Personality Traits, Emotional Intelligence, and Multiple Happiness
Transcript of Personality Traits, Emotional Intelligence, and Multiple Happiness
Author info: Correspondence should be sent to: Prof Adrian Furnham,
Department of Psychology, University College London,
26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, e-mail: [email protected]
North American Journal of Psychology, 2007, Vol. 9, No. 3, 439-462.
NAJP
Personality Traits, Emotional Intelligence,
and Multiple Happiness
Adrian Furnham
Irene Christoforou University of London
This study set out to re-examine the predictors of self-reported trait
happiness as measured by the Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI) as well
as the predictors of various happiness types proposed by Morris (2004).
In all, 120 Cypriot participants completed the 4 questionnaires: OHI,
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Trait Emotional Intelligence
Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF), and Morris Multiple Happiness Inventory
(MMHI). It was hypothesized that Extraversion and Neuroticism would
be, respectively, positively and negatively correlated with happiness and
trait EI would be a positive predictor of happiness. Considering Morris’
happiness types, it was hypothesized that specific individual difference
variables (Extraversion, trait EI, religiousness, Neuroticism) would be
predictive of different happiness conditions or motivations (Sensation
seeking, Interpersonal happiness, Spiritual happiness and Negative
happiness) respectively. All but one hypothesis was confirmed:
Neuroticism was not a significant predictor of Negative happiness. This
study demonstrated that high trait EI and extraversion are predictive of
overall happiness and most happiness types proposed by Morris, although
other factors, like religiousness, are also important. Implications for
increasing well-being are discussed.
For many years, the topic of happiness remained neglected, with
research concentrating on aspects of human unhappiness, such as
depression, anxiety, and emotional disorders. Recently, however, this
imbalance has been corrected and there are now many studies of what
has come to be called “subjective well-being” (SWB)—a term used as a
synonym for happiness. Indeed, there is now a whole field called positive
psychology dedicated to understanding the process of human happiness.
Specifically, studies have examined the definitions, correlates, and
predictors of happiness (e.g., Argyle, 1992, 2001; Diener, 1984; Eysenck,
1990; Myers, 1992; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Vitterso &
Nilsen, 2004).
Undoubtedly, many environmental factors have been shown to have a
strong effect on happiness, such as work, money, and leisure activities.
440 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
However, some researchers have concluded that personality is a greater
determinant of happiness than race, social class, money, social
relationships, work, leisure, religion, or other external variables (Diener
et al., 1999). Indeed, enduring features of the person can have a strong
impact, affecting happiness from the “inside” rather than the “outside”
(Eysenck, 1983). For example, Diener and Larsen (1984) found that
positive and negative affect in various work and leisure situations was
more due to persons (52%) than to situations (23%). There is also
interaction between the effects of person and situations. Larsen and
Ketelaar (1991) found that extraverts react more strongly to positive
stimuli than do introverts, so that the combination of extraversion and
pleasant situations produces positive affect. Individuals can also choose
or avoid situations and relationships in a way that promotes their well
being. Argyle and Lu (1990) found that the happiness of extraverts could
be partly explained by their choice of enjoyable social situations, while
Argyle (1994) found that the socially unskilled avoid many social
situations that others enjoy. Similarly, Furnham (1981) had found that
individuals select situations that fulfill various personality trait needs.
Various studies have examined the relation of personality traits to
happiness and have yielded consistent findings. Extraversion and
Neuroticism have been repeatedly found to be the strongest predictors of
happiness levels, accounting for up to half of the total variance in various
measures (Argyle & Lu, 1990; Brebner, 1998; Francis, 1999; Francis et
al., 1998; Myers & Diener, 1995). Eysenck (1983) noted that “Happiness
is a thing called stable extraversion…the positive effect in happiness
seemed to be related to easy sociability, with a natural, pleasant
interaction with other people…then it only makes sense that happiness
can be associated with extraversion. Similarly, if worries and anxieties
make up negative affect in happiness, it can easily be seen that instability
and neuroticism are also connected to unhappiness” (p.67).
Fewer studies have looked at the relationship between happiness and
emotional intelligence (EI). Trait EI is a constellation of emotion-related,
self-perceived abilities and dispositions located at the “lower” levels of
personality hierarchies (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). Petrides and
Furnham (2003) identified 15 facets, which have provided the basis for
the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). These include
adaptability, assertiveness, emotion perception, expression and
regulation, relationship skills, social competence, empathy, and stress
management. People with high trait EI scores believe that they are “in
touch” with their emotions and that they can regulate them in a way that
promotes well-being. Furnham and Petrides (2003) found that EI was a
positive predictor of happiness, explaining over 50% of its total variance.
Whilst extraversion, openness, and stability were also correlated with
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 441
happiness in the regression, emotional intelligence was the most
significant predictor.
More recently, Chamorro-Premuzic, Bennett, and Furnham (2007)
found that four of the Big Five factors, namely stability, extraversion,
conscientiousness, and agreeableness, were positively correlated with
both happiness and trait EI, which explained 18% of unique variance
(over and above age and the Big Five) in happiness. Further, a significant
amount of shared variance between happiness and the Big Five was
explained by trait EI, which partly mediated the paths from stability and
conscientiousness to happiness and fully mediated the link between
agreeableness and happiness.
Previous happiness studies have tended to look at happiness mostly as
a unidimensional variable. In fact, many recent studies have used the
Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI; Argyle, Martin, & Crossland, 1989)
as a trait measure of happiness. This 29-item questionnaire was designed
to measure happiness as a whole. However, the concept that happiness is
multidimensional rather than unidimensional is not entirely new.
Furnham and Brewin (1990) factor analyzed the OHI and found three
main components of happiness. Similarly, Cheng and Furnham (2003)
showed that the OHI can be subdivided into Achievement and
Satisfaction, Enjoyment, and Vigour and Health. These subcategories of
the OHI, however, do not clearly represent different types of happiness.
An idea recently put forward by Morris (2004) is that there are various
distinguishable (but probably related) types of happiness. This is a
multidimensional concept not unlike that advanced by researchers who
appear to have “discovered” multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1999).
Morris identifies 17 types of happiness and proposes that they are all
essentially derived from our evolutionary background. For example,
“target happiness,” the joy of anticipating new experiences and
challenges, stems from our ancient hunting past. “Competitive
happiness,” the joy of winning, is derived from our social background, as
we evolved in small tribes.
In contrast, “cooperative happiness” is based on our need to support
one another to survive. According to Morris (2004), we did not lose our
old biological urges to eat, drink, mate, and keep warm; these are still
present to give us various forms of “sensual happiness.” In addition, our
increasingly complex brain has given us important sources of “cerebral
happiness,” in which acts of intelligence have become their own rewards.
