Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler

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Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas ofAntonio SolerHayk ArsenyanUniversity of Iowa

Copyright 2009 Hayk Arsenyan

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Recommended CitationArsenyan, Hayk. "Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler." DMA (Doctor of Musical Arts) thesis, University ofIowa, 2009.https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.oo0oxneu

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PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO

THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER

by

Hayk Arsenyan

An essay submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of

Musical Arts degree in the Graduate College of

The University of Iowa

December 2009

Essay Supervisor: Professor Rene J. Lecuona

Copyright by

HAYK ARSENYAN

2009

All Rights Reserved

Graduate College The University of Iowa

Iowa City, Iowa

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

_______________________

D.M.A. ESSAY

_______________

This is to certify that the D.M.A essay of

Hayk Arsenyan

has been approved by the Examining Committee for the essay requirement for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree at the December 2009 graduation.

Essay Committee: ___________________________________ Rene J. Lecuona, Essay Supervisor

___________________________________ David J. Nelson

___________________________________ John R. Muriello

___________________________________ Rachel A. Joselson

___________________________________ Alan Sener

ii

To my lovely mother

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my DMA essay adviser and dear

friend, Dr. Rene J. Lecuona, for her tremendous help on this project and her inspiring

musicianship. Her patience and kind spirit are an example to all. Also, I would like to

convey my sincere thanks to my DMA committee for their support and flexibility, to

Diego Arango, Ana Maria Orduz, Sarah Snydacker, and Andrew Hofstrand for their

hospitality and incredible friendship, and to my amazing family in Armenia, especially

my grandmother and my mother, for their undying love and encouragement.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF EXAMPLES ...................................................................................................... vii

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...1

CHAPTER ONE: SOLER’S WORLD ................................................................................4

Soler and El Escorial ........................................................................................5 The Socio-Political Scene In Eighteenth-Century Spain ..................................5 Soler and Scarlatti .............................................................................................6 The Mid-Eighteenth Century Sonata ................................................................8 Soler and Don Gabriel ....................................................................................10 Soler and Publishing .......................................................................................12 Editions of Soler’s Keyboard Sonatas ............................................................14 The Harpsichod and Pianoforte ......................................................................15Soler: Musician Extraordinaire ......................................................................19 Soler’s Fandango ............................................................................................21

CHAPTER TWO: MUSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLER’S KEYBOARD SONATAS .......22

Formal and Harmonic Structure .....................................................................22 Choice of Keys ...............................................................................................24 Themes and Phrase Structure ..........................................................................26 Rhythm ...........................................................................................................28 Texture ............................................................................................................31 Tempi and Meter .............................................................................................35 Ornamentation ................................................................................................35 Spanish Characteristics ...................................................................................38

CHAPTER THREE: STYLISTIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE GUIDE TO THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER ...................43

Sonata M.1 in C Minor ...................................................................................43 The Formal, Harmonic and Melodic Structure ....................................43 Phrase Structure ...................................................................................46Stylistic Observations and Performance Suggestions ..........................48 Jota Aragonesa ....................................................................................51

Sonata M.9 in D Major ...................................................................................52 The Formal Structure ...........................................................................52 The Thematic and Harmonic Structure ................................................53

Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions ........................57 Missing Indications and Editorial Remarks .........................................61

Sonata M.21 in G Minor .................................................................................62 The Form and Harmonic Structure ......................................................62 Tempo and Meter Indications ..............................................................67 Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions ........................69

v

CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................71

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..............................................................................................................73

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Correlation between keys and scale degrees ........................................................25

Table 2. Correspondence between Natural Minor scale and Natural mode degrees .........40

Table 3. Correspondence between Western key and Natural mode through their Phrygian Cadence .................................................................................................40

Table 4. Harmonic Scheme ................................................................................................44

Table 5. Phrase structure in both sections ..........................................................................47

Table 6. Formal structure ...................................................................................................53

Table 7. Measure groupings between the sections .............................................................57

Table 8. Formal structure ...................................................................................................62

Table 9. Scheme of modulation and augmentation of the sequence ..................................65

Table 10. Sequential relationship .......................................................................................66

Table 11. Hypermetrical scheme .......................................................................................69

vii

LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example 1. Sonata M.13 in B Major, m.93-107. ............................................................18

Example 2. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, m. 9-10 .....................................................................26

Example 3. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, m.70-73 ....................................................................27

Example 4. Sonata M.4 in C Minor. Footnote to m. 73 .....................................................28

Example 5. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m. 48-56 ...................................................................29

Example 6. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m. 11-21 ...................................................................30

Example 7. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, m. 1-3 .......................................................................30

Example 8. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, m. 71-72 ...................................................................31

Example 9. Sonata M.17 in E Minor, m. 12-22 .................................................................32

Example 10. Sonata M.12 in C Minor, m. 34-46 ...............................................................32

Example 11. Sonata M.5 in C Major, m. 19-24 .................................................................33

Example 12. Sonata M.5 in C Major, m. 5-10 ...................................................................34

Example 13. Sonata M.16 in B Major, m. 21-26 ...............................................................34

Example 14. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, m. 76-81 .................................................................46

Example 15. Sonata M.1 in C Minor, m. 9-23 ...................................................................49

Example 16. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m. 11-21 .................................................................54

Example 17. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m. 45-47 .................................................................55

Example 18. Sonata M.9 in D Major, m. 102-105 .............................................................59

Example 19. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m. 12-13 ..............................................................63



1

INTRODUCTION

My love and interest in early music goes back to my childhood. When I was in

high school orchestra, our director was a well-known early music specialist, and we often

played works by renaissance, baroque and pre-classical composers. Nine years ago I

encountered the sonatas of Antonio Soler for the first time. I was immediately impressed

by the beauty of these works and began to include them in my concert repertoire.

