Personality and Relationships November 21, 2007. Reminder As announced last class, you have until...

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Personality and Relationships November 21, 2007

Transcript of Personality and Relationships November 21, 2007. Reminder As announced last class, you have until...

Personality and Relationships

November 21, 2007

Reminder

• As announced last class, you have until December 5th to complete the paper instead of November 28th.

Tonight’s Lecture

• How does identity change with age?• Is there such a thing as a midlife crisis?• How does middle-aged and older couples

differ?• What are the benefits of being a grandparent?• What are the benefits and drawbacks of

caregiving?

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

• Erikson was the first theorist to develop a true lifespan theory of personality development.

• His eight stages represent the eight great struggles that he believed people must undergo.

• Each struggle has a certain time of ascendancy – The epigenetic principle– Each struggle must be resolved to continue

development

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Clarifications and Extensions of Erikson’s Theory

• Logan argues that the eight stages are really a cycle that repeats – trust achievement wholeness

• Van Geert proposes that the rules by which people move from one stage to the next may be related to cognitive development.

• Kotre has extended generativity versus stagnation stage to include five types of generativity–Biological and parental– Technical –Cultural–Agentic –Communal

The McAdams Model

• McAdams’s model shows how generativity results from: –Complex interconnections between societal

and inner forces– Thus, creating a concern for the next

generation and a belief in the goodness of the human enterprise

Loevinger’s Theory• Loevinger has proposed the most comprehensive

attempt at integrating cognitive and ego development and extension of Erikson’s theory– Ego development results from dynamic

interactions between the person and the environment

– Eight stages – six in adulthood – Four areas of importance in ego development

1.Character development2.Interpersonal style3.Conscious preoccupations 4.Cognitive style

Theories Based on Life Transitions

• Amongst the most popular theories of adult personality development.

• Based on the idea that adults go through a series of life transitions, or passages– However, few of these theories have

substantial databases, and none are based on representative samples.

• Life transitions tend to overestimate the commonality of age-linked transitions.

In Search of the Midlife Crisis

• A key idea in life transition theories is the midlife crisis.– The idea that at middle age we take a good

look at ourselves in the hopes of achieving a better understanding of who we are.• Many adults face difficult issues and make

behavioural changes

In Search of the Midlife Crisis

• However, very little data supports the claim that all people inevitably experience a crisis in middle age. – Most middle-aged people do point to both gains

and losses, positives and negatives in their lives• This transition may be better characterized as a

midlife correction.– Reevaluating ones’ roles and dreams and making

the necessary corrections

Conclusions about Personal Concerns

• Evidence supports a sharp change in personal concerns as adults age. – This is in contrast to stability in dispositional traits

supporting McAdams’s contention that this middle level of personality should show some change.

• Change is not specific to an age, but is dependent on many factors.

• All agree that there is a need for more research in this area.

McAdams’s Life-Story Model

• Argues that people create a life story – That is, an internalized narrative with a

beginning, middle, and an anticipated ending• There are seven essential features of a life story– Narrative tone– Image– Theme– Ideological setting– Nuclear episodes– Character– An ending

McAdams’s Life-Story Model• Adults are said to reformulate their life

stories throughout adulthood both at the conscious and unconscious levels– The goal is to have a life story that is • Coherent• Credible• Open to new possibilities• Richly differentiated• Reconciling of opposite aspects of oneself• Integrated within one’s sociocultural context

Whitbourne's Identity Theory

• Argues that people build conceptions of how their lives should proceed

• They create a unified sense of their past, present, and future– The life-span construct, which has 2 parts –A scenario• This includes future expectations or a game plan

for one’s life; it is strongly related to age norms.–A life story• A personal narrative history that organizes past

events into a coherent sequence.

Self-Concept• The organized, coherent, integrated pattern of

self-perceptions that includes self-esteem and self-image.– Mortimer and colleagues• A 14-year longitudinal study showed that self-

concept influences the interpretation of life events• Kegen – Self-concepts across adulthood are related to

the cognitive-developmental level.– Proposes six stages of development which

correspond to levels of cognitive development.– Emphasizes that self-concept and personality

does not occur in a vacuum.

Possible Selves

• Created by projecting yourself into the future and thinking about what you would like to become, and what you are afraid of becoming.

• Age differences have been observed in both hoped-for and feared selves.– Young adults and middle-aged adults report

family issues as most important.– Middle-aged and older adults report personal

issues to be most important.• However, all groups included physical aspects as part

of their most feared selves.– Interestingly, young and middle-aged adults see

themselves as improving in the future, while older adults do not.

Possible Selves

• Ryff identified six aspects of psychological well-being:– Self-acceptance–Positive relationships with others–Autonomy– Environmental mastery–Purpose in life–Personal growth

Religiosity and Spiritual Support• Older adults use religion more often than any other

strategy to help them cope with problems in life– Spiritual support includes • Pastoral care• Participating in organized and non-organized religious

activities• Expressing faith in a God who cares for people

• Spiritual support provides a strong influence on identity– This is especially true for African Americans, who

are more active in their church groups and attend services more frequently

– Research with Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus showed they also gain important aspects of their identity (e.g., self-worth) from religion.

