm.

Once scouting forms have been completed form are handed into the IPM manager for analysis. The IPM manager will capture the data from the forms. When capturing the data the IPM manager will firstly compare the records against the monitoring plan to ensure that the plan was followed and the correct orchards was scouted in the correct manner.

Once all the monitoring data have been collected and captured a monitoring report are designed containing all the information and graphs. This monitoring report is then used to make management decision about the direction the IPM plan should take.

Control methods selected must be prioritised and an action plan developed to determine when methods will be implemented.

The control method action plan is used to determine when certain methods are implemented. Part of the action plan will be instructions on how methods should be implemented and the techniques used.

To ensure that the implementation process takes place as planned records must be kept of all implementation facets. These records must ensure that all application instructions detailed in the action plan are followed precisely and adhered to.

The application method chosen will depend on the control method used. When the action plan is developed detailing the implementation process and schedule of control

methods, there are several factors that must be taken into account such as predicted weather conditions and the growth stage of the tree or fruit.

When developing the action plan all safety measures that must be implemented to ensure worker and environmental safety must be considered and noted. The safety measures that need to be implemented are specified by legislation and must also include social responsibility issues.

Some control methods such as the application of fertiliser through irrigation requires large amounts of water to be available during the application of control methods.

Execute post-application monitoring.

Field monitoring is the key to an integrated pest management program. When performed systematically on a quantitative basis, it provides the information needed to detect important changes in pest activity


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and disease incidence, evaluate pesticide performance, and establish seasonal records for evaluating and upgrading managerial decisions.

The efficacy of an applied agricultural chemical or other pest control action can only be determined through follow-up monitoring of the pest population against which the application was aimed.

Some chemical applications require a follow-up application or forms part of an application program which involves additional actions or alternating applications in combination with other chemicals. These follow-up actions are of vital importance to ensure that the desired effect is reached against the pest.

Post application monitoring activities must also include check for any damage that the application of chemical treatments might have caused. Any damage noted must be investigated.

Many risks exist when taking agro-chemical action against a pest. It is important to be alert to symptoms of the chemical harming the crop, the environment or the health of humans or animals. All agro-chemicals should have a list of health risks or side effects on the product label.

Apply environmental and community considerations.

When drafting a detailed Integrated Pest Management plan for a citrus farm, it is necessary to consider more than simply the citrus crop and the economic benefits for the citrus grower. It is important to take a balanced and sustainable view that considers the immediate environment and its natural resources as well as the surrounding community and its health, safety and socio-economic needs.

A non-targeted organism is anything that isn’t supposed to be touched or affected by the chemical application. In the case of herbicides, it means that the crop that is being grown and any protected or sensitive indigenous plants in the area should not be harmed or affected by the herbicide.

Care should be taken when applying sprays so that spray drift does not contaminate water sources, such as dams, streams, and springs.

Foliar sprays should not be applied when wind speed exceeds 12km/h. High wind speeds will negatively affect spray coverage of the tree, which could result in poor control of the target pest or disease.

Empty chemical containers must under no circumstances be reused for any purpose whatsoever. Even if the container has been washed thoroughly the risk of contamination remains high.

One of the areas where the danger of natural resource contamination is high but is most often overlooked on a farm is rinse water.

Oversee the management of an agrochemical storage facility effectively and responsibly.

Farm chemical stores should be for the sole use of agrochemicals and free from combustible storage. They should be dry, frost free well ventilated and secure against theft and vandalism.

Before we decide what we need to receive, it is necessary to first orientate ourselves with regards the type of storage that would be required in order to store goods in.

Cross ventilation is essential to keep fumes and vapours inside a store to an acceptable level, this can be achieved with vents at high and low levels consistent with security and the need to contain spillages.

Stores must have adequate natural or artificial light by the provision of sufficient window area or artificial, electric, lighting.

Safety signs are displayed in and around the chemical store and can even be displayed while agricultural chemicals are applied.

All workers must be fully trained in workplace safety regulations, the use of safety equipment and clothing and similar regulations should be enforced at all times.

The first step in identifying a product is to consult the chemical label. All chemicals must, by law, have a label on the container.

To ensure a safe working environment and to enable people to adequately deal with accidents such as fires and spillage, proper adherence to Critical Control Point Management is essential.

In general, store different types of chemicals and fertilisers separately, away from processing and handling areas, and from other materials.

Emergency situations occur even where every precaution has been taken to prevent it from happening. It is essential that all personnel that are authorised to handle and come into contact with chemicals are aware of the steps that are to be taken in case of emergency.

At all times allow only trained, authorized people into storage areas. Keep the amount of corrosive material in storage as small as possible.


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Chapter 1 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Supervise the monitoring and/or trapping of pests, diseases and weeds, and the recording of such information for the development of an integrated management plan 1. Introduction

As fresh fruit producers, Southern African citrus growers have to deal with a range of pests, diseases and weeds that pose threats to the internal or external quality of fruit or the yield of the fruit tree. In some instances pests and diseases is responsible for increased fungal decay during the long journeys to overseas markets and weeds, competing with the tree for the same limited available resources, can severely affect the yield and fruit quality of the tree. Citrus pest management is one of the most dynamic aspects of pre-harvest production of citrus fruit. There are dozens of different pests, diseases and weeds that can occur in citrus orchards in Southern Africa, although usually there are only a few that occur and that require any form of control measure. In order to control these key pests, diseases and weeds in the orchard, citrus growers must design, develop and integrated pest management plan. An integrated pest management plan or IPM plan is an holistic approach to pest management combining different control methods to ensure that pest are controlled in an cost effective and socially responsible manner, whilst doing as little damage possible to the environment and natural resources.

2. The Importance of Monitoring Integrated pest management is based on monitoring and scouting for the presence of pest, diseases and weeds and only applying control methods once the presence of the pests, diseases or weeds reaches predefined thresholds. The monitoring and scouting activities form the base of the IPM plan and must be recorded in order to determine the plan’s effectiveness and to ensure that all decisions made concerning the control of pests, diseases and weeds in the orchard are informed and based on current pests and disease activities and not only on historical data. Effective scouting and monitoring procedures consists of the trapping and collection of pests and beneficial insects as well as the identification of diseases and weeds that are present in the orchard. 2.1. Pests and Beneficial Organisms

The ratio between pest insect and beneficial or predatory insect population numbers are crucial to determining the control method that must be implemented once threshold level have been reached. GAP and IPM guidelines always stipulate that biological control options are the preferred method of controlling pest population in the citrus orchard. The reason for this is that once the correct ratio between predators and pests have been reached pest population levels are naturally controlled and little if any chemical application will be necessary. Thereby biological control is usually the most economically viable and environmentally friendly control option. The most common way of determining the pest population levels is the use of traps. The citrus orchard is susceptible to infestation from a wide variety of pest and in the level 2, 3 and 4 the most common of these pests and traps used in the orchard are discussed. As an example we will now look at one of the most common and economically damaging pests common in the Southern African citrus industry the fruit fly. The method used to trap and determine the level of infestation by the


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fruit fly are common and can be adjusted to most insect species although the prescribed method of determining infestation levels for particular species must be followed once the presence of a species have been detected in an orchard.

2.1.1. The Fruit Fly There are two fruit fly species that pose a serious threat to the citrus industry in Southern Africa they are the Mediterranean fruit fly and the Natal fruit fly. The species distribution is subject to seasonal as well as local differences; both species are however attracted to protein attractants, toxins and lures for use in traps. As a result they can be treated as single pests which pose a threat to annual citrus production.

Fruit fly activity can only be monitored with traps and it is important that fruit fly activity be monitored during peak activity periods. This makes it essential that the grower and the scout are familiar with the life cycle of the fruit fly as well as when the fruit fly are more active in their specific production area.

2.1.2. Attractants In Southern Africa a Census type fly trap is most commonly used to trap fruit flies. These traps consist of a blue lid with a transparent receptacle in which flies are collected. Three types of attractants can be used in these traps to lure fruit flies, these are: • Capilure – a red Capilure capsule is attached to the lid of the trap. Capilure only attracts

male flies only • Questlure – a green Questlure capsule is attached to the lid of the trap. Questlure

attracts mostly female flies. • Ceratitislure – a blue Ceratitislure is attached to the lid of the trap. Ceratitislure attracts

mostly male flies but is seldom used in citrus.

It is important never to use two attractant in the same trap.

2.1.3. Laying out Traps The more traps that can be placed in the orchard the better, bearing in mind that natural variations of fly density can occur. It is considered that the minimum trap density should be one trap for every three hectares of citrus. Individual traps should be hung inside the foliage canopy on the northern side of the trees inside the foliage canopy. Inside the canopy the traps should hang freely so that it does not become entangled with leaves or fruit. Traps should be examined weekly and the fly catches recorded by number and sex.