As I began to investigate the music of Padre Antonio Soler, it became apparent

that most of the source material on Soler and his music is written in Catalan1. However,

there are several articles in music journals and periodicals written in English by well-

known scholars Frederick Marvin, Ralf Kirkpatrick, Joaquin Nin, Joseph Freedman, and

Dean Elder that discuss eighteenth-century Iberian2 music, including Soler’s. There are

only five dissertations in English that are related to Antonio Soler; the latest of which

dates from 1978. Two of these dissertations are translations of Soler’s theoretical treatise

“La Llave de la Modulacion y Antiguedades de La Musica.”3 Another serves as a general

introduction to Soler’s life and works, and the other two discuss Soler’s keyboard

sonatas. None of the aforementioned dissertations, however, offer stylistic observations

and a performance guide to the music of Soler.

Most of the manuscripts of Soler’s sonatas are held in five institutions in Spain:

the Monastery of Montserrat; the Monastery El Escorial; the Biblioteca Central in

Barcelona; the Orfeo Catalan in Barcelona; and the Institute of France in Madrid.

Among many different published editions of Soler’s keyboard sonatas the editions of

1 Catalan is a language which is spoken in Catalonia, a region in northeastern part of Spain.

2 The Iberian Peninsula is the geographical location of the countries of Spain and Portugal. The Iberian Peninsula, though part of southern Europe, is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains.

3 Heretofore, I will refer to Soler’s thesis as Key to Modulation.

2

Frederick Marvin and Samuel Rubio are the most commonly used. I am using the

Marvin Edition for my performances.

The discography of Soler’s works is quite large. Artists such as Gilbert Rowland,

Alicia De Larrocha, Jacques Ogg, Daniel Blumenthal, and Bob Van Asperen have

recorded Soler’s keyboard sonatas on labels such as Sony, Decca, Naxos, Philips, Orion,

and Deutsche Grammophon. The sonatas on these recordings are performed on the

harpsichord, the pianoforte, and the piano.

In my essay I will discuss eighteenth-century Iberian keyboard traditions that

influenced Soler’s works, identify general stylistic characteristics of Soler’s keyboard

sonatas, and offer my own theoretical and stylistic analysis to provide a performance

guide to three of his keyboard sonatas on the modern piano.

I will divide my essay into three chapters. In the First Chapter I will provide a

brief sketch of the political and musical scene in eighteenth-century Spain. In my

discussion I will concentrate on Soler’s environment at El Escorial Monastery where he

lived and composed. Within this context I will discuss some of the stylistic peculiarities

and compositional techniques that set Soler apart from his famous contemporary

Domenico Scarlatti. I will discuss the history of music publishing and printing in Spain,

and explore the relationships between composers and their royal patrons. In this regard I

will touch upon Soler’s teacher/student relationship with Carlos III’s youngest son Don

Gabriel, for whom Soler wrote most of his keyboard sonatas. Also, I will discuss the

historical context and the formal structure of the mid-eighteenth-century pedagogical

sonata scolastica. To assist in interpreting Soler’s works on a modern piano I will include

a short historical overview of eighteenth-century keyboard instruments that were used in

Spain and Portugal, such as the Cristofori and Antunes fortepianos. In the conclusion of

this chapter I will discuss some of Soler’s other interests, such as his theoretical treatise

Key to Modulation and his organ-building work, so that the reader will gain an

appreciation of the breadth of his knowledge and accomplishments.

3

In the Second Chapter, I will discuss several general aspects of Soler’s keyboard

sonatas, including formal and harmonic structure, thematic use and melodic organization,

rhythm and meter, phrase structure, texture, tempo markings, and his use of

ornamentation. I will also discuss Soler’s choice of keys and their correlation with keys

that are often used in Flamenco guitar music. This is important since a truly well thought

out and stylistically authentic performance of the keyboard sonatas on a modern piano

must embrace the Spanish characteristics that influenced Soler’s writing, such as cante

jondo, regional dances, and the imitation of specific Flamenco guitar techniques.

In the final chapter, I will analyze three specific keyboard sonatas of Antonio

Soler. The sonatas I have chosen represent contrasting compositional styles that suggest

different time periods of the composer’s life. I will analyze these works based on their

stylistic traits and forms, and also discuss performance-related issues such as the use of

pedals, specific ornamentation, dynamics and articulation, and the application of various

tone-colors. I will consider the authenticity of the editorial markings within the context

of the improvisatory style and performance on the modern instrument. In order to offer a

performance guide to these sonatas on the modern piano, I offer my own theoretical

analysis, stylistic observations and performance suggestions for each of the sonatas.

