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d o w 1981, Plg p grdl o rc r Bg sr, Clor.Dgod w pro ccr 1991, Plgbld d or r yr. t world lo oo gr c d r o ag19, 1994, w L Plg pd wy go 93, rc r co.

See also atomic structure; biochemistry;bonding theories; covalent compounds; Crick,

Francis; Einstein, Albert; electron configura-

tions; Franklin, Rosalind; ionic compounds;

nucleic Acids; organic chemistry; proteins;

quantum mechanics; Watson, James; Wilkins,

Maurice; X-ray crystallography.

Further reading

Pco, no e. Linus Pauling: Advancing Science,

Advocating Peace (Outstanding Science Trade Books

for Students K-12). Brkly hg, n.J.: elow,

2004.

Plg, L, d Brbr mrcc. Linus Pauling

in His Own Words: Selections from His Writings,

Speeches, and Interviews. n.Y.: toco, 1995.

periodic table of the elements t pr-odc bl o l, or prodc bl, dgrc rpro o kow lld ccordg o oc br ( br oproo) o l. (See appendix: PeriodicTable of the Elements). t rrg o l bd o prodc lw, wc

pycl d ccl propr o l- r prodc co o r oc br.t poo o c l o bl lo d-c lcro cofgro o l. Forxpl, l crbo, w oc bro 6 d oc o 12.011, lcrocofgro o 1s22s22p2.

t prodc bl powrl ool or dr-dg cry. W gl ly, l- dply lr ccl crcrc. Rr orzg oro bo c l, c oly o lr bo gl l ly. i od d clor cob o or

bl l, nCl, or br o od -ly wll lo cob w clor o or l.Bc poog o l o prodcbl vlly rpr prodc lw, plglc llow c o prdc ow o lwll rc w or.

t 60 or o l lr o 19-cryc xbd wd rg o ccl dpycl propr. t prodc bl rld ro work o y c, wo rggld o fdpr d dr rlop og l-

o bl ordr -coc fld ocry. t Br c Jo nwld wo o fr o rrg l o oro bl. h bd bl o lw o ocv,r rcogzg propr o lrpd vry g l. Bldg po work o nwld d or, R c

Dry mdlyv bld ll pc o or-o ogr o dvlop fr prodc bl rbl lr odr vro. mdlyvfr rrgd 63 kow l ccordg ooc . h lo ook o cco lw oocv by rrgg l o orzol rowclld prod bl. el pood vrcl col, or grop, d lr propr-. t bl mdlyv pbld 1871 ddo dr gfcly ro nwld, xcp mdlyv l gp d d bold prdco or dcovrd l. Bc o rdoo rcogzg prodc dpdc o

l bd o r oc wg, mdlyv ow kow r o prodc bl.

t Br pyc hry moly x-rydcryl o vro l d od o drcd wvlg corrld ycr w oc br o l,dorg oc br rprdor ply crg . moly rcog-zd br o proo d lcro gv l propr.

a moly dcovrd, rrg o l- o pcfc grop d prod drcly rlo r lcro cofgro. t rrg o

lcro o pcfc oc orbl gv lw grop lr pycl d cclpropr by rly c. t prod o prodc bl r brd 17 ro op o boo.el prod v r vlc lcro rgy lvl. t grop r brd old-yl or, wr rprv lr gv iaViiia, d ro lr d iBViiiB. t old-yl or brplcd by iuPaC brg y, wr grop r lbld 118 cocvly. t lw grop v lr pycl d cclpropr, b w o lg drc ovg

dow row rprd grop bd o br o rgy lvl l co.

t prodc bl covly dvdd owo dc rgo, l d ol, prdby r-p l. t l, od b l, cld ll br o grop 112 wll o l o grop 1315. mo o kow l r l d r crcr-c o bg llbl d dcl d bg goodcodcor o lcrcy d . excp rcry,ll l r old roo prr.

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th cd rg h prdc bl ch l, whch r d h rgh hr-p l h ppr-rgh crr h prdcbl. th grp d p h hlg, blg, d hydrg, crb, rg, xyg, ph-phr, lr, d l. nl r cd-rd lr. thy r c bd wh l rl hr hgh lcrgv, d hyr cvl bd wh hr l. myl l x r dc lcl:hydrg, xyg, br, fr, d, r-g, d chlr. Dr l x g,

lqd, r ld r prr.el kw lld, r cdc-r, l lg h r-p l prg ld l. a hr pl, h lcdc lcrcy br h l b wll l. ohr prpr l l whrbw h prpr h l d l.th lld cld br, lc, gr,rc, y, llr, d pl.