According to Morris, these major categories of happiness, along with a
few others, make up a simple classification of “happiness-types.” The
definitions of these can be seen in Table 1.
Certainly some of Morris’ ideas regarding multiple happiness could
be challenged. It seems difficult to establish the evolutionary basis of
442 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
some of his happiness categories (especially chemical or comic
happiness). Next, the types of happiness seem so phenomenologically
different that it is not always clear why they should be labelled with the
same state, namely happiness. While this fact helps to ensure they are
distinct from one another, it does pose the problem of why they fall under
the same label. Morris does not indicate if these 17 types are domains or
primary factors (in the psychometric sense) and that there may be higher
order facets, or super factors, such that the 17 distinguishable factors may
fit into a logically structured hierarchy. Although there are numerous
issues to be investigated, it appears that no studies have been conducted
to date regarding Morris’ taxonomy, thus making this study one of the
first in the field.
TABLE 1 Definitions of the Seventeen Morris’ Happiness Types Target happiness: The happiness of anticipating new projects, experiences, and
challenges, working with them, and (possibly) being successful in reaching these personal
goals. Target happiness is happiness through being an achiever.
Competitive happiness: The happiness of winning at the expense of a rival, usually
through the expenditure of huge effort. Competitive happiness is happiness through being a
winner.
Cooperative happiness: The happiness derived from helping others, either by small
cooperative gestures or by doing “good works” and/or helping other species. Cooperative
happiness is happiness through being a helper.
Genetic happiness: The happiness of falling in love, pair-bonding, giving birth and
successfully rearing one’s offspring, and the happiness of caring for one’s grandchildren.
Genetic happiness is happiness through being a relative.
Sensual happiness: The happiness of experiencing a primary biological pleasure such as a
delicious meal, a sexual experience, or some other pleasure of the flesh such as bathing,
oiling, and massaging. Sensual happiness is happiness through being a hedonist.
Cerebral happiness: The happiness derived from playing games with one’s brain where no
ulterior motive is involved—from the most trivial (card games and computer games,
puzzles and brain teasers) to the most profound (artistic creativity and scientific research).
Cerebral happiness is happiness through being an intellectual.
Rhythmic happiness: The happiness associated with intensely rhythmic activities like
music, dancing, singing, aerobics, gymnastics, athletics, and even with activities such as
revivalist religious celebrations, synchronized swimming, dervish whirling, voodoo
possession rituals, and military marching (i.e., any activity that involves a “beat”).
Rhythmic happiness is happiness through being a dancer.
Painful happiness: The pleasure derived from sado-masochistic rituals or mental
masochism (seeing any form of indulgence as disgusting and wicked and living a life where
such things are prohibited by oneself). Mental masochists may include health fanatics, diet-
slaves, teetotallers, vegans, anti-smokers, celibates, and even terrorists. Painful happiness is
happiness through being a masochist.
Dangerous happiness: The happiness derived from deliberate, voluntary risk-taking, such
as the excitement of successfully surviving a self-imposed hazard such as gambling or an
extreme sport (e.g., bungee-jumping, hang-gliding). Dangerous happiness is happiness
through being a risk-taker.
Selective happiness: The happiness depending on ignoring the horrors of life all around
one (i.e., the joy experienced by refusing to recognise the problems that life throws at you).
Selective happiness is happiness through being selective.
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 443
Tranquil happiness: The form of happiness obtained by contemplation and isolation from
the cares of the world (i.e., a deliberate philosophical or religious shutting out of the rest of
the world and a turning in on oneself, reaching a deep inner feeling of freedom and non-
attachment). Tranquil happiness is happiness through being a meditator.
Devout happiness: The spiritual happiness experienced by deeply religious individuals by
having total, blind faith in the tenets of a particular religion. Devout happiness is happiness
through being a believer.
Negative happiness: The happiness felt when moments of occasional pleasure interrupt
constant mental anguish or the happiness felt at the moment of relief from prolonged
physical pain (when pills are taken) or the happiness felt when there is a brief interruption
of constant boredom, lack of direction, insecurity, or anxiety. Negative happiness is
happiness through being a sufferer.
Chemical happiness: The happiness obtained from a narcotic-induced state. This could
include use of “hard-drugs” or “soft-drugs” such as tea, coffee, tobacco, and alcohol.
Chemical happiness is happiness through being a drug-taker.
Fantasy happiness: The happiness obtained when suspending one’s sense of reality long
enough to enjoy fiction of some sort (e.g., when daydreaming, storytelling, enjoying
fictional writing and theatre, watching soap operas/cartoons/films). Fantasy happiness is
happiness through being a day-dreamer.
Comic happiness: The pleasure of confronting one’s fears in a completely secure context
(e.g., when listening to the outrageous comments made by a comedian, when riding in a
roller coaster, or enjoying a horror film safely in the cinema). Comic happiness is happiness
through being a laugher.
Accidental happiness: The happiness derived from an accidental positive event (e.g.,
finding a banknote in the street, winning the lottery, or having your suitcase come up first
on the carousel after a long, tiring flight). Accidental happiness is happiness through being
fortunate.
The current study aimed to determine the dimensional structure of
ratings of Morris’ happiness types. This was done by using a
questionnaire (the Morris Multiple Happiness Inventory) specifically
devised for this study, which contained brief descriptions of the 17
happiness types followed by a question requiring participants to indicate
the extent to which they believe each happiness type applies to them. The
study also aimed to re-examine the predictors of trait happiness as
measured by the OHI, especially trait EI and personality. In addition, the
study investigated the extent to which the factors that emerged from
Morris’ happiness types predicted overall happiness as measured by the
OHI. The importance of several demographic variables in predicting
happiness was examined. Moreover, the study examined the predictors of
some of Morris’ happiness types.
It was hypothesized that Extraversion would be positively correlated
while Neuroticism would be negatively correlated with happiness (H1
and H2), a consistently reported finding (e.g., Myers & Diener, 1995).
Based on previous research (Furnham & Petrides, 2003), it was
hypothesized that trait EI would be a positive predictor of happiness,
444 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
(H3) and that this relationship would remain statistically significant after
controlling for the effects of personality.
Considering the happiness types proposed by Morris, it was
hypothesized that different factors would be important in predicting
different happiness types. Specifically, it was hypothesized that trait EI
would be predictive of cooperative and competitive happiness (H4)
because these types are related to relationship skills and social
competence, aspects which are measured by EI. Individuals high in trait
EI are capable of withstanding pressure and regulating stress (Furnham &
Petrides, 2003); this is necessary in order to derive pleasure through
competition with others, which is usually very stressful. Similarly, to
derive happiness by being helpful to others, one must be capable of
taking someone else’s perspective, understanding other peoples’ feelings,
and influencing other people’s feelings in a positive way. These are all
abilities thought to be possessed by individuals high in trait EI. The next
hypotheses were more speculative and based on the ideas in Morris’s
book.