For this work, I consulted several treatises on eighteenth-century performance

practice, including Soler’s own Key to Modulation, I evaluated the different editions and

available extant manuscripts of Soler’s sonatas, and I listened to recordings of the sonatas

performed on different instruments with a variety of stylistic interpretations.

4

CHAPTER ONE: SOLER’S WORLD

Soler was born in the town of Olon de Porrera, in the province of Gerona, in

Catalonia.4 His birth date is unknown but he was baptized on December 3, 1729.5 At a

young age he entered the Escolonia of the Montserrat Monastery, one of the oldest music

schools in the Western World, near Barcelona. At the Escolonia, Soler studied organ,

solfeggio, harmony, composition and harpsichord. After graduating from the Escolonia

in 1752, Soler took holy orders and entered the monastery of Montserrat at the age of

twenty-three. When the bishop of Urgel asked him to recommend someone for the

position of organist and choir-master at the El Escorial monastery, near Madrid, Soler

offered himself as a candidate. 6 Agreeing to the request, Urgel appointed him as a choir

master and organist at the monastery where Soler worked from 1752 to his death in

1783.7 Here, Soler composed an impressive number of religious vocal works for use at

El Escorial, as well as secular music and music for plays written by the famous Spanish

dramaturges, Calderon de la Borca and Lope De Vega’.8 However, Soler maintained

contact with the Montserrat Monastery throughout his life, regularly sending the monks

manuscripts of religious works composed at El Escorial.9

4 Sadowsky, Reah. Antonio Soler: Creator of Spain’s Fifth Century of Musical Genius. The American

Music teacher, no. 1 (1978): 28:10-16.

5 Marvin, Frederick. Discovered Treasure: The Music of Antonio Soler. Clavier 19 (July-August 1980):22.

6Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968. 123.

7 Carroll, Frank. An Introduction to Antonio Soler. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1975, 5.

8 Marvin, Frederick. Antonio Soler. The Consort, no. 39, (1983): 479.

9 Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados. 2000. p. 10.c2.

5

Soler and El Escorial

When Soler took his position at El Escorial, he entered a milieu which would

soon prove optimal for his artistic and professional life. Beginning in 1757, Soler

assumed important and prestigious professional responsibilities. At the monastery, he

took over the position of maestro di capella upon the death of Gabriel de Moratilla.

Soler also became the official teacher of the royal children upon the death of Domenico

Scarlatti.10

El Escorial, built by Philip II (1527-1598), was intended to serve four functions:

palace, monastery, and church, as well as a burial place for Spanish kings and queens.

There were close ties between the Spanish royal court and El Escorial. The royal court

lived at El Escorial for part of each autumn. The monastery at El Escorial had an annex

in Madrid, where Soler stayed when he visited Madrid to study with Jose de Nebra and

Scarlatti, as well as when he travelled to hear various musical performances.

The Socio-Political Scene in Eighteenth-Century Spain

It is helpful to explore the socio-political scene in which Soler lived in Spain, so

that we may come to a closer understanding of Soler’s professional situation. Following

the dissolution of the Spanish Habsburgs and the War of Spanish Successions, a new

French-born monarch, Felipe V, the grandson of Louis XIV of France, arrived as king of

Spain in 1700. Along with him he brought his wife, Italian-born Isabel Farnese de

Parma, who had a strong interest in both Italian opera and French court dances.11 This

10 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, 1995. 449.

11 Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008, 88.

6

new dynasty opened doors to foreign influences and had little interest in Spanish

culture.12 While many Spaniards initially welcomed the French fashions and tastes that

Felipe V brought to Spain, some Spaniards, rebelling against the court rejection of

Spanish national costume, music, and dance, wanted to return to art forms based on folk

traditions as a means of self-definition against foreigners and “petimetres.”13

Furthermore, many Spaniards blamed these new leaders for the arrival of political

upheavals in their country. 14

By the time of Felipe V’s death in 1746, Spain was up in arms over its national

identity. Therefore, the public welcomed the succession of Felipe’s son Ferdinand VI.

Not only was the new king Spanish born, but his queen Maria Barbara de Braganza was

from neighboring Portugal, a country with close geographical and cultural ties to Spain.

Fernando and Maria Barbara fostered an appreciation for native Spanish culture, while at

the same time continuing the more international cultural fertilization in the Spanish royal

court by maintaining an impressive list of Italian musical figures such as Farinelli,

Domenico Scarlatti, Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Alberti and many others.

12 Sadie, Julie Ann, ed. Companion to Baroque Music. Forwarded by Hogwood, Christopher, Schirmer book, New York, Oxford, Singapore, and Sydney: Maxwell McMillan International, 1991, 330.

13 Fr. petit- maître or “little masters,” a group of middle class and aristocratic Spaniards who preoccupied itself with emulation of the royals, and hence the French in costume, dance, music, and compartments. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008, 101.