2.1.4. Thresholds Treatment threshold for the use of the traps and lures as described above are:

• Capilure – four fruit flies per week • Questlure – two female flies per week. • Ceratitislure – no female flies per week or four male flies per week.

If higher numbers of flies are found in the traps it indicates that control methods currently used is inadequate and that intervention is required.

2.2. Diseases It should be appreciated by all growers that the status of any existing disease is ever-changing and that the potential always exists of a new disease developing. Existing diseases can easily become resistant to our methods of control and new diseases can and do often suddenly appear. For example a new disease can be transmitted through an insect vector from an indigenous bush into


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and adjoining citrus orchard. In such a case the citrus host can provide and ideal substrate for the infecting organism with devastating results. A new disease can then not only spread through the orchard but can destroy entire production regions as is the case currently in Oman where the entire lime industry of that country is being destroyed by a new disease. Monitoring and scouting is the only way to detect the outbreak of any disease and hopefully implement successful control methods, timeously, to control such a disease. An earnest appeal is therefore made to all citrus growers to constantly monitor and scout orchards for the presence of unusual leaf or fruit symptoms and to report their occurance to institutes such as Citrus Research International for identification. Without monitoring and the effective recording of these surveillance practices, diseases can develop and infect entire production regions and cause great financial loses to producers and labourers.

2.3. Weeds Citrus producers are required by law and by GAP standards to control unwanted plant growth on their farms and production areas. Weeds compete with other plants such as citrus trees for the available resources and, if their presence is not controlled and kept too acceptable levels, can adversely affect production yields and fruit quality. Weed infestations can also cause outbreaks of pests and diseases as they can offer a natural habitat for damaging pests and provide the ideal conditions for diseases to develop.

3. Unknown Pests, Diseases or Weeds During monitoring and scouting activities it happens often that scout will come across species of insects, sign of infection or plant growth which they are not familiar with. It is always good practice to collect samples of any unknown insects, unnatural growth or unknown plant for the purpose of identification. There are several publications available that can be used to indentify insect and plant species common to certain areas. These publications should be kept on hand to ease identification and to classify new species. Any new specie, whether it is an insect or a previously unknown plant, must be classified into different categories. A new insect can either be a pests, a vector of disease, a predator that attacks other species or a beneficial species. If a new pest is detected methods of control must be investigated and threshold levels must be set. All new insect species must be incorporated into the IPM and their levels monitored. New plant growth species can be categorised using the CARA act as legislated by government. If new species are shown to be unwanted plant growth, methods of control must be investigated and incorporated into the IPM plan. Unnatural plant growth such as growth on leaves, fruit or stems must be collected and send to local laboratories for identification. Citrus growers should always report unnatural plant growth and take samples to local CRI offices for identification purposes as unnatural plant growth maybe an indication of a new or unknown disease infecting the area and the identification and treatment of such and diseases must take priority above all other production practices on the farm. If new diseases have been identified on a farm, these diseases must be incorporated into the IPM plan and there occurance recorded and monitored.

4. The Importance of Regular Data Collection At its heart any IPM plan is based on scouting and observation practices. Workers used to perform these tasks are by necessity some of the most valued and well trained workers on the farm as the IPM plan is a critical part of any integrated fruit production plan.


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Scouting and monitoring activities that includes activities such as physical scouting and the placement and clearing of traps and pheromones are all noted and recorded on scouting forms. An example and discussion around the use of scouting forms can be found in level 2, 3 and 4 learner modules. The scouting record forms the base of the recordkeeping structure that drives the implementation and decision making processes of the IPM plan. You can have the best and most well trained scouts collecting this data but if this data is not collected and analysed the scouting process will be useless and the IPM ineffective. In the level 4 learner guide we discuss how data from records must be collated and used to develop graphs of insect, pests and beneficial, populations and weed infestations. Population and infestation graphs are used to determine if any action needs to be taken and if control methods that have been implemented were effective. Population and infestation graphs can only be effective if records are collected and evaluated on a regular basis. Only by combining data that was regularly collected over a period of time can graphs be used to show trends in population and infestation growths or decline. As part of the development of an IPM plan scouting structures and schedules must be collected and implemented. The collection and analysis of scouting records must be collated with the scouting schedules to ensure that scouting took place at the correct time and the correct at the frequency. The evaluation of scouting data must also be used to determine the effectiveness of the IPM plan and areas where the plan can be improved. These areas of improvement must be determined by analysing pest or disease outbreaks and determining if they could have been prevented by increasing the frequency of scouting or by implementing different scouting and monitoring activities. This constant monitoring improvement of the IPM plan is a requirement of all GAP schemes.

5. Pest, Disease and Weed Control Processes IPM is a holistic approach to the management of pests, diseases and weeds in a citrus orchard. Once scouting activities determines that a pest, disease or a weed has reached threshold limits and a control method should be considered then there are three general approaches available for managing pests of citrus. These are: cultural control, biological control and chemical control. The first two are preventative processes in nature and may have more impact on long-term production, while chemical control provides short-term relief or prevention from pest pressure.

5.1. Biological control

Biological control may be seen as consisting of three major components, namely classical biological control, conservation of bio control agents and augmentation. All these control process are discussed in the level 4 learner guide, herewith a short discussion concerning each.

5.1.1. Classical biological control (CBC)

Classical biological control (CBC) relies on the co-evolution of the host plant, pests and their natural enemies over long periods. Many pests originate from outside of Southern Africa. The co-evolved natural enemies of particular pests often do not accompany the pests when first introduced into Southern Africa.

The aim of CBC is to permanently establish these introduced bio control agents and consequently, reduce the status of the pest below an economically damaging threshold. Biological control options rely on a close relationship between pest and natural enemy to achieve results of commercial significance. Natural enemies need to achieve a balance with their specific hosts. Unfortunately, CBC does not provide a solution to all pests since endeavours to find an appropriate bio control agent in the area of pest origin may be unsuccessful, the pest may be


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better adapted to its new environment than its bio control agents, or the pest may be an indigenous organism which has adopted citrus as a new and favourable host. Furthermore, the need to routinely resort to chemical intervention for the control of other pests may compromise the efficacy of the bio control complex.

5.1.2. Conservation

Conservation of bio control agents relies on the cultural control practices described below and the minimisation of the effect of plant protection products on an existing bio control complex. Judicious selection of plant protection products to be used goes hand in hand with limiting reliance on chemical intervention to instances where it is essential to avoid financial losses.

5.1.3. Augmentation Augmentation of critical components of the bio control complex relies on the timeous release of insectary-reared bio control agents. This technique is still in the early stages of development in Southern African citrus industry but it potentially offers a highly attractive, sustainable and environmentally acceptable component of an IPM strategy. This step from passively allowing the bio control complex to realise its inherent pest control potential, to actively manipulating the population dynamics of particular bio control agents, is what characterises bio-intensive IPM. Commercial insectaries currently supply parasitic wasps for the control of citrus mealybug, red scale and false codling moth, and predatory beetles for the control of mealybug and red scale.

• Certain basic principles of natural enemy augmentation need to be implemented in

order to enjoy success with this approach: • These natural enemies must be released into an orchard environment that is suitable

for their survival. • Augmentation of parasitoids cannot be used to correctively control high pest levels. • Parasitoid augmentation is a preventative approach, and therefore releases should be

initiated as early as possible in the season. • Releases should be conducted approximately monthly and should continue for a few

months, preferably until parasitism of the target pest is at an acceptable level. • Predators can more easily be released correctively against high levels of pest

infestation. • Through research, recommended release densities of certain natural enemies have

been determined. • Pest control achieved through natural enemy augmentation is gradual.

5.2. Cultural Control

Surprisingly simple modifications of a pest's environment or habitat often prove to be effective methods of pest control. As a group, these tactics are usually known as cultural control practices because they frequently involve variations of standard horticultural, silvicultural practices. Since these control tactics usually modify the relationships between a pest population and its natural environment, they are also known, less commonly, as ecological control methods. Unfortunately, there are still a wide variety of insect pests that cannot be suppressed by cultural methods alone.

5.2.1. Managed Application

Managed application of water or fertilizer can have a big impact on the survival of pest populations in some crops. Good irrigation and appropriate fertilization keeps plants healthy, vigorous, and more resistant to insect injury.