It was hypothesized that dangerous, rhythmic, selective, target,
cerebral, and sensual happiness would be best predicted by Extraversion
(H5) because certain facets of Extraversion, such as assertiveness,
impulsiveness, and sociability (Argyle, 2001), are central to the above
happiness types. Extraversion describes a person who is sociable, active,
assertive, and impulsive. Extraverts demonstrate an increased sensitivity
to reward signals (Gray, 1981); this can be related to sensual happiness,
where a primary biological pleasure becomes a reward. Extraverts also
seek a sense of achievement, which can be related to cerebral happiness,
where rewards are derived from acts of intelligence, and target happiness,
where pleasure is obtained through striving to reach a goal. Extraversion
is related to thrill and adventure seeking, and encompasses behaviors
such as engaging in risky activities (physically or mentally) relating to
dangerous happiness. Extraversion is related to sensation seeking, which
could lead extraverts to experience greater rhythmic happiness and could
be associated with intensely rhythmic activities like music, dancing, and
singing.
It was hypothesized that negative and chemical happiness would be
predicted by neuroticism, the correlation being positive (H6). High
scorers in Neuroticism have been said to be at elevated risk for certain
kinds of psychopathology, especially depression, generalized fear, and
agoraphobia. For example, Schmitz, Kugler, and Rollnik (2003) found
that high Neuroticism was strongly associated with depression disorders.
Since negative happiness is defined by Morris as the pleasure
experienced as a result of the interruption of ongoing mental anguish,
lack of direction, insecurity, or anxiety, it is expected that participants
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 445
who consider this happiness type to be important in their lives will score
higher in Neuroticism. Terracciano and Costa (2004) found that current
smokers had higher Neuroticism scores than non-smokers, and Lodhi and
Thakur (1993) found that heroin addicts have higher Neuroticism and
Psychoticism scores. These findings can be related to chemical
happiness, defined by Morris as the pleasure obtained from a narcotic-
induced state, whether through the use of “hard-drugs” or “soft-drugs.”
Therefore high chemical happiness should also be associated with
elevated Neuroticism.
Finally, it was hypothesized that tranquil and devout happiness would
be best predicted by participants’ degree of religiousness (H7), as Morris
specifically defines devout happiness as happiness through being a
believer and tranquil happiness as the result of a philosophical or
religious shutting out of the rest of the world and a turning in on oneself,
reaching a deep inner feeling of freedom and non-attachment.
METHOD
Participants
A total of 120 participants completed the questionnaires. All were
Greek Cypriots living in the South part of Cyprus. There were 44
(36.7%) males and 76 (63.3%) females. Their ages ranged from 16-82,
with a mean age of 36.5 years old and standard deviation 12.5 years.
Seventeen (14.2%) of them were students, 76 (63.3%) were employed, 3
(2.5%) were unemployed, and the remaining 24 (20%) did not specify.
Eighty-four (70%) were currently with a partner (either in a relationship,
living together, or married), 35 (29.2%) were not with a partner (either
alone, divorced/separated, or widowed), and one person did not specify.
The vast majority (107, or 89.2%) identified with the Christian Orthodox
religion, 4 (3.3%) with Christian-Roman Catholic, 1 with Hindu, 1 with
“other belief system,” and 7 (5.8%) with no religion at all. Participants’
annual income ranged from “less than £5000” annually to “over £50000,”
with a mean of £20000. Of those who were not students, 16 (15.5%) had
a GCSE/O-level or similar as a highest educational qualification, 5
(4.9%) A-level or similar, 27 (26.2%) a BA/BSc or similar, 16 (15.5%)
an MA/MSc or similar, 10 (9.7%) an MBA or similar, 6 (5.8%) a PhD,
and 21 (20.4%) reported having some other highest educational
qualification (“other”), not specified.
Materials
The Oxford Happiness Inventory. This is a 29-item questionnaire,
based on a four-choice format, measuring trait happiness (Argyle,
Martin, & Crossland, 1989). High scores indicate high state happiness. It
has an internal reliability Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90 and a test-retest
446 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
reliability of 0.78. Some of the items are almost identical to the Beck
Depression Inventory but reversed on content, and it has subcategories of
personal achievement, enjoyment and fun in life, and vigour and good
health, according to Furnham and Brewin (1990). It has a reported
validity of 0.43 with friends’ ratings of happiness (Argyle et al., 1989). It
also correlates with positive affect, life satisfaction, and depression at r =
0.40-0.60. The PsycLIT database indicates that over a dozen studies used
it as a trait measure of happiness over the past decade (Argyle, 2001;
Cheng & Furnham, 2003; Furnham, Cheng, & Shirasu, 2001).
The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. This is a 90-item
questionnaire containing extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, and lie
scales (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). It has Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
reliabilities between 0.73 and 0.90. Items are responded to on a 6-point
scale from 1 (disagree completely) to 6 (agree completely). The
questionnaire has been widely used because of its high validity and
prominence in personality research.
Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form (TEIQue-
SF). This is a 30-item questionnaire designed to measure global trait
emotional intelligence (trait EI). It is based on the full form of the
TEIQue (Petrides & Furnham, 2003), which covers the trait EI sampling
domain comprehensively. The TEIQue-SF provides highly reliable
global trait EI scores that correlate meaningfully with a wide range of
diverse criteria, including coping styles, life satisfaction, personality
disorders, perceived job control, and job satisfaction (Petrides et al.,
2003). Items are responded to on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 (disagree
completely) to 7 (agree completely).
MMHI (Morris Multiple Happiness Inventory). This questionnaire
was devised for this study to investigate the applicability of several
happiness types in the general population. It consists of brief (3-4 line)
definitions of the 17 different happiness types described by Morris in his
book “The Nature of Happiness” (Morris, 2004; see Table 1). Each
description of a particular happiness type is followed by this question:
“To what extent does this type of happiness make you happy?” Items are
responded to on a 6-point scale where 1 = not at all and 6 = very much.
Demographic variables. This questionnaire explored various
demographic variables in relation to happiness. It includes questions
about participants’ age, sex, marital status, annual income, current
occupation, job happiness, religion, degree of religiousness, and higher
educational qualifications.
Procedure
All the participants were recruited from researchers’ contacts in
Cyprus from a wide range of settings. Participants were contacted face-
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 447
to-face by the researcher and informed about the nature of the study
(although no specific details of the hypotheses were mentioned that could
bias the results in any way). They were then asked to fill in the
questionnaires in their free time, on their own, and in quiet conditions if
they decided that they wished to participate in the study voluntarily. The
response rate was high (96%). Originally, 130 questionnaires were
handed out, of which five (4%) were not returned and five had to be
excluded from the analysis due to incomplete data. Most questionnaires
were returned by hand the next day and some were returned by post. The
good response rate was due to participants being reminded to send back
their questionnaire.