14 Spain was embroiled in multiple wars with England and other neighboring countries.

7

Soler and Scarlatti

The name Soler is often mentioned along with that of Scarlatti (1685-1757), the

famous Italian composer who also spent the majority of his professional life on the

Iberian Peninsula. For ten years Scarlatti served as a private keyboard instructor to the

gifted harpsichordist and Portuguese princess Maria Barbara de Braganza in Lisbon.

When she married into the Spanish royal family, Scarlatti followed her from Portugal to

Andalusia. Later, when her husband Ferdinand VI became the king of Spain, Scarlatti

followed Maria Barbara to Madrid.

Scarlatti played an influential role in the musical life of Spain. He often traveled

back to his native Italy, and is generally credited with bringing many of the important

Italian compositional styles of the eighteenth century, including the galant style, to Spain.

In the early eighteenth century, instructions such as “muy faciles y de buen gusto” (very

easy and of good taste) began appearing in many Iberian works.15

Scarlatti was also fascinated with Iberian popular culture. He used Spanish

harmonies, rhythms and dance-types, such as the bolero and the jota. In his keyboard

sonatas, some passages imitate the sound of castanets and the Spanish guitar. Scarlatti’s

compositional style synthesizes Spanish musical traditions with eighteenth-century Italian

musical forms, such as the sonata and the arietta, and stylistic features such as

cantabile.16

The nature of the association between Soler and Scarlatti has long been the

subject of debate. It has always been accepted that the two composers knew of each

15 Maxwell, Carolyn, ed. Scarlatti: Solo Piano Literature. Boulder, Colorado: Maxwell Music Evaluation Books, 1985, 143.

16 According to Newman, the first use of the title “sonata” in Spain was by the 16th century Spanish composer Luis Cabezon. Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Baroque Era. Revised ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1966, 18.

8

other, since Soler mentions Scarlatti by name in his treatise Key to Modulation. 17 In this

treatise, Soler does not include the name of Scarlatti in the list of his teachers.18 Instead,

he respectfully mentions Scarlatti as “the famous Scarlatti [Don Scarlatti].”19 However,

since Kirkpatrick’s seminal study of Soler, it is generally accepted that Soler did indeed

study with Scarlatti.20 Following the tradition of many eighteenth-century composers,

Soler even copied and edited some of Scarlatti’s keyboard works.21 Furthermore, we

know that for the first five years that Soler was at El Escorial, (1752 to1757), Scarlatti

lived near Madrid. We also know that Scarlatti accompanied the Spanish royal court in

their annual fall visits to El Escorial. Scholars such as Kirkpatrick believe that Soler had

lessons with Scarlatti when the royal court visited El Escorial and possibly in Madrid at

the annex of Soler’s monastery.22

17 Shipley, Linda Patricia. English Translation of Soler’s “Llave de la Modulacion.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Florida State University, 1978, 10.

18 Marvin, Frederick. Discovered Treasure: The Music of Antonio Soler. Clavier 19 (1980): 22.

19 Shipley, Linda Patricia. Pedagogical Advantages in the Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. The American Music Teacher, no. 5, (1989): 38:23.

20 Ralf Kirkpatrick catalogued Scarlatti’s all keyboard sonatas and wrote a book entitled “Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers For His Instrument.”


22 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968. 123.

9

The Mid-Eighteenth Century Sonata

In the eighteenth century, music underwent many changes, including a transition

from the Baroque to the Classical style. Such stylistic transformations proved crucial for

the development of Iberian keyboard music.23 In Spain and Portugal, as well as in much

of central Europe and Italy, musicians were called upon to provide courtly entertainment

as well as compose for and tutor their royal patrons. Therefore, the musical amateur and

dilettante sector of aristocratic society played a very important role in the development of

pre-classical genres, especially the galant sonata scolastica of the eighteenth century. 24

In the pre-classical era the sonata gained a pedagogical purpose and became one

of the most popular genres in Europe. The terms used to describe the sonata scolastica

were different in various countries. For example, in England such sonatas were called

lessons, in France pièces or études, in Austria divertimenti, in Italy essercizi, and in Spain

toccatas.25 These sonatas were generally in binary form, served an educational purpose,

possessed fantasy elements and consisted of contrasting sections. The “easier” versions

of such “exercises” were called “sonatinas.” Composers such as Sammartini, Galuppi,

Soler, and Haydn wrote numerous sonatas for their royal patrons. Collections with

dedications such as “a amatori” and “a dilettanti” or “à l’usage de Dame” and “pour le

beau sexe” appeared all over Europe. According to William Newman, such pieces were

23 It is somewhat inappropriate to use the term Baroque to refer to the Spanish music of the seventeenth century, since the music was mainly conservative in style, light and thin in texture, and was not overly ornamented.

24 Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists Revised and updated edition. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987, 19.

25 Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963, 20.