5.2.2. Sanitation

Sanitation is another cultural control strategy that may be highly effective for some pests. Clean cultivation is often recommended as a way to eliminate shelter and/or over wintering sites for pest populations. Although it works well in corn and cotton cultivation, clean cultivation is not always the best solution for eliminating pest populations. In some cases,


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ground cover or crop debris shelters natural enemies that are important members of the ecosystem. Without adequate shelter these beneficial populations would die or move away.

The goal of cultural control is to use all practical horticultural techniques to reduce the likelihood of pest problems. These should encompass all phases of production, beginning with site selection and progress through the nursery operation to field establishment and eventually during full production.

5.3. Chemical Control

Good management philosophy for selection of pesticides embraces the premise that for a given pest situation, a particular pesticide or combination of pesticides will provide the most appropriate and cost-effective control among those available. Choosing the proper chemical requires familiarity with product labels and performance. Other factors to consider in selecting a chemical include:

• Cost effectiveness. • Hazard to beneficial and other non-target organisms. • Potential hazards to applicators, environment, orchard or fruit crop. • Limitations or restrictions on application. • Impact on development of pest resistance. • The Maximum Residue Levels specified by importing countries.

Product efficacy refers to the level of pesticidal qualities of a product with respect to specific target pests and is a relative measure of effectiveness when compared to performance of other products available for similar usage. Characteristics influencing efficacy include the time required for the product to gain control, the amount of residual control and the spectrum of pests controlled. Knowledge of individual product characteristics is important when choosing the most appropriate pesticide. Residual action in itself may or may not be a desirable quality depending on circumstances. Long-residual pesticides also may reduce the effectiveness of beneficial organisms.


Chapter 1

Citrus pest management is one of the most dynamic aspects of pre-harvest production of citrus fruit. There are dozens of different pests, diseases and weeds that can occur in citrus orchards in Southern Africa, although usually there are only a few that occur and that require any form of control measure.

Integrated pest management is based on monitoring and scouting for the presence of pest, diseases and weeds and only applying control methods once the presence of the pests, diseases or weeds reaches predefined thresholds.

The ratio between pest insect and beneficial or predatory insect population numbers are crucial to determining the control method that must be implemented once threshold level have been reached.

It should be appreciated by all growers that the status of any existing disease is ever-changing and that the potential always exists of a new disease developing. Existing diseases can easily become resistant to our methods of control and new diseases can and do often suddenly appear.

Citrus producers are required by law and by GAP standards to control unwanted plant growth on their farms and production areas. Weeds compete with other plants such as citrus trees for the available resources and, if their presence is not controlled and kept too acceptable


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levels, can adversely affect production yields and fruit quality. During monitoring and scouting activities it happens often that scout will come across species

of insects, sign of infection or plant growth which they are not familiar with. It is always good practice to collect samples of any unknown insects, unnatural growth or unknown plant for the purpose of identification.

At its heart any IPM plan is based on scouting and observation practices. Workers used to perform these tasks are by necessity some of the most valued and well trained workers on the farm as it is a critical part of any integrated farm management plan.

IPM is a holistic approach to the management of pests, diseases and weeds in a citrus orchard. Once scouting activities determines that a pest, disease or a weed has reached threshold limits and a control method should be considered then there are three general approaches available for managing pests of citrus. These are: cultural control, biological control and chemical control.

Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook. Letsitele citrus farm, river frontage, with valencias, star ruby and marsh. Research common pests, diseases and weeds. Develop a scouting and monitoring plan and the relevant records. Relate common control methods currently in use for controlling the pests diseases and weeds you identified. Describe pest, disease and weed ID process Analyse another person’s IPM constructed in activity one and discuss why the monitoring frequency he/she suggested is adequate or not. Look especially at how the fruit varieties on the farm will influence when monitoring is increased and decreased. Develop a training programme to train scouts.



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Chapter 2 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Collate the data for use in an integrated management plan. 1. Introduction

There are various types of data that has to be collected to provide information concerning the various processes and procedures that form part of a well managed an profitable integrated farm management plan. The correct use of data and information is one of the main characteristics of a well run and successful farm. The flow of data and information must be assessed and monitored throughout and evaluated whether it meets the requirements of management. As discussed in chapter one, the basis of any successful integrated pest management plan is scouting and the analysis and evaluation of the data gathered during scouting procedures.

2. The Importance of Receiving Data in a Particular Format In chapter 1 we saw how the IPM plan monitoring data is collected and evaluated to provide information to management that is used to determine what control methods if any needs to be applied to manage the occurance of pests, diseases and weeds on a citrus farm. Data is collected, captured and then presented in such a fashion that trends in the population and infestation levels of pests, diseases and weeds becomes apparent. To ascertain that all the necessary data is collected a system of recordkeeping must be developed and adhered to. As part of the recordkeeping system a scouting record must be designed in such a manner that information collected in the record are concise and structured. Most commonly records will make use of check blocks and comment spaces to ensure that all facets that must be scouted receive the necessary attention. In the level 3 learner guide an example of a commonly used scouting record is available. To ensure that records are completed correctly all scouts must be trained not only in the recognition of different pest, diseases and weeds but also on the importance and mythology of record keeping. Well designed and structured records will be easier to evaluate and capture. If different records are used to monitor scouting activities data capturing activities will be more difficult as the different record formats will necessitate the data capturer to search for the correct data and thereby wasting time and creating the possibility of making mistakes by missing relevant data.

3. Other Data There are various other factors that must be taken into account such as predicted weather conditions, the growth stage of the tree or fruit and new control methods that might be available to the grower before an informed decision concerning the choice of a control method can be made. The type of product to be used during the controlling technique will also influence the action plan development. Data concerning all the factors that can have an influence on the decision making process must be collected and collated in the IPM plan. Once the data has been collected and evaluated the relevant information will become available to ensure that well an informed decision can made and regarding the control method that will be economically, socially and environmentally the best.


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3.1. Weather As discussed in previous chapters, weather conditions can severely affect the application of plant protection products. Rain or conditions where relative humidity levels are excessively high can cause pesticides or fungicides to have insufficient contact time on the plant or fruit to be effective. Windy conditions can cause spray applications to drift and not be effectively targeted. The weather also plays a very important part in how pest populations behave and how they are affected by any actions taken against them. In high humidity conditions, one can expect the likelihood of a fungal disease break-out to increase dramatically because the increased humidity creates an ideal growth environment for the fungi. As a result, actions might be taken on a preventative basis. Many weather stations actually release warnings in terms of the likelihood of specific diseases breaking out under specific conditions. Long term forecasts on yearly weather patterns and rainfall as provided by the SA Weather Bureau are normally used for planning and the allocation of water for irrigation. Medium term forecasts for one to two weeks are also available from the Weather Bureau as well as from private agencies. The information from the agencies are 7 to 10 day forecasts and focused on control of diseases on specific crops like Alternaria and Black Spot control in citrus. The forecasts are updated on a daily basis and are therefore also used on short term. The projected data provided includes the following:

• Average, maximum and minimum temperatures • Chances of rain with possible precipitation • Radiation levels • Relative humidity levels • Wind direction and speed • Evapo-transpiration Rate

Coupled to the above is a 5-day projection for spray conditions indicating day and time of day and based on projected wind, rainfall, dew wetness and frost data. The Weather Bureau also supplies forecasts on a one to four day basis in the daily papers as well as on television. A wide base of information is therefore available to the citrus grower to use for planning IPM strategies.

3.2. Growth Stage Certain plant protection products and other control procedures are only effective if applied at the correct growth stage of the tree of fruit. If a method is applied at the wrong time, crops and fruit can be damaged and the application ineffective. This is especially important when applying hormones to control fruit growth and development. Certain cultural control options such as orchard sanitation and tree pruning can only be performed during certain growth stages of the tree and fruit to ensure maximum yield. Other cultural practices such as irrigation and fertilisation is also only effective and when applied during the correct growth stage of the tree. Data concerning the correct time when certain control methods should be applied and when not data can be obtained from plant protection product suppliers or from CRI extension offices. This data must be collected, evaluated and collated into the IPM plan.

3.3. New Methods Constant innovation and research in the citrus industry means that new methods of control are constantly developed and tested. Thorough research into new control methods are required in order to ensure that most cost effective and social responsible control methods are always used.


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Citrus research international is responsible for most research conducted in the Southern African citrus industry and through yearly roadshows at the start of the citrus season they provide growers with the necessary information regarding new control methods. Plant protection product supplier and insectarium publications are also a good way of researching and keeping up to date with issues regarding pest, disease and weed control. Al research done into new control methods should be recorded. Any new control methods that might proof to be beneficial to the farming enterprise must be investigated and the economical viability researched to determine whether the new method should be included in the list of approved control methods or if more research is necessary.