Questionnaires were presented in Greek (participants’ native
language) to ensure that the content was entirely clear to the participants.
The Greek versions of the EPQ and TEIQue-SF already existed, as these
were used in previous research. The OHI and MMHI were translated into
Greek by the researcher and back translated into in English by another
bilingual to ensure content validity. The original English version, as well
as the back translation of the questionnaires, are available. Each
participant received a pack of the five questionnaires mentioned above
(OHI, MMHI, EPQ, TEIQue-SF, and the demographic variables
questionnaire). The order in which the questionnaires were presented was
randomized to prevent response bias resulting from fatigue effects.
RESULTS
Factor Analysis
To examine the underlying structure of the Morris Multiple
Happiness Inventory (MMHI), a factor analysis was carried out. Factor
analysis yielded 6 factors with an eigenvalue of >1.00, which account for
62.10% of the total variance. The first factor, labelled Escaping reality,
accounted for 13.80% of the variance. The three happiness types loading
onto this factor were “fantasy happiness,” “comic happiness,” and
“accidental happiness.” Within factor 1, all three items had mean scores
higher than 3, which indicated that the participants generally reported
feeling happy by temporarily enjoying a positive experience they knew
was either fictional or out of the ordinary.
The second factor contained items referring to Pleasures of the mind
and the senses. The happiness types loading onto this factor were
“sensual happiness,” “cerebral happiness,” and “rhythmic happiness.”
Factor 2 accounted for 11.84% of variance. The mean scores of the items
within this factor (all being above 4) revealed that pleasures of the mind
and the senses made a significant contribution to participants’ happiness.
448 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE 2 Factor Analysis (Varimax Rotated) for the Beliefs on Morris’
Different Happiness Types showing mean scores (and factor
loadings in brackets)
Factor Happiness type M SD
Loading
1. Escaping reality Comic ( .81) 4.45 1.51
Accidental (.79) 4.43 1.57
.
Fantasy (.61) 3.64 1.66
2. Pleasures of the mind Rhythmic (.73) 4.48 1.43
and the senses Cerebral (.69) 4.56 1.40
Sensual (.61) 4.76 1.35
3. Biological happiness Painful (.72) 1.52 1.09
.
Chemical (.62) 1.49 .98
Genetic (-.61) 5.17 1.20
4. Spiritual happiness Devout (.84) 3.78 1.61
Tranquil (.82) 3.93 1.63
5. Competitive happiness (.76) 4.26 1.57
.
6. Bipolar happiness Negative (.81) 3.03 1.72
Cooperative (.53) 5.23 .94
Selective 3.33 1.71
Target 5.30 .93
Dangerous 2.81 1.64
___________________________________________________________ *For Selective, Target and Dangerous happiness only the Mean and SD is
reported because these types had an eigenvalue of <1 (not extracted by
factor analysis)
The third factor, accounting for 10.83% of the variance, was labelled
Biological happiness. “Genetic happiness,” “painful happiness,” and
“chemical happiness” loaded onto factor 3. The low mean scores of
painful and chemical happiness (both lower than 2) indicated that
participants did not report deriving much happiness from drugs and any
form of masochism. On the contrary, genetic happiness was negatively
correlated with these two happiness types and had a mean score higher
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 449
than 5, indicating that participants thought this was very important to
their happiness.
The fourth factor, Spiritual happiness, included “tranquil happiness”
and “devout happiness.” This factor accounted for 9.65% of the variance,
and the mean scores of the two items (both above 3) in this factor
indicated that, on the whole, tranquil happiness was moderately
significant for participants.
Competitive happiness, the fifth factor, was made up of “competitive
happiness” alone. Factor 5 accounted for 8.59% of the variance. The
mean score was above 4, showing that happiness derived from
competition with other people was generally quite important to
participants.
TABLE 3 Correlates of the Oxford Happiness Inventory
M SD r with happiness
Trait EI 141.87 20.18 .60**
Personality N 74.48 16.69 -.39**
E 78.81 15.08 .54**
P 50.10 8.71 -.10
L 74.88 9.42 .12
Morris’ Factor 1 12.53 3.68 .10
Happiness Factor 2 13.79 3.14 .23*
Types Factor 3 8.18 1.83 -.07
Factor 4 7.70 2.80 .03
Factor 5 4.26 1.57 .27*
Factor 6 8.27 1.85 .02
Note. *p < .01. **p < .001.
Finally, factor 6, accounting for 7.42% of the variance, was labelled
Bipolar happiness. “Negative happiness” as well as “cooperative
happiness” loaded onto this final factor. It was labelled Bipolar
Happiness because it included pleasure obtained through the self being
helped (negative happiness) vs. pleasure through the self helping others
(cooperative happiness). The mean score for negative happiness (3)
indicated that overall, negative happiness was the happiness type that
applied least to participants, while the mean score for cooperative
happiness (above 5) indicated that participants derived much of their
happiness from helping others. Table 2 shows the results of the factor
analysis.
450 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
Testing H1-H3: Predicting Trait Happiness From the Factors
Extracted From the MMHI, Personality, EI, and Demographic Variables
Table 3 summarizes the zero-order correlations between happiness
and the other measures in the study. These can be compared with the
results from the study by Furnham and Petrides (2003). In the present
study, trait EI was the strongest (positive) correlate of happiness,
followed by Extraversion and then Neuroticism. As shown by many
other studies, Extraversion was positively correlated, while Neuroticism
was negatively correlated with happiness. Psychoticism and the Lie Scale
were not significantly correlated with happiness. Factors 2 and 5
extracted from the MMHI were significant positive correlates of
happiness, but the correlations were weaker than the ones between
happiness and trait EI, Neuroticism, and Extraversion.