10

supposed to be charming and easy in order to satisfy the needs of the amateur musicians,

and especially “the ladies.”26

The sonatas of the early galant style were not necessarily intended for public

performances. Many of Scarlatti’s keyboard sonatas were composed for Maria Barbara

as practice pieces to develop her technique. In fact, Soler inherited the keyboard sonata

from Scarlatti, a man forty-four years his senior. Like Scarlatti, Soler set technical

demands for his pupils in these works. Difficulties such as scales (from simple, slow

scales to faster and more complicated scales, with skips in thirds and octaves, in double

notes, with repeated tones, and chromatic scales combined with leaps and broken chords)

and other challenges had to be combined with graceful musical content, in order to

entertain his pupils while developing their techniques.

Soler and Don Gabriel

Soler was the harpsichord instructor of all three sons of Carlos III, who became

king of Spain in 1759 after the death of his half brother, Ferdinand VI. Before becoming

king of Spain, Carlos lived in Naples, and, from there, ruled over Spain’s holdings in the

Mediterranean. Carlos’s youngest son, Gabriel de Bourbon, born in Naples in 1752,

spent his first years in Italy. Although he was raised speaking Italian, he was also fluent

in Spanish, French and German, since his mother was the German princess Maria Amalia

of Saxony. 27 Thus, Gabriel was introduced not only to numerous languages, but also

was given a broad range of cultural and musical perspectives due to his parental support.

26 Newman, William S. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 1963, 45.

27 Heimes, Klaus Ferdinand. Antonio Soler’s Keyboard Sonatas. Thesis, University of South Africa, 1965,27.

11

Shortly after Carlos moved to Madrid as king of Spain Don Gabriel began studying

harpsichord with Soler. It was a long and fruitful relationship; Don Gabriel studied with

Soler until his death in 1788.28 He was dedicated to the arts, and especially to music,

and was an inspiring figure in Soler’s life.29

Don Gabriel de Bourbon collected harpsichords, fortepianos, organs, violins, and

guitars. He was also among the first in Spain to own a glass harmonica. His collection

contained “a handful of experimental keyboard instruments, including a curious item

purchased in London and documented as a ‘clave harmonico’, a complicated keyboard

instrument invented in Paris with an ability to imitate fifteen instrumental timbres from

celeste to bassoon.”30 Another experimental instrument at El Escorial was the vis-à-vis

organ. It had two keyboards at opposite sides of a cabinet, which contained the

instrument’s pipes and bellows, so that two players could perform at once on a single

instrument. Most likely, the instrument was purchased so that Don Gabriel and Soler

could sit on opposite sides while playing one of the six concerti for two organs, which

Soler composed for Don Gabriel.31

In 1779 Don Gabriel built a small palace “Casita de Ariba” which still sits on a

small hill close to the El Escorial monastery.32 A large room with an arched and

28 Don Gabriel died of smallpox in 1788. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008. 130.

29 He was often described as the Maecenas of his day. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ibid.

30 Ibid134.

31 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, 1995.450.

32 Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008. 135.

12

frescoed ceiling serves as the center of the small building. The room was Don Gabriel’s

primary performance space, housing his keyboard instruments as well as quarters for the

listeners. The musicians who were performing sat in a chamber which looked down into

the room below. Thus, the name of the palace, “ariba” or “on high” refers both to its

physical location on the hill and the “balconies” from where music floated over the

listeners.33 The ensemble musicians, such as the string quartet in Soler’s organ quintets,

assembled in the upper rooms and were invisible to the listeners on the ground floor.

Because the organ was centered in the same lower room as the audience, the performance

space, therefore, emphasized the soloistic role Gabriel assumed in the chamber works

written for him by Soler, which demonstrated the prince’s talent at the keyboard.

Similarly, Soler divides the musical material between the two instruments in his

six concerti for two organs in such a way that Don Gabriel played the more impressive

part. Ceballos suggests that often such works could function as a type of musical portrait.

“As a portrait of Don Gabriel these works project an ideal of Spanishism while at the

same time speaking to the growing cosmopolitanism of his country.”34

Soler and Publishing

Lord Fitzwilliam, who was a music aficionado from London, came to Spain out of

interest in publishing Domenico Scarlatti’s works, and there encountered Soler’s sonatas.

Impressed, he took two volumes of manuscripts of Scarlatti’s works and twenty-seven of

Soler’s sonatas to London, the publishing capital of Europe at the time, and promptly

33 Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California in Los Angeles, 2008. 135.

34 Ibid166.

13

published them in 1772.35 These were the only works Soler would live to see published,

even though twelve more of his sonatas were published in Paris, soon after. Today, the

estimated number of Soler’s published keyboard sonatas ranges from 130 to 220. Yet,

many of Soler’s works are lost, including a set of keyboard sonatas in all twelve major

and minor keys, entitled “Quadro Libros.”36

The fact that so few of Soler’s sonatas were published during his lifetime is best

understood by reviewing what we know about the relationship of composers, patrons, and

publishers at the time. In the early eighteenth century, royal patrons generally owned the

works of the composers in their courts, and hence, often controlled the publication of

these works. Since royal patrons often paid for the publication, composers remained at

the mercy of their patrons. Royal patrons sometimes decided not to allow works to be

published at all but preferred to maintain the works for their exclusive use. Additionally,

patrons could require works to be at a specific level of difficulty and could even dictate

musical aspects of the works.