Gender-Role Identity• People’s beliefs about the appropriate

characteristics for men and women– They reflect shared cultural beliefs and

stereotypes about masculinity and femininity• There is some evidence that gender role identity

converges in middle age – Men and women more likely to endorse similar

self-descriptions • However, these similar descriptions do not

necessarily translate into similar behavior• Also, older men and women tend to endorse similar

statements about masculinity and femininity

What Role Do Friends Play?• Three broad themes underlie adult friendships– Affective or emotional basis • This includes self-disclosure, expressions of

intimacy, appreciation, affection, and support• Based on trust, loyalty, and commitment

• Shared or communal nature – Friends participate in or support activities of

mutual interest• Sociability and compatibility– Friends keep us entertained and are sources

of amusement, fun, and recreation

How Do Friendships Change Over Time?

• Young adults tend to have more friends and acquaintances than any other age group.

• Friendships in old age are especially important for maintaining life satisfaction.

• This is possibly due to socio-emotional selectivity.

Are Friendships Different For Men and Women?

• Men tend to have fewer friendships than women.

• Men’s friendships tend to be based on shared activities.

• Women's friendships are based on intimate emotional sharing.

• Cross-gender friendships tend to be very difficult to maintain.

How Do Siblings Relate To One Another?

• Five types of sibling relationships have been identified:– Congenial– Loyal– Intimate– Apathetic– Hostile

• Loyal and congenial relationships describe nearly two-thirds of all older sibling pairs.

• Sibling ties among sisters tend to be the strongest.

How About Love?• Sternberg has identified three components of love– Passion– Intimacy– Commitment• Ideally, good love relationships have all three

components• Assortative mating does the best job explaining the

process of forming love relationships.– Selecting a mate works best when there are

shared values, goals, and interests.• Cross-cultural research demonstrates that mate

preferences are subject to powerful cultural norms.

Love & Marriage

• The median age at first marriage is increasing and has done so over the last few decades

• Factors influencing marital success– Maturity of the two partners at time of

marriage – Homogamy • Marriage based on similarity

– Feelings of equality• Exchange theory - each partner contributing

something to the relationship that the other would be hard pressed to provide

How Does Marital Satisfaction Change Over Time?

• Childless couples tend to remain satisfied throughout their marriage.

• Couples with children show declines in marital satisfaction while the children are still living at home.

• Additionally, marriages in which both partners are mutually dependent on the other tend to remain happy.

What Are Long-Term Marriages Like?

• Most long-term marriages tend to be happy.

• Couples in long-term happy marriages show an ability to adapt to changes in their relationships (Weishaus & Fields, 1988).

• Couples realize that expectations about one's marriage change over time.

• The partners express few negative emotions.

What Differentiates Middle-Aged & Older Couples? (Levenson et al., 1993, 1994)

• Older couples: Less potential for conflict and more for pleasure.

• Equivalent levels of physical and mental health.

• Older couples: Less gender differences & more positive emotions.

• When discussing a problem, older couples are less emotionally negative and more positive, and more affectionate.

Sexuality in Older Adults

• As Time Goes By: Video discussing changes in sexuality as people grow older.

• Call number: AV 00571• What are the changes older adults report in their

sex life?• How do couple relationships changes? Is it

congruent with what we have discussed so far?• Is there a stigma attached to sexuality as we age?

Is it a cohort effect?

Divorce: When Marriage Takes a Wrong Turn

• Although most couples intend their marriages to last, roughly half will end in divorce.

• Currently 1 in every 3 households is affected by divorce.

• The peak time for divorce is 3 or 4 years after the wedding or when a couple is in their late 20s.

• One reason given for the increase in divorces is that attitudes toward divorce have mellowed, while expectations about marriage have increased.

Are There Factors Predicting Divorce?

• Gottman and Levenson (2000) developed 2 models to predict divorce early (<7 years) and late (when the first child reaches age 14) in a marriage.

• Importance of showing emotions: Negative emotions vs. lack of positive emotions.

• Right after divorce: Preoccupation with thoughts of spouse and high feelings of hostility: Poorer emotional well-being.

Impact of Divorce• Divorce may impair well-being even several

years later.– Men have more short-term problems.– Women have more long-term problems.– In general, the older the individual is at the time

of the divorce, the more difficult the adjustment process will be.

Divorce and Remarriage• Despite adjustment problems, the vast majority of

divorced people remarry.– Usually remarriage occurs within three years.

• Second marriage rates are lower for older divorced women.

• Very little research has been conducted on the nature of second (or higher) marriages.– What little is known suggests that the biggest

problem will likely be step-parenting.• Remarriage in late life appears to be very happy,

especially if the partners were widowed.– In this case, the biggest problem is usually

resistance by adult children.

Widowhood• Experiencing the death of one's spouse is a

traumatic event, but one which is highly likely.– More than half of women over 65 are widows,

but only 16% of same-aged men are widowers.• Reactions to widowhood depend on the quality of

the marriage.• Widowed people are vulnerable to being

abandoned by their couples-based friendship network.– As a result, they may become socially isolated.