TABLE 4 Results of Three-step Hierarchical Regressions with the
Oxford Happiness Inventory as the Dependent Variable
Regression Beta t
Step1. F (1,118) = 67.06; Adj. R square = .36
Trait EI .34 8.19***
Step 2. F (5,114) = 16.48; Adj. R square = .39
Trait EI .20 3.12**
N -.12 -1.97
E .21 2.89**
P .06 .59
L -.08 -.91
Step 3. F (11,108) = 7.89; Adj. R square = .39
Trait EI .17 2.53*
N -.13 -2.21*
E .21 2.68**
P .04 .43
L -.10 -.96
Factor 1 -.06 -.23
Factor 2 .09 .27
Factor 3 -.30 -.62
Factor 4 -.19 -.62
Factor 5 1.18 2.04*
Factor 6 .24 .51
* p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
A series of regressions were carried out to establish whether
emotional intelligence, personality traits, the factors extracted from the
MMHI, and a series of demographic variables were significant predictors
of trait happiness as measured by participants’ score on the OHI. A three-
step hierarchical regression was performed, whereby happiness was
regressed on trait EI (step 1), personality (step 2), and the factors
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 451
extracted from the MMHI (step 3). These results are summarized in
Table 4. Trait EI was found to be a positive predictor of happiness,
accounting for 36% of the total variance. As revealed by simple
regressions, personality alone (N, E, P, and L collectively) accounted for
37% of the variance in OHI scores (F(4,115) = 16.88, p < .001), while
Morris’ factors accounted collectively for only 11% of the variance
(F(6,113) = 2.35, p < .05), although the regression was still significant at
the 5% level. Adding personality to an equation containing EI led to an
increase of 6% in R square, which was significant. The R square change
in the last step of the hierarchical regression (where the six factors of
Morris’ happiness types were collectively entered into the equation) was
not statistically significant (F-change (6,108) = .84, p = ns).
Finally, the importance of demographic factors in predicting
happiness was examined. Various demographic variables were examined
independently by one-way ANOVAS, and the effect of age was assessed
by a simple regression with OHI as the dependent variable. Sex, age,
marital status, annual income, education, and religiousness were all non-
significant. Only job happiness was significant in predicting trait
happiness as measured by the OHI (F(2,116) = 9.20, p < .001). Higher
job satisfaction tended to be correlated with high happiness levels.
Testing H4: Competitive and Cooperative Happiness Are Best
Predicted by Trait EI
It was predicted that trait EI would be the best predictor of
competitive and cooperative happiness because trait EI is related to
emotion regulation, relationship skills, and social competence (Furnham
& Petrides, 2001), necessary ingredients for dealing effectively with
other people and deriving pleasure through interpersonal processes such
as competition and cooperation.
A composite variable consisting of the scores for competitive and
cooperative happiness added together was computed and was termed
Interpersonal happiness. The hypothesis was tested by performing a
three-step hierarchical regression whereby Interpersonal happiness was
regressed on trait EI (step 1), personality (step 2), and the OHI (step 3).
Trait EI was the best predictor, accounting for 9% of the variance. A
simple regression with Interpersonal happiness as the dependent variable
and the OHI as the independent variable revealed that the OHI accounted
for 8% of the variance alone (F(1,118) = 9.51, p < .01). As shown by
other simple regression, personality alone (N, E, P, and L collectively)
accounted for only 6% of the variance in Interpersonal happiness
(F(4,115) = 1.93, p = ns). Adding personality to an equation containing
trait EI did not significantly improve prediction of factor 5. The addition
of the OHI in the last step of the hierarchical regression was also non-
significant (F-change (1,113) = 3.99, p = ns). Therefore, in order of
452 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
importance, trait EI was the best predictor for this variable, followed by
happiness as measured by the OHI, and then personality. The results of
the three-step hierarchical regression are shown in Table 5.
TABLE 5 Results of Three-step Hierarchical Regression With
Interpersonal Happiness as the Dependent Variable
Regression Beta t
Step1. F (1,118) = 11.00; Adj. R square = .08
Trait EI .29 3.32**
Step 2. F (5,114) = 3.12; Adj. R square = .08
Trait EI .38 2.73**
N -.21 1.91
E .00 .00
P .05 .51
L .12 1.26
Step 3. F (6,113) = 3.15; Adj. R square = .10
Trait EI .31 2.15*
N -.24 2.21*
E -.06 -.46
P .04 .42
L .13 1.41
OHI .20 1.75
*p < .05. ** p < .01.
Sex, age, marital status, annual income, education, religiousness, and
job happiness were all non-significant in predicting Interpersonal
happiness as revealed by a series of one-way ANOVAS.
Testing H5: Extraversion Is the Best Predictor of Dangerous, Target,
Rhythmic, Sensual, and Cerebral Happiness
It was hypothesized that the above happiness types would be
positively associated with Extraversion because certain facets of
Extraversion, such as sensation seeking, sensitivity to reward signals,
achievement seeking, and thrill and adventure seeking, are connected to
these happiness types.
To test this hypothesis, a score consisting of all the above happiness
types added together was computed. This variable was termed Sensation
seeking. A three-step hierarchical regression was performed, whereby
Sensation seeking was regressed on Extraversion (step 1), EI (step 2), and
the OHI (step 3). The results are shown in Table 6. As predicted,
Extraversion was by far the strongest predictor, accounting for 20% of
the total variance, with extraverts tending to score highly on this variable.
As revealed by a simple regression where Sensation seeking was
regressed on EI, this accounted for only 8% of the total variance
(F(1,118) = 10.06, p< .01). A simple regression where Factor 2 was
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 453
regressed on OHI showed that happiness alone accounted for only 10%
of the variability in scores (F(1,118) = 13.23, p < .001). Adding EI to an
equation containing Extraversion did not significantly improve prediction
of this variable, nor did adding the OHI score to a model containing
Extraversion and EI.
TABLE 6 Results of Three-step Hierarchical Regressions with Sensation
seeking as the Dependent Variable
Regression Beta t
Step1. F (1,118) = 28.64; Adj. R square = .19
Extraversion .44 5.35*
Step 2. F (2,117) = 14.25; Adj. R square = .18
Extraversion .46 4.13*
EI -.03 -.29
Step 3. F (3,116) = 10.16; Adj. R square = .19
Extraversion .43 3.73*
EI -.09 -.78
OHI .14 1.33
*p < .001.
The only demographic variable that was significant in the prediction
of this composite variable was age, as shown by a simple regression with
Sensation seeking as the dependent variable (F(1,118) = 5.49, p < .05,
Adj. R square = .04). Age was negatively correlated with Sensation
seeking at -.21.
Testing H6: Negative and Chemical Happiness Are Best Predicted by
Neuroticism
It was predicted that the two above happiness types would be best
predicted by Neuroticism because of the previously documented
association between high Neuroticism and certain kinds of
psychopathology and drug use.
A composite score of these two happiness types was calculated by
adding the two individual scores. This variable was labelled Negative
happiness. A four-step hierarchical regression was performed, whereby
this composite variable was regressed on Neuroticism (step 1),
Personality (N, E, P, and L collectively entered into the equation; step 2),
trait EI (step 3), and the OHI (step 4). The results are summarized in
Table 7. Neuroticism was not a significant predictor of Negative
happiness, accounting for 0% of the variability in scores alone. Adding
E, P, and L significantly improved the prediction of this variable,
personality collectively accounting for 8% of the total variance. The
strongest correlate of Negative happiness was, in fact, the Lie scale,
where participants scoring high in the Lie scale tended to report deriving
less pleasure from chemical and negative happiness (r = -.24, p < .01).