th l h prdc bl c l bdvdd h s-blck, p-blck, d-blck, d f-

blck l. th rr h blvl whchh l hv hr vlc lcr. Bchy llr h r rg chcl prpr,h s-blck d p-blck l r kw rp-rv l. Fr ll h rprv l-, h grp br h ld-yl brgy ql h br lcr h rrgy lvl. th prd br h rpr-v l dc h rgy lvl h vlclcr h l.

th r grp rprv l hlkl l (Grp ia, iuPaC Grp 1). th grp

c h l lh, d, p,rbd, c, d rc. th ll r h lkl l r hghly rcv. th lkl -l hv lw dy d c xpld hy rcwh wr. ech l h grp h vlclcr, whch lcd s blvl. th lkll r +1 c by lg hr s1 lcr drdly r c cpd (l) wh l.sl lkl l r lbl wr.

th lkl rh l (Grp iia, iuPaCGrp 2) cld h l bryll, g-

The periodic table is arranged by increasing atomic number. The columns of the table are groups and the rows

of the table are periods.

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, clc, rn, br, nd rd. thyr gry-wh ld nd, d h lkl -l, hv lw dny. th lkln rh l rl lbl n wr hn h lkl l. thln r lwy nd cbnd wh hr l-n n nr bc hy r cndrd vryrcv, lhgh hy r l rcv hn h

lkl l. ech ln n h grp h wvlnc lcrn, lcd n n s blvl, nd hr-r r +2 cn by lng hr s2 lcrn.

th nx grp rprnv ln, nclld h brn grp (Grp iiia, iuPaC Grp13), cn brn, ln, gll, nd,nd hll. th ln n h grp xhb rng prpr. Brn cndrd l-ld, whl h hr br h grp r cn-drd pr l. Brn blck, lr, ndbrl. aln, h bndn ln n herh cr, rng nd, lk ll l, dcl,nd, hrr, vry l n vry nc-

rng prc. Gll cndcr ndh lng pn 86F (30C) nd blngpn 3,999F (2,204C). all h ln nh grp hv hr vlnc lcrn lcd n hs nd p blvl. thy lly r +3 cn bylng hr s2 nd p1 lcrn. th crbn grp(Grp iVa, iuPaC Grp 14) cnn crbn,lcn, grn, n, nd ld. ech h l-n h r lcrn n r nrgy lvl ns nd p blvl. th ln n h grp gnr-lly d n r n, lhgh hy cn. thy rr lkly r cvln cpnd. Crbn

cn r hr cn r nn wh -4, +2, r+4 xdn by gnng r lng vlnclcrn. th ln crbn ndnl ll lvng rgn, r h rwrk rgnc lcl. ohr r crbn r grph- nd dnd. slcn, whch vry bndn nh erh cr, c cndcr, dgrn; bh h ln hv plyd pvl rl n h dvlpn h cprchp. th nl l n h grp, n nd ld, rrlvly nnrcv.

th ln n h nrgn grp (Grp Va,iuPaC Grp 15) ll hv v lcrn n hr

r hll. th grp ncld nrgn, phph-r, rnc, nny, nd bh. th nrgngrp cnn nnl (nrgn nd phph-r), lld (rnc nd nny), nd -l (bh). th ln n h grp hv vvlnc lcrn n bh s nd p blvl.

th chlcgn grp (Grp Via, iuPaC Grp16) l clld h xygn ly r h bndn ln n erh. th grp ncld xy-gn, lr, ln, llr, nd pln. allhv x vlnc lcrn lcd n h s nd p

blvl. th ln n h grp ypclly rnn wh -2 chrg by gnng w lcrn r l. oxygn nd lr r nnl, whrln, llr, nd pln r lld.

th hlgn (Grp Viia, iuPaC Grp 17)prcp n h rn ny cn c-pnd. th ln n h hlgn grp r f-

rn, chlrn, brn, dn, nd n. echh vn vlnc lcrn wh w n h s blvlnd v n h p blvl. th ln n h grpwll bc nn wh -1 chrg whn hy nzby gnng n lcrn r l. th llw h r nc cpnd wh l ly. Flrnnd chlrn r g, brn lqd, dn ld, nd n rr rdcv ld.

th nl grp rprnv ln(Grp Viiia, iuPaC Grp 18) h nbl g.th grp cnn hl, nn, rgn, krypn,xnn, nd rdn. th nbl g hv lld rnrgy lvl wh w lcrn n h s blvl nd

x n hp blvl. snc hy hv ll r hll,h ln d n gn r l lcrn nd rhrr cndrd nnrcv.