In addition to the ramifications of the composer-patron relationship on publishing,

there are several other factors in the eighteenth century which often created confusion

and inconsistencies with the chronology of many composers’ works. When assigning

opus numbers, many publishers disregarded the actual chronology of a composer’s

works, or they disregarded the opus numbers already assigned by previous publishers.37

Some composers chose not to publish their works at all, as plagiarism was very common

at the time.

35 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968. 123.


37 Ibid79.

14

Until the second half of the eighteenth century, music publishing was

prohibitively expensive. The first publishing house in Spain exclusively devoted to

music printing, “La Imprenta Musica,” was established by Joseph de Torres and

Martinez Bravo in Madrid in the beginning of eighteenth century.38 Between 1700 and

1720, Torres was the predominant music publisher in Spain; however, after his death in

1738, there was no successor to carry on the activities of his Imprenta, and the company

had to close down.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century in Spain, as well as in other parts of

Western Europe, the process of engraving became cheaper and more practical than

typography for music printing. Taking advantage of the new printing technology,

Joaquin Ibarra of Madrid became the leading music publisher within the country of

Spain. Still, it was not until the reign of Carlos III (1759-1788) that the Spanish

government took active steps to promote native printing and publishing. Under Carlos’s

rule, publishers were given tax exemptions as well as other privileges tied to the

government’s progressive revocation of certain censorship laws. In order to create an

even stronger publishing system, the government organized its own printing firm in

Madrid, known as the Imprenta Real in 1761.39 Unfortunately, none of Soler’s keyboard

sonatas were published in Spain during his lifetime, despite his close relationship to Don

Gabriel and to Carlos III’s other children.

38 Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental “Diferencias”in Spain During the 17th and Early 18th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986. 125.

39 Ibid129.

15

Editions of Soler’s Keyboard Sonatas

In 1925, after a gap of nearly two centuries, Joaquin Nin, a Cuban musicologist

and pianist, published fourteen of Soler’s sonatas in Paris. According to Frederick

Marvin, American pianist and respected Soler specialist, Nin’s edition of Soler’s sonatas

was heavily edited and not always faithful to original sources. Fortunately, however, this

edition inspired Marvin to research Soler’s sonatas more deeply and to reedit them.

Marvin spent fourteen years in Europe studying and performing Soler’s keyboard

sonatas. He also researched and performed some of Soler’s other instrumental and vocal

works. After copying, editing and correcting the manuscripts, the first volume of Soler’s

sonatas together with the “fandango” were published in 1957. Following the tradition of

important editing endeavors, Marvin, in his edition of Soler’s 180 keyboard sonatas,

gives each sonata an M number (the initial of his last name.)

Marvin’s enthusiasm for Soler encouraged Spanish monk and scholar, Samuel

Rubio, to initiate a Spanish edition of the sonatas. In 1974, Rubio published a seven

volume collection of Soler sonatas, which contains 121 sonatas.40 In his edition, Rubio

marks the sonatas with the initial R for his cataloguing purposes. Pianist Alicia De

Larocha, who used Rubio’s edition, observes that it “offers the greatest possible

guarantee of authenticity and presents the text without any expression signs, with the

exception of the rare ones, which Soler himself put in the manuscripts.”41

40 Numbering the sonatas is problematic because of the challenge of whether to count the sonatas individually, in groups, or in pairs. On some of the manuscripts, there are signs such as “sigue” which means to follow, or to be continued. When Luigi Boccherini came to Madrid in 1769 and introduced some of Haydn’s sonatas, Newman believes these works impressed Soler and inspired him to expand his later sonatas from one-movement forms to three or four movements. This undoubtedly suggests that some of the sonatas should be paired. However, how many and which sonatas to pair or group together remains a point of debate for the modern scholars of these works. Some scholars pair the sonatas according to their keys, melodic content, harmonies, contrasting tempi and other characteristics.

41 Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia deLarocha Recording. Clavier, no. 1 (1971): 10:23.

16

For my own study of Soler’s sonatas, I generally use Marvin’s edition, because

some of the sonatas I perform are not in Rubio’s edition. Marvin is respectful of the

original sources; he puts his own musical suggestions in parenthesis, making it easy to

differentiate between his editorial additions and Soler’s original markings.

The Harpsichord and Pianoforte

Transition from Baroque to Classical styles in Spain, as well as in the rest of

Western Europe, was manifested within a shift of emphasis from the harpsichord to the

pianoforte as the predominant keyboard instrument for secular music. One intriguing

difference between Spain and the rest of Europe was that until the end of the seventeenth

century, continuo playing was realized on guitar or harp, and not on the harpsichord. The

harpsichord as well as the clavichord was used primarily as a practice instrument for

organists.