3.4. Product Information Product information on labels and data from suppliers must be collected and collated into the IPM plan. The data must be used to determine the most effective product to apply at the correct time. Suppliers can make recommendation about when products should be applied and how products should be stored and handled as well as the correct concentration to use to achieve the required effect. Not only data concerning the plant protection products but data concerning all agrochemicals and products used for monitoring and other control methods must be collected and collated into the IPM plan.

4. Gathering Data All the data necessary to develop the IPM plan, from the different sources discussed above, needs to be collected and captured. The data comes from a variety of sources and the techniques used to collect data from each source must be defined and incorporated into the IPM plan. Data collection must be structured and scheduled to ensure that all necessary data is collected on a regular basis and from all the required sources. 4.1. Scouting Records

Scouting records are obtained from the scouting teams after scouting have been preformed. Scouting records includes records used for normal scouting and monitoring activities as well as specific weed scouting activities in the different control areas.

4.2. Weather Prediction As discussed previously weather predictions are available from a variety of sources. To ensure that the correct data is obtained all the sources that supply weather data on the area where the farm or production area is situated must be identified and collection strategies defined. Weather predictions can be obtained by phone, in the media or on the internet. Most commonly a combination of all these collection techniques should be employed in order to ensure that all the necessary data is collected.

4.3. Internet Research To ascertain that a grower stays on top of new control method development internet research needs to be done on a regular basis. Internet sites that might contain research information must be indentified and some cases subscribed to in order to receive up to date data from them on a regular basis. Once all relevant sites have been identified and listed a schedule should be developed to ensure that all the relevant site are researched on a regular basis and in an structured manner.


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4.4. Publication Certain publication offer data and information critical to the IPM plan and the de elopement of the IPM plan. These can be publication such as:

• IPM publication • Agrochemical product supplier publications • Insectarium publications • Research facility publications.

All these publications must be identified and collected on a regular basis. The relevant data in these publications must be captured and incorporated into the IPM plan. Furthermore all growers must have books available that can be used to identify pests, diseases and weeds.

5. Identifying Pests, Beneficial Insects, Diseases

Through the study of publications and by performing internet research data can be obtained that can help in identifying pests, diseases and weeds that are most likely to occur in your citrus orchards or on other areas of your farm. Once samples of pests, diseases or weeds have been obtained these samples must be compared to pictures, or in the case of diseases the symptoms must be compared to symptoms, in the publications and identified. If the organism cannot be identified by comparing it to available publication the steps described in Chapter 1 for the identification of unknown species must be followed.

6. Determining Pest and Beneficial Insect Population Levels As discussed in chapter 1 the method most commonly used to determine the insect population levels are trapping. Trapping are used to capture both beneficial and pest insects. Different traps are used to trap different insects and insect species, in level 2, 3 and 4 learner guides we discuss the different traps and lures that are available to the citrus grower for use in order to determine the population levels of both pest and beneficial insects. The ratio between pest and beneficial insect levels are the major determining factor of the effectiveness of bio-control methods. It is important for the grower to know this ratio as a decline in beneficial insect numbers might lead to a sudden outbreak of pests. Population levels must also be determined in order to determine if insect population levels are within the specified threshold. Population threshold levels for pest are levels that have been determined by research and the evaluation of historical data. Once threshold levels have been reached or passed it becomes necessary to select and implement control methods in order to avoid economical losses. Thresholds differ from insect species to specie and from production area to production area. In Southern Africa CRI extension offices in the different production areas can give a grower the information concerning the specific threshold that applies to the specific region and the pests common in that area.

7. Analysing Data In the level 4 learner guide we discuss the process used to evaluate and analyse IPM data. All captured IPM data is captured and formatted into a management report. This management report and the information in the report are used to make decisions concerning the effectiveness of current control methods and also to develop action plans. Any IPM plan report must be concise and deliver the necessary information in a structured and easily understandable manner. Graphs are commonly used to display trends in population levels and to show the effect that control methods have on population levels. Figure 2.1 is an example of such a graph.


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00.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.5

Week1

Week2

Week3

Week4

Week5

Week6

Week7

Week8

Fruit Fly

Figure 2.1 – Fruit flies collected in Traps. (Chemical control applied in week 4)

Chapter 2

There are various types of data that has to be collected to provide information concerning the various processes and procedures that form part of a well managed an profitable integrated farm management plan. The correct use of data and information is one of the main characteristics of a well run and successful farm.

There are various other factors that must be taken into account such as predicted weather conditions, the growth stage of the tree or fruit and new control methods that might be available to the grower before an informed decision concerning the choice of a control method can be made. The type of product to be used during the controlling technique will also influence the action plan development.

Data concerning all the factors that can have an influence on the decision making process must be collected and collated in the IPM plan.

All data sources must be identified and data collection techniques defined so that data collection can take place in an organised and regulated manner.

Through the study of publications and by performing internet research data can be obtained that can help in identifying pests, diseases and weeds that are most likely to occur in your citrus orchards or on other areas of your farm.

The ratio between pest and beneficial insect levels are the major determining factor of the effectiveness of bio-control methods. It is important for the grower to know this ratio as a decline in beneficial insect numbers might lead to a sudden outbreak of pests.

The management report and the information in the report are used to make decisions concerning the effectiveness of current control methods and also to develop action plans.


Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook.


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Study your record develop in activity one and compare your scouting record with the scouting record example given in the level 3 learner guide. Note the differences and discuss in a group the positive and negative aspects of each. Obtain weather predictions obtained from various sources choose a three week period in june and discuss how the predicted conditions will influence the choice of control method and the frequency of scouting activities. Design a complete IPM management plan for your fictional farm. The plan must include weed control measures as well as a research structure. (remember that your farm has a river frontage when developing the weed control plan)


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Chapter 3 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Implement an integrated pest, disease and weed management plan 1. Introduction

Traditionally on all agricultural crops, chemical control has been the way in which all these pests, disease and weeds have been controlled. But with citrus, from about the 1950's, certain problems were experienced with chemical control. These were problems such as secondary pest outbreaks from the use of broad spectrum harsh chemicals and the increasing cost of chemical control related to rising oil prices. Another problem was that the pests developed resistance to chemical pesticides. What developed as a result of that was an approach called integrated pest management. Integrated pest management is the approach that the Southern African citrus industry adopts towards their pre-harvest pest control for the most part.

2. IPM Components

An IPM plan consists of a number of different components and influencing factors. In short and IPM plan is a holistic approach to pest management incorporating different elements The first element is that an IPM plan is a multifaceted approach that consist of three main factors, being biological control, cultural control and chemical control. The second element would be the use of economic thresholds, intervention thresholds or action thresholds, which would be measurements to determine when one needs to act. The third element would be environmental responsibility or environmental conservation. This might sound just like an esoteric add-on, but in fact, very strong practical and commercial reasons can be given for adopting environmentally responsible approach. Very often within the IPM approach the emphasis is laid on the integration of the three approaches – biological, chemical and cultural. However, the emphases should lay on management and management implies an understanding. In order to be a good manager and to practice a good understanding, one needs to accumulate and interpret relevant, accurate and specific data for each and every orchard and for each and every single pest on that farm. This will determine not only if and when or what it is necessary to spray, but almost more importantly, it will determine when it is not necessary to spray. This could be a great cost saving to the farmer and could also be very influential in preserving the beneficial natural enemies in that orchard which would be influenced by a spray. An IPM system is designed around six basic components:

2.1. Acceptable Pest Levels

An IPM place the emphasis on pest control, not eradication. The IPM approach holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and all-round counterproductive. It is thereby better to decide on what constitutes acceptable pest levels, and apply controls only if those levels are reached and then only to bring pests levels within the acceptable parameters.


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2.2. Preventive Cultural Practices Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defence. This approach must start with the planning of new orchards or farm and be continued when production practices such as irrigation, fertilisation and orchard sanitation is planned.

2.3. Monitoring

Regular observation and scouting is the cornerstone of IPM. Visual inspection, insect traps, and other measurement methods are used to monitor pest levels. Recordkeeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behaviour and reproductive cycles of target pests, diseases and weeds.

2.4. Mechanical controls

Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding. Mechanical controls are also the most acceptable method of controlling weed and unwanted plant growth infestations.

2.5. Biological controls

Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests or diseases.

2.6. Chemical controls

Considered as an IPM last resort, synthetic pesticides may be used when other controls fail or are deemed unlikely to prove effective. Biological insecticides, derived from plants or naturally occurring micro organisms, also fit in this category.

In order to implement these principles correctly and efficiently it becomes vitally important that the grower has a thorough understanding of the different types of pests and infestation levels that would cause economic damage to the crop. Without this understanding, it will become nearly impossible to implement the principles of IPM and to make sound decisions regarding monitoring and control methods.