th d-blck ln (Grp iiiBiiB, iuPaCGrp 312), h rnn l, r llblnd dcl nd r gd cndcr lcrcy.mny ln n h blck hv lpl xdn. th r nrgy lvl rnn ln h ll s blvl, nd lcrn xn h d blvl h cnd hgh nrgy lvl wll. th rnn l cnn wd vry ln ncldng cppr, gld, rn, lvr, ng-

n, znc, rcry, nckl, nd cbl.th f-blck ln r clld nnr rnnl nd r dvdd n w prd clld hlnhnd nd cnd. th lnhnd wr ncclld h rr rh l dp h c h hyr n vry rr. th lnhnd hv hgh l-ng pn nd lvr clr. th lnhnd ncldln wh c nbr 5771: lnh-n, cr, prdy, ndy, pr-h, r, rp, gdln, rb,dypr, hl, rb, hl, yrb,nd l. all h ln n h prd hv ll 6s blvl, nd r ddng lcrn

hr 4f nrgy blvl. thy r lly dpcd blck bx blw h cnrl prn hprdc bl.

th cnd ncld ln wh c n-br 89103: cn, hr, prcn, r-n, npn, pln, rc, cr,brkl, clrn, nn, r, n-dlv, nvl, nd lwrnc. th cndr ll rdcv nd hv lcrn n hr 5flcrn hll. thy hv wdr rng phyclprpr hn h lnhnd. a h lnhnd

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r, cd r dpcd blck bxblw crl pr prdc bl.

hydrg, c l uvr, bv r l pr-dc bl d bcu ly pr d lcr. Wl ld grup 1 l,ydrg lkl l. hydrg c rc

w y l, cludg xyg. hydrgc bc c w +1 crg (lly, pr), r c bc kw ydrd w -1 crg. hydrg g d xygg rc vlly r wr. hydrg lud ll ydrcrb d blcul, uc , pr, lpd, d crbydr, rl cry l. Fr r,ydrg x cl prdc bl llby l.

See also appdx iV; atomic structure;Dalton, John; electron configurations; Men-

deleyev, Dmitry; periodic trends.

Further reading

Wlbr, ay B., D D. sly, mcl s.

m, d edwrd L. Wr. Chemistry. nw

Yrk: Prc hll, 2005.

periodic trends t prdc bl l- vul rpr c ruc-ur kw ccl l. t bl rrgd rdr crg c ubr, wl vg ubr vlc lcr

ud clu r grup, d lw vlc lcr rgy lvl ud rw r prd. Prdc rd bcvd w ccl d pycl prpr l vry ccrdg r p prdc bl. typ prdc rd c bdrd by l p prdcbl clud c , c rd, c rd,dy, z rgy, lcrgvy, dlcr fy. ec prpr crbu ccl rcvy l.

t rrg l rlvr prdc bl dpdd cr-

g c , d 1914 Br c- d hry mly rrrgd bl dbd rrg c ubr. t cur-r dl bl w lllw rd crg c ubr cr prd r l rg d dw grupr p b. excp clud cbl dckl, llru d d, d vrl wlydcvrd l. i grl, prdc rd c l cr w c ubr.

my prdc rd l rulr ldg c lcr. evryuclu xr pv rc, clld c-v uclr crg, r lcr .t xc lcr pd bw uclu d rgy lvl lcr qu- wk rc rc. t lc-

r lcd r rgy lvl, bw lcr ur ll d uclu, blck rc pr rc; ply pu, yg wy. t p kw lc-r ldg, d rduc ld pr ur lcr. t ldg c crw r rgy lvl r pr . trpulv rc bw lcr rgylvl v lr ldg c, lug rg lcr lwr rgy lvl.

ac rdu ur z ,d r l -l dc bw wucl dc lcul. t c rdu d-

c dc vlc lcr r uclu. t ld lcr lcd rr wyr uclu wkr, dc r uclu ud r ur rgylvl ply pr rl drg cclcrcrc l. t prdc rd c rd cr grup r p b.a v dw grup, l cp v r rgy lvl l prvu (gr) rw, d, rr, crdu cr. o g xpc c rdu l cr cr prd wll,

bu c c rdu dcrcr prd. icrg ubr lcr ur rgy lvl ( v r l rgcr prd) d cr vrll z . t l cr prd v rpr d lcr, d dd r pr- gv pvly crgd uclu rgrrcv rc r lcr ur rgylvl w rlv u ldg rlwr-rgy-lvl lcr. t lcr r ldr clly lcr l quvl rgy lvl d w wr pr,xplg wy c rd dcr r l

rg w prd.t c rdu l rdu

c r . W l g lc-r d bc , rdu lrgr rgl . t bcu d v ubr prd, rr, cv uclr crg, bu w r lcr wll cr rpul bw lcr d k ur ll lrgr. W l l lcrd bc c, rdu llr

periodic trends