It was not until the reign of Felipe V (1700-1746) that the harpsichord became the

predominant continuo instrument in Spain. Felipe V, the French-born king, and his

Italian queen brought with them an appreciation for French and Italian music. The royal

court’s enthusiasm for Italian vocal music led to a more frequent use of the harpsichord

as a continuo instrument. The solo keyboard sonata gained prominence only after the

Italian Domenico Scarlatti arrived in Madrid in 1729.42

There were twelve keyboard instruments (nine harpsichords and three

fortepianos) distributed among the three palaces of the Spanish royal court (Aranjuez,

Buen Retiro and El Escorial.) The harpsichord at El Escorial had one manual and two

sets of strings: one for loud and brilliant sounds, the other for delicate and soft sounds.


17

Because the registers were operated by hand rather than by pedal, registration was

changeable within a piece only when one or both hands were free. Therefore, it would

not have been easy to transform the sound by changing the registration during a

performance, or to create the “echo effect” within short, repeated passages. Instead, such

phrases were varied through the use of different articulation and ornamentation.43

Bartolommeo Cristofori, an eighteenth-century Italian harpsichord maker,

invented a keyboard instrument that allowed a player to change dynamics based on touch.

He named the new instrument Gravicembalo col piano e forte, which means harpsichord

with soft and loud sounds. Its strings were struck with hammers, the speed of which

determined the volume of the sound.44 The courts of Spain and Portugal purchased the

new instrument enthusiastically in the 1730s.45 This is most likely the time when

Domenico Scarlatti wrote some of his sonatas for the pianoforte.

The spread of popularity of the pianoforte in Iberia triggered Francisco Perez

Mirabel, a harpsichord maker in Seville, to build pianofortes in 1745. Similarly inspired,

Manuel Antunes, a piano maker in Lisbon, built pianofortes that were the exact copies of

the Cristofori piano in 1760. As in Cristofori’s piano, “the hammers were covered with

soft, thick leather that brought out a comparatively soft, mellow timbre unlike that of

quill-plucked harpsichord strings. The Antunes piano had only one manual of fifty-one

keys, and had no pedals, knee levers, or stops. However, the una corda effect was


44 Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists. Revised and Updated Edition, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987.20.

45 Sadie, Julie Ann, ed. Companion to Baroque Music. Forwarded by Hogwood, Christopher, Schirmer book, New York, Oxford, Singapore, and Sydney: Maxwell McMillan International, 1991. 370.

18

available by manually pushing the entire keyboard to the left. Many of the Antunes

fortepianos have survived in such good condition that they remain playable”.46

The first known work composed specifically for the piano in Spain was Sebastian

Alberto’s Obras para clavicebalo o piano forte, written around 1746. However, it was

only in the 1760s when many works explicitly written for this instrument were published.

Two composers working in Seville, Manuel Blasco de Nebra and Joaquin Montero each

published a set of six sonatas for harpsichord and piano in the 1780s.47 In the 1770s

composers often wrote “for harpsichord or fortepiano’” in the titles of their keyboard

works, and beginning around 1785, the harpsichord began to disappear from the titles of

pieces.48 In 1790, Haydn said, “. . . .He was no longer in the habit of playing the

harpsichord,” and he advised a friend, “to get a piano.” 49 However, Ralf Kirkpatrick in

his book “Domenico Scarlatti” convincingly points out that stylistically it is very difficult

to draw a definitive line between mid-eighteenth century harpsichord music and the

music composed for the early piano of the period. He states “Even in the music of Haydn

and Mozart, the transition from the harpsichord to the piano is almost imperceptible.”50

Since it is clear that Soler had access to both instruments, the harpsichord and

pianoforte, the modern keyboard musician must look to the musical characteristics of

46 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, 176.

47Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, 1995. 449.


49 Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists. Revised and Updated Edition, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987, 23.


19

each sonata to help him or her infer which instrument, either the harpsichord or the

pianoforte, is better suited for the piece. For example, sometimes fast passages of

octaves going up or down are encountered in either hand.

Example 1. Sonata M.13 in B♭♭♭♭ Major, mm. 93-107.

In my opinion, the use of this type of pianistic device indicates that the sonata was

intended for the piano rather than the harpsichord. Because of the rather harsh and loud

sound of the harpsichord, these types of passages are likely to sound noisy and blurry,

while on the principally softer and clearer sound of the fortepiano such passages are

bound to have a better acoustic effect.

20

Soler: Musician Extraordinaire

Soler was very interested in music theory and wrote a famous treatise on theory,

“Key to Modulation and Musical Antiquities.” It was published in Madrid in 1762 by

Joaquim Ibarra.51 In his treatise, Soler illustrates how to modulate from one key to any

other key in the tonal system within several measures. The harmonic procedures that

Soler discussed, though later considered fairly standard, at first were viewed as being too

radical, and the publication of his treatise caused controversy and dispute among Iberian

music theorists of the time.52 In 1764, the maestro de capella of Mondonedo Cathedral,

Antonio Roel del Rio, published his criticism in response to Soler’s treatise in his

“Reparos Musicos Precisos a la ‘Llave de la Modulacion,’” and Soler responded the

following year with “Satisfaccion a Los Reparos Hechos por Don Antonio Roel de Rio a

la ‘Llave de la Modulacion.’”53 I will discuss some of Soler’s views on modulation in

Chapter Two.