454 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
The last two steps in the multiple hierarchical regression were not
statistically significant.
TABLE 7 Results of the Four-step Hierarchical Regression With Nega-
tive Happiness as the Dependent Variable
Regression Beta t
Step1. F (1,118) = .04; Adj. R square = -.01
N .02 1.20
Step 2. F (4,115) = 2.41; Adj. R square = .05
N -.10 -1.01
E -.13 -1.37
P .03 .30
L -.25 -2.57*
Step 3. F (5,114) = 1.93; Adj. R square = .04
N -.11 -1.01
E -.11 -.87
P .02 .26
L -.25 -2.55*
Trait EI -.04 -.25
Step 4. F (6,113) = 1.60; Adj. R square = .03
N -.12 -1.02
E -.10 -.78
P .03 .26
L -.25 -2.54*
Trait EI -.03 -.19
OHI -.02 -.19
*p < .05.
Again, the significance of all demographic variables was examined
and only age was found to be a significant predictor of Negative
happiness (F(1,118) = 5.72, p < .05, Adj. R square = .04). Age correlated
negatively with Negative happiness at -.22.
Testing H7: Tranquil and Devout Happiness Are Best Predicted by
Participants’ Degree of Religiousness
It was hypothesized that tranquil and devout happiness would be best
predicted by participants’ degree of religiousness based on Morris’
descriptions about what constitutes these happiness types.
To examine this prediction, a four-step hierarchical regression was
performed, whereby Factor 4 of the MMHI (Spiritual happiness
consisting of tranquil and devout happiness) was regressed on
religiousness (step 1), EI (step 2), personality (step 3), and the OHI (step
4). The results can be seen in Table 8. Religiousness was by far the
strongest predictor of Spiritual happiness, accounting for 17% of the
total variance, while as revealed by a series of simple regressions (all
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 455
non-significant) with Spiritual happiness as the dependent variable,
personality alone accounted for 6% of the total variance, trait EI for 1%,
and the OHI alone for 0%. Adding trait EI, personality, and state
happiness to the equation had no improvement in prediction of this
factor. None of the demographic variables was a significant predictor.
None of the demographic variables was significant in predicting
Spiritual happiness.
TABLE 8 Results of Four-step Hierarchical Regressions with Spiritual
Happiness as the Dependent Variable
Regression Beta t
Step1. F (1,118) = 24.58; Adj. R square = .17
Religiousness .42 4.96*
Step 2. F (2,117) = 12.55; Adj. R square = .16
Religiousness .41 4.84*
Trait EI .07 .78
Step 3. F (6,113) = 4.89; Adj. R square = .16
Religiousness .40 4.53*
Trait EI .14 1.06
N .13 1.27
E -.07 -.63
P -.01 -.06
L .16 1.79
Step 4. F(7,112) = 4.27; Adj. R square = .16
Religiousness .41 4.59*
Trait EI .17 1.24
N .12 1.11
E -.05 -.41
P .00 .01
L .16 1.70
OHI -.09 -.80
*p < .001.
DISCUSSION
All hypotheses but one (H6) in this study were confirmed by the data
analysis. An inspection of the means of the measures in this study
(TEIQue-SF, OHI, and EPQ) showed that Cypriot participants had very
similar results to British participants who took part in previous studies
(e.g., Cheng & Furnham, 2003; Furnham & Petrides, 2004), scoring
roughly the same as British participants in trait EI, happiness, and
personality. This suggests that the correlates of happiness are universal
and not culturally bound.
456 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
It was hypothesized that Extraversion and Neuroticism would be,
respectively, positively and negatively correlated with happiness (H1 and
H2), as found by many other studies (e.g., Furnham & Cheng, 1999;
Furnham & Petrides, 2004; Hayes & Jopseph, 2003; Hills & Argyle,
1998). These findings were confirmed. Extraversion correlated at .54
with happiness, an even stronger correlation than the one found by
Furnham and Petrides (2003; r = .33). In this study Extraversion alone
accounted for a significant amount of the variance in the OHI (30%),
which makes it a strong predictor of happiness. Many factors may be
involved in explaining the apparent happiness of extraverts. Extraverted
people are more involved with people and have a larger circle of friends.
They more often engage in rewarding social activities, experience more
affection, and enjoy greater social support, an important wellspring of
well-being. Argyle et al. (1989) showed that the happiness of extraverts
is partly due to the joy of social interaction with friends, which extraverts
are able to enjoy more, possibly because they have superior social skills
than introverts. Headey et al. (1985) found in a longitudinal panel study
that Extraversion predisposed people to have favourable life events,
especially in the domains of work and leisure. This can be done by
choosing to enter such events, or by being able to change events once
they are in them. The fact that life appears to treat extraverts more kindly
could be due to their tendency to be more accepting of themselves and
more confident that others will like them, such attitudes becoming self-
fulfilling and leading them to experience more positive events.
As expected, Neuroticism was negatively correlated with happiness at
r = -.39, similar to the correlation found by Petrides and Furnham (r = -
.37). Individuals high in Neuroticism (self-reported “emotionality”)
report themselves as moody, nervous, easily stressed, and sensitive,
while low scorers profess stability, confidence, poise, and emotional self-
control. They have the tendency to swing easily into the four general
dysphoric mood-states of depression, anxiety, fatigue/boredom, and
hostility. It follows that since the absence of negative affect such as
anxiety and depression is one of the main components of happiness, In a
recent Norwegian study, examining personality correlates of happiness
through structural Equation Modeling, Vitterso and Nibson (2004) found
Neuroticism eight times as much variance as extraversion. The negative
affect associated with Neuroticism seems a very powerful predictor of
unhappiness.
The Psychoticism scale on the EPQ, which measures tough-
mindedness, was found to have a modest negative correlation with
happiness (r = -.10). This, too, is in line with previous findings, although
Hills and Argyle (2001) found a slightly stronger negative correlation (r
= -.27).
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 457
Furthermore, it was hypothesized (H3) that, as shown by Furnham
and Petrides (2003), trait EI (or “emotional self-efficacy”) would be a
strong positive predictor of happiness. This hypothesis was confirmed.
Trait EI correlated positively with happiness at r = .60. (Furnham and
Petrides found it correlated at r = .70). Trait EI alone explained a great
deal of the variability in happiness (36%), while personality alone
accounted for 37% of total variance. This relationship remained
statistically significant even after controlling for the effects of
personality, showing that trait EI has incremental validity over the basic
personality dimensions. Trait EI is conceptually and empirically related
to happiness and well-being (Palmer, Donaldson, & Stough, 2002;
Saklofske et al., 2003). Individuals with high trait EI are more flexible,
aware of their own and other peoples’ feelings, capable of
communicating their feelings to others, influencing other people’s
feelings, and controlling their own emotions. They are supposedly
capable of withstanding pressure and regulating stress, cheerful and
satisfied with their lives, and confident and likely to “look on the bright
side” of life. No doubt it is the management of one’s own and others’
emotions that is the really important component of EI that relates to
happiness. This study demonstrated that, at the very least, trait EI is a
salient component of well-being, just as important as personality.