3. Control Measures

As seen any IPM plan is based on making the correct decisions concerning when and which control method should be applied once pests, disease or weed levels have reached predefined thresholds whether they might be economic, intervention or action thresholds. In the first chapter we discuss the control methods commonly used when pest, disease or weed populations require control. Other methods of control that must be considered and researched before a decision concerning which control method to use is made are mating disruption and the sterile insect technique. 3.1. Mating Disruption

Mating disruption (MD) involves the use of pheromones, i.e. the chemicals produced by an insect which evoke a specific response in the other individuals of the same species. MD is based on the principle that when a specific pheromone is released in the air in an orchard in sufficiently high quantity, the males are unable to orient to natural sources of pheromone and fail to locate the calling female and the reproduction is prevented.


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Mating disruption aims to prevent male and female insects from coming in contact with each other. Mating disruption works in one of 3 ways: • Peripheral and Central Nervous System Effects • False Trails • Masking

Mating disruption and the advantages and disadvantages of using this control is discussed in more detail in the level 4 learner guide.

3.2. Sterile Insect Technique

Though not widely practiced in agriculture, a biological control method to take heed of is the Sterile Insect Technique or SIT. SIT is the first insect pest control method that uses genetics. It is most simply described as a form of insect birth control that is carried out on an area-wide basis.

The SIT involves mass breeding huge quantities of target insects in a factory or insectarium and sterilizing the males by exposing them to low doses of radiation. These sterile males are then released by air over infested areas, where they mate with wild females. If the sterile males vastly outnumber the fertile wild males, the wild population quickly dies out. The proportion of infertile males to fertile wild males must be at least 10:1.

The sterile males compete with the wild males for female insects. If a female mates with a sterile male then it will have no offspring, thus the next generation's population is reduced. Repeated release of insects can eventually wipe out a population, though it is often more useful to consider controlling the population rather than eradicating it.

4. The Implementation Factors of the Different Control Measures There are several influencing factors that will affect the choice of control methods. These can be factors such as soil composition, environmental and climatic conditions and the type of pest, disease or weeds that needs to be controlled and previous methods of control. The IPM approach is based on a variety of factors that will influence the choice of the control method used. Firstly is economic threshold. Only once pests, diseases or weeds reaches predefined economic threshold levels will an action plan be developed to control population levels. An economic threshold is the threshold where a pest, disease or weed population causes more damage and thereby financial loses to the crop than the cost of applying a control method. Secondly the IPM approach necessitates the grower to investigate the use of biological- and cultural control methods before a chemical control option are investigated. Chemical control must always be the last line of defence against any pest, disease and weed infestation. In the level 2, 3 and 4 learner guides other factors such as weather conditions and environmental considerations that will influence the implementation process and choices of control methods are discussed.

5. Resistance Management Strategies In any insect or disease causing fungus population that has never been exposed to an insecticide or a fungicide, you would expect that most of the individuals in that population would be sensitive to that specific plant protection product. However due to natural mutation or just natural variety, in any population you might find a few of these insects or fungal spores might be resistant to that particular product.


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Should you now start to use that product obviously the chemical will now kill most of the sensitive organism, depending on how well you treat it and the concentrations used. It will not kill the resistant organisms and the resistant organism will be able to multiply. A strategy which works hand in hand with IPM is pesticide Resistance Management (RM) because the reduction of pesticide use in an IPM program is the most effective strategy for reducing the development of resistant pests. An RM strategy is becoming increasingly important as the number of available pesticides suitable for IPM diminishes due to more stringent residue restrictions and increasing development costs. The use of IPM-compatible pesticides must therefore be sustained for as long as possible. Insect and fungal resistance develops faster under the following conditions:

• Shorter life cycles. • Little immigration of susceptible individuals. • Increased intensity of pesticide use.

As growers have little influence over the length of the life cycle and rate of immigration, they must concentrate on the intensity of pesticide usage to slow the development of resistance. The more often the same or closely related pesticide is applied, the more rapid resistance will develop towards that pesticide or pesticide group.

If only part of the population is exposed to the pesticide and susceptible genes are maintained in the non-exposed portion of the population, the development of resistance can be slowed. This is most likely to occur with short-residual pesticides applied to the outside canopy or where spot sprays are used. The term refugia are used to describe places where arthropods are not exposed to pesticide.

Certain life stages are more susceptible to pesticides than others. If the most susceptible life stage is targeted the treatment will be most effective and there will be less need to reapply the treatment. This also makes good IPM sense because you may be able to use a lower dosage and the damage to non-target species on natural enemies can be minimised.

Dosage is a controversial topic in RM because it can have different effects depending on the genetics involved and the environment in which the pesticide is used. In most cases, RM strategies must be developed without knowing the genetics involved in resistance. In all cases of monogenic resistance and in a few cases of polygenic resistance where one gene plays the major role, the use of lower concentrations cause resistance to build more slowly than higher concentrations so the lowest registered dose should be used whilst the required population control effect is achieved

In a closed environment such as a greenhouse where natural enemies are of no concern and material costs are relatively low, an extremely high dosage of pesticide can stop the development of resistance when the dose is high enough to kill all the pests with resistant genes. In citrus orchards this technique is impractical because the dosage required would be too expensive, it would eliminate all natural enemies, 100% coverage would be impossible and it may increase resistance in other pests. The use of moderately high dosages of 2-4 times the lowest registered dose will accelerate the development of resistance because these dosages more effectively select for resistant individuals. Commonly three strategies are used to manage resistance development in insect and fungal population. These are the use of different pesticides groups on a regular basis, using the lowest possible concentration levels of plant protection products and changing control methods. IPM plans requires a grower to identify different methods of control on order to ensure that resistant management is combated. The preferred IPM control option, biological control, takes a few years to be effectively implemented as beneficial insect and predator populations needs time to grow. This requires that other control option such as chemical control will have to be used to control population until the ratio between pests and predator population reaches the optimum control level. This duel form of control also combats the development of resistance.


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6. Basic Health and Safety Measures

In the level 2, 3 and 4 learner guides the different legal requirements that any employer in South Africa must adhere to are discussed. Laws regarding conservation and the use of plant protection product are also described. The main overriding act that governs farming and all other operation is the Occupational Health and Safety Act. The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 (OHSA) provides for the health and safety of persons at work and when using plant and machinery. It also provides for protection of persons other than those at work against hazards to health and safety arising out of activities of persons at work. 6.1. Employers

According to the OHSA, employers have the basic duty towards employees to provide and maintain a working environment that is safe and without risk to the health of the employees. The matters to which these duties refer include the following:

• Providing and maintaining systems of work, plant and machinery that are safe and without risk to health;

This dictates a rigid and ongoing maintenance program which must be documented and monitored on an hourly, daily, weekly and monthly basis depending on the type of equipment involved.

The quality of the maintenance program must also be assessed regularly. • Taking steps to eliminate or diminish any hazard or potential hazard to the safety or health

of employees. • Identifying the hazards to the health or safety of persons attached to any work which is

performed, and devising and applying any necessary precautionary measures. • Providing such information, instruction, training and supervision as may be necessary to

ensure the health and safety of his employees. • Not permitting any employee to do any work unless the precautionary measures which may

be prescribed have been taken. • Ensuring that the work is performed under the general supervision of a person trained to

understand the hazards associated with it and who has the authority to ensure that the precautionary measures taken by the employer are enforced.

The above necessitates evaluation of all systems, plant and equipment at all times according to a scheduled, enforced and monitored system in a culture driven by management. 6.2. Employees

Employees also have a responsibility under the OHSA, as follows: • Take reasonable care for the health and safety of himself and of other persons who may be

affected by his or her acts or omissions. • Cooperate with his or her supervisor to comply with any health and safety measures. • Carry out any lawful order given to him or her in the interest of health and safety. • If any unsafe or unhealthy situation comes to his or her attention, report it as soon as

possible to the supervisor and or employer. • If he or she is involved in any accident which may affect his or her health, to report the

incident as soon as possible. • Cooperate with safety committees whenever required.

Reaction of employees to their responsibility will, to a large extent, depend on the relationship with their supervisor. It is therefore important that all supervisors as well as management be well trained in building and handling relationships.