Gender Differences in Widowhood• Widowhood is more common among

women because they tend to marry older men.

• Widowed men are typically older than widowed women.

• Men are more likely to die soon after their spouse.– Either by suicide or natural causes.

Effect of Widowhood on Disability (van den Brink et al., 2004)

• Impact of widowhood on mobility, IADLs & basic ADLs in men from Finland, Netherlands & Italy.

• Looked at the impact of widowhood on disability onset, duration of widowhood (less than 5 years vs. more than 5 years) and living situation (living alone vs. with others).

• Do men get used to widowhood?

Results• Living alone: Netherlands (76%) & Finland

(65%) vs. Italy (33%)• Widowhood: Higher prevalence of disability

of IADLs & mobility.• Men who had been widowed less than 5

years showed more disabilities on IADLs than those widowed longer. No difference in mobility or basic ADLs.

• Men living alone: Fewer disabilities for mobility & basic ADLs.

• Lived in institution: more disabled.

More Results• Interactions between countries and

different variables: Not significant.• Problem of dropped/missing data: People

who are more impaired discontinue.• Nevertheless, depression and health

problems following widowhood could explain some increase in disability just following bereavement.

• Functional vs. situational disability.

Family & Intergenerational Relationships

• Riley and Riley present three ways of conceptualizing kinship ties – Simple - involving two generations– Expanded - involving three generations– Latent - involving in-laws and other relatives

Middle-Aged Adults Caring for Their Parents

• Sandwich generation– Used to describe how middle-aged adults are

squeezed by competing demands of children who want to gain independence and their parents who want to maintain independence.

• Middle-aged adults do not abandon their parents.– Most middle-aged adults typically maintain

close and frequent contact with their parents.– Often due to feelings of filial obligation.

Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults

• Elder abuse is difficult to define and has several categories:–Physical–Psychological and emotional– Sexual–Material or financial–Violation of rights

• Most perpetrators are adult children.–Abuse and neglect of older adults is an

increasing problem.

Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults• Characteristics of elder abuse victims– Some data show women more likely to be

abused than men while other data show no differences.

– People over the age of 80 are abused two to three times more often than those under 80.

– Main factors in abuse:• Age• Poverty • Race• Functional and cognitive impairment• Living with someone

– In 90% of the cases the family member is the abuser, and in two thirds of those, it is the spouse or adult child.

Changing Relationships• Parents and their children are living longer, so

they now achieve status equals– Property transfer no longer constitutes the

primary reason for formal intergenerational ties.

– Most older adults are reasonably healthy and self-sufficient.

– Contemporary families are increasingly diverse.– Many forms of relationships provide

alternatives to traditional parent-child interactions.

Being a Family• Nuclear family– Consisting only of parents and children– The most common form of family in Western

societies.• Extended family– Consisting of grandparents and other relatives

living with parents and children.– The most common form around the world is

the extended family.• Social pressure is put on people to have children.– However, children seriously disrupt most

marriages and put many strains on the family.

Being a Family

• In general, child-free couples report happier marriages, more freedom, and higher standard of living.

• The timing of parenthood is important in how involved parents are in their families– Men who become fathers in their 30s spend

much more time with their children than men who become fathers in their 20s.

The Empty Nest

• Most parents do not report severe negative emotions when their children leave home.– Only 25% report negative emotions when their

children leave home.– Difficulties emerge when children were a major

source of a parent’s identity. • However, most parents typically report

distress if adult children move back home.

Becoming a Grandparent• Neugarten and Weinstein identified five

major styles of grandparenting.– Formal– Fun seeker– Distant– Surrogate parents– Dispenser of family wisdom

• One third of grandparents are classified as formal with traditional roles. – Such as occasional babysitting and occasionally

indulging grandchild.

Becoming A Grandparent• A second common style is the fun seeker.– This relationship is characterized by informal

playfulness.• Kivnick has identified five meanings of

being a grandparent– Centrality– Value as an elder– Immortality through clan– Reinvolvement with one’s personal past– Indulgence

Caregiving Stress• Caregiving for aging parents can be highly stressful.– Done by family members, many of whom are

daughters or daughter-in-laws.– Middle-aged adults also frequently experience

difficulty in accepting their parents' problems and in adjusting to a caregiving role.

• Strain on the middle-aged adult's marital relationship.

• Financial costs.• Many aging parents do not like the fact that their

children must care for them and have a desire to remain independent.

The Role of Family Functioning in Caregiving Stress (Mitrani et al., 2006)

• Structural Family Theory (Minuchin, 1974)– The family is a basic human system.– The function of subsystems within the family

system are important.– The evolution of transactional patterns: If the

different relationships do not evolve to adapt, can become problematic.

– System and subsystem boundaries.

Structural Family Therapy

• Goal: Identify and correct problematic structures by observing and reshaping interactions.

• REACH program for dementia caregivers.• Stress-process model.• Study looked at Cuban American families

and non-Hispanic families.