Critics may point to the possibility that high EI – happiness
correlations are due, at least in part, to item overlap. Certainly such
things as successful emotional regulation seem core to both concepts.
Inspection of the items does suggest that they are sampling from different
domains. Nevertheless, it would be desirable to have additional
validation of this relationship using something other than self-report
(perhaps observational) data.
Concerning Morris’ happiness types, an inspection of the mean
ratings revealed that participants thought the most important happiness
types were target, cooperative, and genetic (means between 5 and 6).
Sensual, cerebral, rhythmic, comic, accidental, and competitive
happiness were reported by participants to be important in their lives
(means between 4 and 5). Of moderate significance were tranquil,
devout, fantasy, selective, and negative happiness (means between 3 and
4). Participants reported experiencing little dangerous happiness (mean
between 2 and 3), while painful and chemical happiness were reported
the least (means between 1 and 2). Thus anticipating new experiences
and challenges, helping others, experiencing deep interpersonal
relationships (whether with a partner or family members), and caring
deeply for those in such relationships were participants’ main sources of
happiness, as reported in the MMHI. Participants’ report that anticipating
new experiences and challenges and striving to reach a goal was the
458 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
greater source of pleasure is consistent with the earlier conclusions of
some psychologists.
Collectively, Morris’ happiness types were not predictive of self-
reported trait happiness as measured by the OHI. Adding the six factors
obtained from Morris’ happiness types to a model containing trait EI and
personality did not significantly improve the prediction of happiness.
This is probably because aspects of personality such as Extraversion and
trait EI overlapped with many of Morris’ types (such as target
happiness), so Morris’ happiness types became redundant in accounting
for the variability in OHI scores.
External variables such as age, sex, education, marital status, work,
annual income, and religion were not found to be reliable predictors of
the OHI. This could be partly due to the nature of this sample. However,
the findings are in line with conclusions previously reached by some
researchers (e.g., Diener et al., 1999) that personality is a greater
determinant of happiness than social class, money, social relationships,
work, religion, or other external variables.
Happiness in work was significantly associated with overall
happiness (OHI). Most people in the modern world work, and since the
majority of people work for 7-8 hours or more a day, it is very likely that
satisfaction with work and with life as a whole will be related. One
theory about the relation between satisfaction with work and with other
areas of life is the “spillover hypothesis,” predicting that satisfaction with
family affects job satisfaction and vice versa. Another possibility is that
work and non-work have much in common, such as friendship, status,
and personality, so that both are closely linked to satisfaction with life as
a whole (Near et al., 1980). This is the top-down part of the relation, but
there is also a bottom-up part, in which satisfaction with work has some
effect on overall satisfaction.
As hypothesized (H4), Competitive happiness was found to be
significantly predicted by trait EI (accounting for 9% of the variance
alone), and this relationship persisted even in the presence of personality.
Aspects of trait EI such as emotion regulation, relationship skills, and
social competence (Petrides & Furnham, 2001) do appear to be more
prevalent in individuals who tend to derive much happiness from
competition (and/or cooperation) with other people (labelled
Interpersonal happiness).
It was hypothesized (H5) that Extraversion would be the best
predictor of dangerous, target, rhythmic, sensual, and cerebral happiness.
This was indeed the case, with Extraversion being the best predictor by
far, accounting for 20% of the total variance in these happiness types
combined, while trait EI accounted for only 8%. Furthermore, adding
trait EI or the OHI did not significantly improve prediction of this
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 459
variable. Apparently, certain facets of extraversion, such as sensation
seeking, sensitivity to reward signals, achievement seeking, and thrill and
adventure seeking, are connected to these happiness types. Thus,
Extraversion appears to be a trait individuals are more likely to possess if
they derive happiness from experiencing primary biological pleasures
(sensual happiness), carrying out acts of intelligence that lead to a sense
of achievement (cerebral happiness), striving to reach a goal (target
happiness), engaging in risky activities that provide a sense of thrill and
adventure (dangerous happiness), or seeking sensation through activities
like music, dancing, and singing (rhythmic happiness).
It was hypothesized (H6) that negative and chemical happiness would
be best predicted by Neuroticism because of the previously documented
association between high Neuroticism and certain kinds of
psychopathology and drug use (Lodhi & Thakur, 1993; Schmitz et al.
2003; Terracciano & Costa, 2004). This hypothesis was not supported by
the data. Participants may have been reluctant to report the true extent to
which they enjoy these negative happiness types that are more likely to
be regarded as less acceptable by others and perhaps by themselves. The
Lie scale was significantly associated with these happiness types, where
participants scoring high on the Lie scale tended to report deriving less
pleasure from chemical and negative happiness. This adds further support
to the possibility that low scorers in Negative happiness may have been
simply being dishonest. Even though Neuroticism alone was not a
significant predictor, as would be expected, Negative happiness
correlated positively with both Psychoticism and Neuroticism and
negatively with happiness as measured by the OHI and trait EI.
Finally, it was hypothesized (H7) that tranquil and devout happiness
would be best predicted by participants’ degree of religiousness based on
Morris’ descriptions about what constitutes these happiness types.
Religiousness was by far the strongest predictor of Spiritual happiness,
accounting for 17% of the total variance, while personality alone
accounted for 6% of the total variance and trait EI for 1%. For many
people, faith provides a support community in times of crisis, a reason to
focus beyond the self, and a sense of purpose and hope. However, it is
important to note that although Spiritual happiness is predicted by
religiousness, overall happiness as measured by the OHI, is not. Thus,
religiousness does not appear to be adequate in order for individuals to be
satisfied with all aspects of their lives.
Demographic variables did not emerge from this study as important
predictors of Morris’ happiness types. Age, however, was significantly
related with some of Morris’ happiness types. Both Sensation seeking
and Negative Happiness were negatively correlated with age. Naturally,
460 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
young people gained more pleasure from adventurous, sensation seeking
activities and greater drug-induced pleasure.
This study has demonstrated that, in general, trait EI and Extraversion
are the two most important predictors of self-reported happiness, both as
measured by the OHI and the ratings of Morris’ different happiness
types. In fact, the two happiness types participants reported as most
important for them, namely target and cooperative happiness, were
reliably associated with Extraversion and trait EI, respectively. For two
of the clusters of happiness types examined (Interpersonal happiness &
Sensation seeking), trait EI and Extraversion, respectively, were the most
significant predictors. However, this study also showed that other factors
can be important in gaining pleasure from some aspect of one’s life. This
is demonstrated by the fact that religiousness, and not trait EI or
Extraversion, appears to be the most significant predictor of Morris’
Spiritual happiness.