7. Chemical Use Control Measures


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Once an IPM plan requires the use of chemical applications to control pest, disease or weed outbreaks the grower must be aware that there are several legal and other control methods that must be adhered to in order to ensure the safe use of chemical. Areas of special concern are the avoidance of chemical pollution, the storage of chemicals, the disposal of extra chemicals and rinse water and the legal requirements that must be complied with. 7.1. Avoid Poisoning of Non-Targeted and Beneficial Organisms

A non-targeted organism is anything that isn’t supposed to be touched or affected by the chemical application. In the case of herbicides, it means that the crop that is being grown and any protected or sensitive indigenous plants in the area should not be harmed or affected by the herbicide. Systemic herbicides are particularly dangerous since it affects all plants equally and usually through an internal action. The best way to protect non-targeted organisms is to read the label carefully, and ensure that the correct chemical is applied;

• In the correct way with the correct application equipment. • At the correct concentration. • At the correct time of year. • Under the correct climatic conditions.

7.1.1. Avoid Contamination of Natural Resources such as Soil and Water Care should be taken when applying sprays so that spray drift does not contaminate water sources, such as dams, streams, and springs.

Filling points where chemicals are mixed and where spray machine tanks are filled should be at least 50m from any water source, including boreholes. They must have a suitable drainage system, such as a French drain, that can safely drain away spilt chemicals and excess water.

7.1.2. Avoid drift onto non-targeted organisms and areas

Foliar sprays should not be applied when wind speed exceeds 12km/h. High wind speeds will negatively affect spray coverage of the tree, which could result in poor control of the target pest or disease.

Excessive wind will also result in spray drift that could damage other crops, pollute water supplies, and harm the environment. Workers in other orchards may also be affected by spray drift.

7.2. Disposing of empty containers

Empty chemical containers must under no circumstances be reused for any purpose whatsoever. Even if the container has been washed thoroughly the risk of contamination remains high. Empty containers must be disposed of as follows:

• Empty containers must be rinsed by filling it to a quarter with clean water, close and shake it

well. • Pour the rinse water into the spray tank. • Repeat this process at least three times. • Puncture the container after rinsing so that it cannot be re-used.

Once containers have been punctured they should be reduced (flattened) in bulk and buried at a disposal area or in a pit. The construction and requirements of an disposal pit is discussed in the level 4 learner guide.


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Waste bags, paper and mildly contaminated items must be burned, while severely contaminated items and excess, expired or contaminated chemicals must be disposed of using a high-temperature incinerator, which can also be used for empty containers. Please note however that containers of highly flammable chemicals must not be burned, even if they have been rinsed. It is recommended that a professional waste disposal company may be contacted in this regard.

Where possible, contact the manufacturer of the product to determine how to deal with empty containers or excess or contaminated chemicals.

7.3. Managing Rinse Water

By definition a pesticide is a form of poison that kills of pests or organisms. It is the responsibility of the grower or citrus producer to ensure that all poisons are handled in a responsible manager to avoid contamination of natural resources or the contamination of labourers and beneficial organism.

One of the areas where the danger of natural resource contamination is high but is most often overlooked on a farm is rinse water. Spraying equipment and chemicals containers must be cleaned after use and this is most commonly accomplished by rinsing the containers and equipment with water. This rinse water is full of chemicals and can easily pollute and poison natural resources if not managed correctly.

A responsible management plan for the disposal of rinse water must pertain to legal requirements as stipulated by national and local authorities and must adhere to GAP requirements. Most commonly a rinse water management plan will include:

• A concreted area with drainage where the containers are rinsed and cleaned. • Drainage from the concrete area leading to concrete or cement treatment and holding

dams.

The chemical supplier must always be contacted to obtain information around how long rinse water should be kept before the chemicals become inactive as well as how water can be treated to neutralise chemicals.

7.4. Storage of Chemical

Farm chemical stores should be for the sole use of agrochemicals and free from combustible storage. They should be dry, frost free well ventilated and secure against theft and vandalism. The store should be designed to prevent spills or polluting liquids seeping into adjacent ground or escaping into water courses. This applies especially in the case of a fire. The store should be constructed with materials giving a minimum fire resistance of 3O minutes. A dedicated store should be roofed with material which can be breached by fire, or be equipped with alternate means of providing a ready release for heat and smoke in the event of a fire. Strong shelving should be provided to separate powders from liquid chemicals and induce good housekeeping within the store. The store should be conspicuously marked with a notice so that emergency services are aware of the dangerous chemicals contained within thereby enabling the correct action to be taken in the event of a fire or spill.

7.4.1. Chemical Storage Requirements Before we decide what we need to receive, it is necessary to first orientate ourselves with regards the type of storage that would be required in order to store goods in. The store should at least be 5 m from other buildings. And it must not be near: • A dwelling house. • Buildings for livestock. • Rivers, dams, boreholes and areas likely to be flooded. • Buildings where feed, fodder, fuel and other inflammable materials are stored.


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Cement floors tend to sweat. Therefore, to prevent damage to cartons or paper bags in which chemicals are packaged, they should: • Be placed on pallets. • Not be stacked against exterior walls.

7.4.2. Ventilation Cross ventilation is essential to keep fumes and vapours inside a store to an acceptable level, this can be achieved with vents at high and low levels consistent with security and the need to contain spillages. Well-designed and well-maintained ventilation systems remove corrosive vapours, fumes, mists or airborne dusts from the workplace and reduce their hazards.

7.4.3. Lighting Stores must have adequate natural or artificial light by the provision of sufficient window area or artificial, electric, lighting. Windows should not allow direct sunlight to fall on to agrochemicals because ultra-violet light may cause deterioration of containers and content. This could be avoided by shading windows or, if building a new store, by positioning windows correctly. Electric lights and switches should be positioned in such a way as to avoid mechanical damage and there should be an adequate separation distance between lamps and stored agrochemicals to avoid the transmission of heat.

7.4.4. Safe Storage of Chemicals The rules for the safe storage of agrochemicals are prescribed by Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) legislation, and certification organisations, such as EurepGAP.

To avoid the possibility of an explosion or the emission of toxic flammable or corrosive gases or chemicals:

• Store two incompatible chemicals at least 3m apart. • Where the chemicals could react violently, store them at least 5m apart. • Consider storing some chemicals (e.g. with a high Phosphorous content) in separate fire

rated enclosures or separate buildings with appropriate fire suppression equipment. Separate enclosures or buildings may also be required for those chemicals with special fire suppression requirements.

• Ensure that the shelves or palettes on which certain chemicals are stored are made of a material compatible with the chemical.

• Never exceed the weight baring capacity of shelves. • Make sure that shelves have lips or restraints on the ends and to the front to avoid that

chemicals slip off the shelf. • Avoid storing flammable chemicals in lockers or cupboards; if it has to be stored this way,

the locker or cupboard must be made of fire retarded material. • Don’t stack lockers or cupboards on top of each other, near emergency exits or under stair

cases or in corridors. • Supply any chemical that poses a spillage hazard with a tray.

7.5. Emergency and Safety Plans

Emergency situations occur even where every precaution has been taken to prevent it from happening. It is essential that all personnel that are authorised to handle and come into contact with chemicals are aware of the steps that are to be taken in case of emergency. The most common emergency situations that occur where chemicals are handled are spills and leakages, and poisoning. Procedures that must be followed in the case of spills, leakages and poisoning are available in the level 4 learner guide.


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8. After Application Procedures

To determine the effectiveness of any control method application, monitoring and scouting activities after application must be planned and preformed to establish the new pest, disease and weed population and infestation levels. If the desired outcome was not achieved reasons for the failure must be investigated and methods identified how control methods can be made more effective. The main reasons for control methods failing to achieve the desired outcome can be; resistance development, problem with the applied chemical or climatic conditions. 8.1. Resistance Development

Earlier in this learner guide we discussed the causes and how insect or fungal spores develop resistance to certain pesticides. If it is thought that a chemical application was unsuccessful due to insects or spores developing a resistance to certain pesticides resistance management strategies must be discussed. The most common way of managing resistance is by applying a different group of pesticides that act in a different way. The new pesticides should be able to control the resistant organisms. Since the application of chemicals must always be the last option of control all other methods such as the combination of different control methods must first be researched and investigated before another chemical application is done in the orchard. Resistance management option must also only be investigated after all other factor that could have influenced the effectiveness of the control method have been investigated and discarded.

8.2. Chemicals If chemical control was used and post application monitoring indicates that the application of the PPP was ineffective in controlling the population or infestation levels, investigations must be conducted to determine the cause. Most commonly one of the following factors or a combination of these factors could have caused the chemical application to be unsuccessful:

• Chemicals expired – If chemicals are too old the active ingredient in the PPP will not perform satisfactorily and the application of such a chemical might not achieve the desired results.

• Follow up spraying – Some chemicals require a follow-up spray in order to be effective. Check with your chemical supplier before application if a follow-up spray is a requirement.

• Concentration wrong – One of the principals used to limit resistance development is the se of the lowest concentration possible to achieve the desired control. If the concentration is to low though, the application will be ineffective.

• Wrong application method used – Each PPP and control method requires a different mode of application. Some PPP’s are applied by full cover sprays other by targeted sprays and some even by painting the infected parts of trees. If the wrong application method was used then the treatment will also be unsuccessful.

8.3. Climatic Conditions

In this learner guide we discussed the importance of obtaining data pertaining to predicted weather conditions. Rain, wind or excessively high relative humidity can all affect the effectiveness of chemical and other control methods. Climatic conditions must be monitored constantly to ascertain that PPP applications are done at the correct time.


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Climatic conditions such as hot and humid weather can also cause outbreaks of fungal and other organism.

Chapter 3

What developed as a result of factors making chemical control economically and culturally unviable was an approach called integrated pest management. Integrated pest management is the approach that the Southern African citrus industry adopts towards their pre-harvest pest control for the most part.

An IPM plan consists of a number of different components and influencing factors. In short and IPM plan is a holistic approach to pest management incorporating different elements.

In order to implement these principles correctly and efficiently it becomes vitally important that the grower has a thorough understanding of the different types of pests and infestation levels that would cause economic damage to the crop.

Other methods of control that must be considered and researched before a decision concerning which control method to use is made are mating disruption and the sterile insect technique.

There are several influencing factors that will affect the choice of control methods. These can be factors such as soil composition, environmental and climatic conditions and the type of pest, disease or weeds that needs to be controlled and previous methods of control.

In any insect or disease causing fungus population that has never been exposed to aninsecticide or a fungicide, you would expect that most of the individuals in that population would be sensitive to that specific plant protection product. However due to natural mutation or just natural variety, in any population you might find a few of these insects or fungal spores might be resistant to that particular product.

Once an IPM plan requires the use of chemical applications to control pest, disease or weed outbreaks the grower must be aware that there are several legal and other control methods that must be adhered to in order to ensure the safe use of chemical. Areas of special concern are the avoidance of chemical pollution, the storage of chemicals, the disposal of extra chemicals and rinse water and the legal requirements that must be complied with.

The main reasons for control methods failing to achieve the desired outcome can be; resistance development, problem with the applied chemical or climatic conditions.

Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook. Use your IPM plan developed in chapter 2 and selected 2 pests and one disease common to your farm. Make a decision for a suitable control method with reference to product information,application recommendations. Identify alternative compounds within a resistance management strategy with notice of occurring weather patterns, water quality, soil composition, adjuvents and or other chemical or product requirements are selected.



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Chapter 4 After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to: Assist with data management for auditing towards certification for good agricultural practices 1. Introduction

A citrus farm or production area can only be profitable if most of the fruit produced are exported. To be able to export fruit a grower must produce fruit of a sufficient internal and external quality to meet export market quality parameters. Furthermore a citrus producer will also have to adhere to different production guidelines and regulations in order to obtain certification from different agencies. Any farm or production area that wants to export fruit must firstly obtain a Fruit Business Operator code from the department of agriculture, forestry and fisheries. To obtain this code a grower must be able to proof that fruit is produced in such a way that it poses no threat to human consumption and as little as possible damage to the environment. The only way this can be proven is by a grower implementing a thorough recordkeeping and data collection system. In addition growers need to obtain accreditation from several independent accreditation schemes specified by their target export markets before they are able to export fruit. To obtain accreditation for any scheme a grower will need to implement the requirements of that scheme and then stick to the principals specified by the scheme. To ascertain that a grower implemented the requirements of an accreditation scheme and are managing all processes and procedures according to the guidelines of the scheme, independent agencies performs audit on the farm. These audits are done to determine if a farm or production area implemented the requirements of the accreditation scheme is such a manner that the farm or production area can be certified and accredited. Most commonly any grower will have to obtain accreditation from GAP schemes. These GAP, or good agricultural practice schemes, are schemes that specifies processes and procedure that should be followed on a farm to ensure a good quality product produced in a sustainable way whilst conforming to different social responsibilities towards labourers and the environment. One of the major requirements of any GAP scheme is a well structured and ordered recordkeeping and filing system.

2. Filing Systems In earlier chapters and in the level 2, 3 and 4 learner guide we described how data is to be collected, evaluated and structured in order to obtain information on the effectiveness and efficiency of all farming processes. It is critical that all the data used and collected are filed in such a manner that historical records are available to growers in order to measure the performance of processes during previous seasons against newly implemented changes. A well designed and ordered filing system is a requirement of any GAP scheme. There are also legal requirements pertaining to what records must be filed. By law records of all labour practice for example daily attendance and picking records used to determine wages must be filed for at least three years as well as other records such as chemical usage and waste disposal records. GAP schemes require that records of all production practices such as irrigation, fertilisation and orchard sanitation must be kept. Furthermore harvesting records such as maturity indexing, picking and orchard inspection records must also be filed and kept.


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The IPM plan must be described and all the related documentation such as scouting records, spraying records and records of other control methods used must be filed and kept. Records of chemicals received, stored and used are another important group of records that must be filed. There are a great range of financial records that requires filing as well. GAP schemes do not necessarily require the filing of these records but any grower needs this information in order to determine where the profitability of the enterprise can be improved. One critical requirement of all GAP schemes is that all production, harvesting and IPM records kept and filed must all be collated to certain orchards and trees. This is done to facilitate traceability. Once a fruit is traced back from the market place a grower must be able to use his filing system to determine all processes, procedures and control methods that have taken place in the specific orchard or block where the fruit was grown. Lastly all GAP schemes requires grower to instate regular self auditing procedures. Self auditing is the process where a grower will audit all the process and procedures on his farm to determine if all the set regulations and procedures are adhered to and that all the different production, harvesting and IPM plans are carried out and implemented in the correct manner. Records of self audits and areas where changes were implemented to improve systems must be filed and made available to independent auditing teams. This system of self auditing and self improvement is critical to the implementation of a successful GAP scheme.

3. IPM Rating In the Southern Africa citrus industry Citrus Research International, CRI, implemented and rating system whereby the effectiveness and efficiency of IPM plans are rated by using a simple points structure. This is an important tool that can be used by the grower when self auditing the IPM plan implemented on his farm. The following rating system provides a means for growers to derive a quantitative IPM compatibility score for a spray programme in each orchard. This can serve as a tool for the grower to quantify the existing IPM implementation position on the farm, to set goals for improvement and to map progress. It can assist in making the selection of pesticides to be used when chemical intervention is required. It also makes it possible to develop benchmark scores for particular regions to serve as a reference point. The following lists (table 4.1) provide categorisation of relative IPM compatibility of presently registered treatment options. The rating is aimed at providing an indication of the extent of non-targeted effects that can be expected from the use of these products. The lower the rating the more suitable the product is for IPM. An “additional application factor” is also provided. The aim of the factor is to discourage multiple applications of the same product, primarily for resistance management reasons. The International Organisation for Biological Control categorise pesticides impact on bio control agents as Harmless, Slightly harmful, Moderately harmful or Harmful. In striving to maintain uniformity the CRI system has also place product usage into one of four categories each with a score namely: 1, 2, 3 and 9. These values have been selected to keep score of multiple applications of some IPM compatible products in proportion to single applications of more disruptive treatments. To derive a rating of IPM compatibility for the spray programme of a particular orchard, the scores for each pesticide application are added to obtain a total figure. When a particular product has been applied more than once in a season, the scores of the two applications are added and then multiplied by the “additional application factor” given in the tables. For example two sprays of tartar emetic have a score of 1+1=2, 2x1.2=2.4. A third application will increase the score to 4.1 (2.4+1=3.4, 3.4x1.2=4.1) and so forth.


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The following thresholds provide a preliminary benchmarking for assessing the IPM compatibility of a total score for the spray programme in a particular orchard. These guideline thresholds may require further refinement for some cultivar or region combinations. Subtropical Areas

• Score < 35 – Adequate IPM implementation • Score 35 to 46 – Intermediate IPM implementation, improvement necessary • Score > 46 – Inadequate implementation of IPM, problematic.

Cool Inland Areas and Cape Provinces

• Score < 30 – Adequate IPM implementation • Score 30 to 41 – Intermediate IPM implementation, improvement necessary • Score > 41 Inadequate IPM implementation, problematic.

As more information becomes available from bioassay test and field experience, some of these ratings can be expected to change. Table 4.1 gives the current ratings. Before attempting to rate your IPM plan, please ensure that you have the newest rating. These rating are available from your local CRI extension offices.