The fact that individuals high in trait EI and high in Extraversion tend
to be more satisfied with their lives on the whole (OHI) or are able to
gain pleasure from a wider range of events and activities (most of
Morris’ happiness types) does not mean there is no hope for introverts
and people low in trait EI.
Inevitably, this is something of a pilot study, given that it appears
that, as yet, there is no other published research examining the ideas of
Morris. This study has, like all others, various shortcomings. The sample
was modest and ideally would have been larger. The measure of the
Morris happiness types was based on a single-item measure. There is
concern about item overlap of EI measures and happiness measures.
However, this study provides, hopefully, a useful first step to investigate
the idea that happiness is not always best treated as a unitary concept as
there may well be different, identifiable, and stable measures of different
types of trait and state happiness.
REFERENCES Argyle, M. (1992). Benefits produced by supportive social relationships. In H. O.
F. Veiel & U. Baumann (Eds.), The meaning and measurement of social
support. New York: Hemisphere publishing.
Argyle, M. (1994). The psychology of social class. London: Routledge.
Argyle, M. (2001). The psychology of happiness. London: Routledge.
Argyle, M., & Lu, L. (1990). The happiness of extroverts. Personality and
Individual Differences, 11, 1011-1017.
Argyle, M., Martin, M., & Crossland, J. (1989). Happiness as a function of
personality and social encounters. In J. P. Forgas & J. M. Innes (Eds.), Recent
advances in social psychology: An international perspective. North Holland:
Elsevier.
Brebner, J. (1998). Happiness and personality. Personality and Individual
Differences, 25, 279-296.
Furnham & Christoforou PERSONALITY TRAITS 461
Chamorro-Premuzic, R., Bennett, E., & Furnham, A. (2007). The happy
personality: mediating role of trait emotional intelligence. Personality and
Individual Differences, 8, 1633 – 1639.
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality, self-esteem, and demographic
predictions of happiness and depression. Personality and Individual
Differences, 34, 921-942.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Fransisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2000). Income and subjective well-being: will
money make us happy? University of Illinois, unpublished.
Diener, E., & Larsen, R, J. (1984). Temporal stability and cross-situational
consistency of affective, behavioural, and cognitive responses. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 580-592.
Diener, E., & Lucas, R. (1999). Personality and subjective well-being. In D.
Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Foundations of Hedonic
Psychology (pp. 213-229). New York: Russell Sage.
Diener, E., Suh, E., Lucas, R., & Smith, H. (1999). Subjective well-being: three
decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276-302.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire. London Hodder & Stoughton.
Eysenck, H. J. (1983). I do: your guide to a happy marriage. London: Century.
Eysenck, M. (1990). Happiness: Facts and myths. Hove: LEA.
Francis, L. (1999). Happiness is a thing called stable extraversion. Personality
and Individual Differences, 26, 5-11.
Francis, L., Brown, L., Lester, D., & Philipchalk, R. (1998). Happiness is stable
extraversion. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 167 – 171.
Furnham, A. (1981) Personality and activity preference. British Journal of Social
Psychology, 20, 57-68.
Furnham, A., & Brewin, C. (1990). Personality and happiness. Personality and
Individual Differences, 11, 1093-1096.
Furnham, A. & Cheng, H. (1999). Personality as predictor of mental health and
happiness in the East and West. Personality and Individual Differences, 27,
395-403.
Furnham, A., & Petrides, K. V. (2003). Trait emotional intelligene and happiness.
Social Behaviour and Personality, 31, 815-824.
Furnham, A., Cheng, H., & Shirasu, Y. (2001). Lay theories of happiness in the
east and west. Psychologia, 44, 173-187.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. New York: Free Press.
Gray, J. A. (1981). A critique of Eysenck's theory of personality. In H. J. Eysenck
(Ed.), A model for personality (pp. 246-277). Berlin: Springer.
Hayes, N., & Joseph, S. (2003). Big Five correlates of three measures of
subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 723-727.
Headey, B. W., Holmstrom, E. L., & Wearing, A. J. (1985). Models of well-being
and ill-being. Social Indicators Research, 17, 211-234.
Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (1998b). Positive moods derived from leisure and their
relationship to happiness and personality. Personality and Individual
Differences, 25, 523-535.
462 NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2001). Happiness, introversion-extraversion and happy
introverts. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 595-608.
Larsen, R. J., & Ketelaar, T. (1991). Personality and susceptibility to positive and
negative emotional states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
61,132-140.
Lodhi, P. H., & Thakur (1993). Personality of drug addicts: Eysenckian analysis.
Personality and Individual Differences, 15(2), 121-128.
Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon.
Psychological Science, 7, 186-189.
Maletasta, C. Z., Grigoryev, P., Lamb, C., Albin, M., & Culver, C. (1986).
Emotion socialization and expressive development in preterm and full-term
infants. Child Development, 57, 316-330.
Morris, D. (2004). The nature of happiness. London: Little Books Ltd.
Myers, D. (1992). The pursuit of happiness. New York: Avon Books.
Myers , D., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, 10-19.
Near, J. P., Smith, C., Rice, R. W., & Hunt, R. G. (1980). The relationship
between work and nonwork domains. Academy of Management Review, 5,
415-429.
Palmer, B., Donaldson, C., & Stough, C. (2002). Emotional intelligence and life
satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1091-1100.
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence:
Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies.
European Journal of Personality, 15, 425-448.
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: Behavioral
validations in two studies of emotion, recognition and reactivity to mood
induction. European Journal of Personality, 17, 39-57.
Petrides, K. V., Perez, J. C., & Furnham, A. (2003): The Trait Emotional
Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). A measure of emotional self-efficacy.
In E. J. Austin & D. H. Saklofske (Chairs), Emotional Intelligence.
Symposium conducted at the 11th Biennial Meeting of the International
Society for the Study of the Individual Differences. Graz, Austria.
Saklofske, D., Austin, E., & Minski, P. (2003). Factor structure and validity of a
trait emotional intelligence measure. Personality and Individual Differences,
34, 707-721.
Schmitz, N., Kugler, J. & Rollnik, J. (2003). On the relation Between
Neuroticism, Self-Esteem, and Depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44(3),
169-176.
Seligman, M.E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology.
American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
Terracciano A., & Costa, P.T.(2004). Smoking and the Five-Factor Model of
personality. Addiction. 99(4), 472-481.
Vitterso, J., & Nilsen, F. (2004). The conceptual and relational structure of
subjective well-being, neuroticism and extraversion. Social Indicators
Research, 57, 89-118.