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Product (active ingredient) Rating for Single Application

Additional Application Factor

Thripicides Abate (temephos) 9 2 Agrimec (abamectin) 1 1.2 Akito (beta-cypermethrin) 20-25ml 9 2 Calypso (thiacloprid) 4 2 Cypermethrin 15-20ml 9 2 Dicarzol (formetanate) bait 4 2 Erador (pyrethrum & neem) 2 1.2 Hunter (chlorfenapyr) 4 2 Klartan (tau-fluvalinate) 9 2 Meothrin (fenpropathrin) 9 2 Mesurol (methiocarb) bait 4 2 Mospilan (acetamiprid) spray 9 2 Regent (fipronil) 9 2 Selecron (profenofos) 75ml 9 2 Tartar emetic bait 1 1.2 Tokuthion (prothiofos) 4 2 Tracer (spinosad) 4 2

IGR’s Alsystin (triflumuron) one or two applications 9 - Applaud (buprofezin) 4 1.1 Nemesis (pyriproxyfen) one or more applications 9 - Nomolt (teflubenzuron) one or two applications 9 -

Acaricides Acarol (bromopropylate) 2 2 Envidor (spirodiclofen) 2 2 Kelthane (dicofol) 4 2 Mitac (amitraz) 2 2 Morestan (chinomethionat) 4 2 Omite (propargite) 2 2 Pride (fenazaquin) 2 2 Sipcatin (cyhexatin) 2 2 Sulphur 4 2 Tedion (tetradifon) 1 2 Torque (fenbutatin oxide) 2 2

Other Insecticides Alpha-cypermethrin (on ant barrier) 1 1.2 Ambro ant bait on soil 1 1.2 Aphox (pirimicarb) 2 1.2 Azodrin (monocrotophos) stem treatment 1 1.2 Citrimet (methamidophos) stem treatment 1 1.2 Confidor (imidacloprid) soil treatment 2 2 Dipel (bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki) 1 1.2 Dipterex (trichlorfon) fruit fly bait 1 1.1 Dursban (chlorpyrifos) outside cover 4 2 Dursban (chlorpyrifos) full cover 4 2 Elsan (phenthoate) 4 2 Endosulfan 4 1.2 Folimat (omethoate) 4 2 Gusathion (azinphos-methyl) 4 2 Hydramethylnon soil treatment 2 2


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Product (active ingredient) Rating for Single Application

Additional Application Factor

Lannate (methomyl) outside cover 4 1.2 Lannate (methomyl) full cover 4 1.2 Malathion (mercaptothion) fruit fly bait – aerial application

2 1.2

Malathion (mercaptothion) fruit fly bait – ground application

1 1.2

Malathion (mercatothion) spray 4 2 Malathion (mercatothion) soil treatment for ants 2 1.2 Mevinphos outside cover 2 1.2 Mevinphos full cover 2 1.2 Miral (isazofos granule) soil treatment 2 2 Mospilan (acetamipirid) stem treatment 1 1.2 Mospilan (acetamipirid) spray 9 2 Oil (narrow distillation range) 0-0.3% 1 1 Oil (narrow distillation range) 0.5% 2 1 Parathion 4 2 Parathionsoil treatment for ants 2 1.2 Rogor (dimethoate) soil treatment 2 2 Rogor (dimethoate) spray 4 2 Selecron (profenofos) 100ml 4 2 Tamacron (methamidophos) spray 4 2 Ultracide (methidathion) 4 2

Nematicides AC92/Counter (terbufos) 9 2 MOCAP (ethoprophos) 2 2 Nemacur (fenamiphos) 2 2 Nemathorin (fosthiazate) 2 2 Rugby cadusofos) 2 2 Temik (aldicarb) 2 2

Pre-harvest Fungicides Aliette (fosetyl-Al) spray 1 1.2 Alliette (fosetyl0Al) stem treatment 1 1.2 Bavistin (carbendazim) 1 2 Benlate (benomyl) 1 2 Coform (maneb/thiophanate methyl/zinc oxide) 1 1.2 Copper oxychloride 1 1.2 Dithane (mancozeb) 1 1.2 Flint (trifloxystrobin) 1 1.2 Folicur (tebuconazole) 1 2 Kocide (copper hydroxide) 1 1.2 Mikal M (fosetyl-Al, Mancozeb) 1 1.2 Ortiva (azoxystrobin) 1 1.2 Phytex (phosphorous acid) 2 1.2 Ridomil (ometalaxyl) 1 1.2 Topsin flo (thiophanate methyl) 1 1.2 Trimangol (maneb, zinc oxide) 1 1.2 Zineb 1 1.2

Plant Growth Regulators Calcium arsenate 1 1 Corasil E 1 1 Ethrel 1 1 Giberellic Acid 1 1


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Product (active ingredient) Rating for Single Additional Application Application Factor

Maxim 1 1 2.4-D 1 1

Foliar Fertilizers Magnesium nitrate 1 1 Potassium nitrate 1 1 Trace elements (not copper) 1 1 Urea 1 1 Table 4.1 – IPM Ratings

Chapter 3

A citrus farm or production area can only be profitable if most of the fruit produced are exported. To be able to export fruit a grower must produce fruit of a sufficient internal and external quality to meet export market quality parameters. Furthermore a citrus producer will also have to adhere to different production guidelines and regulations in order to obtain certification from different agencies.

It is critical that all the data used and collected are filed in such a manner that historical records are available to growers in order to measure the performance of processes during previous seasons against newly implemented changes.

A well designed and ordered filing system is a requirement of any GAP scheme. In the Southern Africa citrus industry Citrus Research International, CRI, implemented and

rating system whereby the effectiveness and efficiency of IPM plans are rated by using a simple points structure. This is an important tool that can be used by the grower when self auditing the IPM plan implemented on his farm.

Complete activity * in the Learner Workbook. Use the IPM plan that you developed, the pests and diseases that you selected and the control methods that you selected to control your pests or diseases and determine what your IPM rating will be if rated by using the CRI method. Discuss this rating and areas where your rating can be improved. (CAN BE BETTER IF RATING ANOTHER PERSON’S IPM PLAN) Identify the two major export markets for the varieties that are produced on your imaginary farm. Contact export agents and determine which GAP scheme accreditation are required before fruit can be exported. Obtain the relevant requirements of the GAP scheme and perform a structured self audit on your IPM plan. Explain where your plan can be improved to adhere closer to the GAP requirements.


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Bibliography Literature: 1. Integrated Production Guidelines for Export Citrus Volume III, Citrus Research International,

Research and Extension Services 2. CRI Identification Manual for Citrus Pests and their Natural Enemies; T.G. Grout, J.H.

Hofmeyer, S.D. Moore, A.B. Ware, 2005 3. CGA Learner Guide 116125; Apply crop protection and animal health products effectively and

responsibly 4. A Guide to the use of Herbicides.Grobelaar H, Vermeulen JB and van Zyl K (2000). Seventeenth

edition. National Department of Agriculture, Pretoria. 5. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No.12. Henderson L (2001), Agricultural Research

Council, Pretoria. 6. Inputs & Stock Handling Guide US 116163 NQF 1; Cabeton Training & Development 2006 7. A Guide for the Control of Plant Diseases available from the Directorate Communication, Private

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26. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki 27. www.nda.agric.za/publications 28. http://www.technifor.com/htm/Tracea/serve.htm 29. http://www.world-food.net/scientficjournal/2003/issue1/pdf/Agriculture/V1N1A101-106traceability.pdf 30. http://www.nri.org/NRET/SPCDR/Chapter5/quality-5-7.htm 31. http://www.jifsan.umd.edu/PDFs/GAPS_English/II__Good_Agricultural_Pract.pdf 32. http://www.praxiom.com/iso-22000-intro.htm 33. http://www.sunkist.com/growers/ag_practices/SOPs.doc 34. http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?PID=1&ToolID=63&ItemID=2358 35. http://www.agriseta.co.za/downloads/LearningMaterial/116124_LG.pdf 36. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu 37. http://www.mainepotatoipm.com/ipmfactsheets/scouting.pdf 38. http://citrusent.uckac.edu/PPS%20for%20Citrus%202007.pdf 39. http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Subtropical.pdf 40. http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/portal/Portals/0/production%20guidelines 41. http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?pid=1031 42. 43. www.norfolkfireservice.gov.uk 44. http://www.itcilo.org/actrav/actrav-english/telearn/osh/kemi/pest/pesti2.htm SME’s: 1. B. Harington – B.Sc Agric (Viti & Oen); University of Stellenbosch 2. C. Harington – B.Tech Hotel Management; Technicon Witwatersrand and OBET 3. C. Pountney – Du Roi IPM – IPM advisor and Bio-control specialist 4. Leon Rosser – Terrason Robertson – technical advice

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