Soler’s interest in theory and in the division of tones also led him to construct a

small, square, stringed keyboard instrument, which he called the “Afinador o

Templante.” On this instrument, Soler divided each pitch into nine micro-pitches,

anticipating by two hundred years the experiments in micro-tonality conducted by Harry

Partch and Conlon Noncarrow.54 Soler made two instruments of this kind - one for Don

51Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968. 123.

52 Stevenson, Robert. Antonio Soler. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanly Sadie. Volume 17. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London, 1995.449.

53 Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados. 2000. 9.c2

54 This connection is made by Rene Lecuona.

21

Gabriel and the other for the Duke of Alba.55 In addition to creating new instruments,

Soler was also a respected consultant for organ building. We know that he directed the

construction of organs in both Malaga and Seville.56

Soler’s Fandango

Besides his keyboard sonatas, the Fandango is Soler’s only other substantial work

for solo keyboard.57 The fandango is a dance which originated in Latin America in the

eighteenth century, and which became extremely popular in Spain. Usually the fandango

is written for a pair of dancers who accompany themselves on castanets, and who also

vocalize at specific points during the dance. Characteristic features of the genre are: the

triple meter, the sudden stops in the middle of the composition when the couples click

castanets and sing, along with the gradual increase in tempo. According to Giovanni

Casanova’s description of the dance, “. . . Each couple, a man and a woman, never moves

more than three steps as they click their castanets. . . . This dance is the expression of

love from beginning to end, from the sigh of desire to the ecstasy of pure enjoyment.”58

The fandango was forbidden by the Catholic authorities for being “too exciting and

sensuous.” Soler’s Fandango is based on an ostinato pattern, which intensifies in its

technical difficulty and tempo, climaxing at the end of the piece on the dominant chord of

55 Heimes, Klaus Ferdinand. Antonio Soler’s Keyboard Sonatas. Thesis, University of South Africa, 1965,4.


57 In his treatise “The Key to Modulation” Soler includes small musical examples for keyboard, called “preludes.” However, they are not concert pieces.

58 Sadowsky, Reah. Antonio Soler: Creator of Spain’s Fifth Century of Musical Genius. The American Music teacher, no. 1 (1978): 28:12.

22

the home key of D Minor. It is unusual for a monk to have written a piece with such an

erotic character, especially taking into consideration the somber atmosphere of the

monastery El Escorial, where Soler lived and worked. Some scholars believe that Soler

may have composed this piece while he lived away from El Escorial for a year during the

early 1750s.59

59 Ibid.

23

CHAPTER TWO: MUSICAL ASPECTS OF

SOLER’S KEYBOARD SONATAS

Before examining individual works, I would like to discuss several general

aspects of Soler’s keyboard sonatas. These aspects include formal structure of the

sonatas, Soler’s view on modulation, his choice of keys, thematic use, phrase structure

and melodic organization, rhythm and meter, texture, his consideration of tempi, and the

use of ornamentation.

Formal and Harmonic Structure

Soler composed the majority of his sonatas in the Baroque bipartite form, dividing

the works into two large and fairly symmetrical sections. Generally, the first section

finishes in the dominant key if the sonata is written in a major key, and ends in the minor

dominant or the relative major key if the sonata is in a minor key. The second section

often begins in the key in which the first section of the sonata finished, and the tonic of

the home key is established somewhere near the end of the second section.

Isabel Izard I Granados positions Soler’s formal structure as “the bridge between

the forms of the Baroque suite, and the formal structure that was to become the mature

classical sonata.”60 Kirkpatrick also uses many of the terms commonly associated with

classical sonata form to describe the musical events in Soler’s sonatas. He refers to the

first section of the sonatas as the exposition, and describes the material of the second

60 Yamaoka, Miyuki. Antonio Soler Sonatas La Ma de Guido. Piano CD cover, article by Isabel Izard I Granados. 2000. 10 c. 2.

24

section as being both development, which he terms “excursion,” and recapitulation.61

The excursion, as mentioned above, usually starts in the closing key of the first section

and passes through a sequence of more remote keys. It is in this section where most of

Soler’s “extravagant modulations,” described in his treatise on modulation, take place. I

will discuss Soler’s views on modulation in more detail below. The excursion often uses

material stated previously and represents a section of harmonic, rather than melodic or

thematic, development. As in mature classical sonatas, after moving through several

keys in the excursion, Soler eventually arrives on the dominant chord of the original key.

Exactly where in the second section Soler chooses to return to the original key varies.

Unlike the fairly predictable positioning of the recapitulation in many classical sonata

forms, Soler sometimes waits until the very end of the second section to return to the

home key.

Similarly to Scarlatti, Soler uses the musical material of the cadential section as a

means of recapitulation in the second part of his sonatas; in the closing section of the first

half, the cadential section usually appears in the dominant key. Yet, in the closing

section of the second half, the cadential material is “recapitulated” in the home key. This

compositional procedure helps resolve the tension created by the different thematic

material presented in the exposition, as well as the harmonic adventures of the excursion.

As mentioned above, Soler often wrote dramatic modulations in the excursions of

his sonatas. In his treatise, “Key to Modulation,” Soler states, “. . . if a composition has

no modulation it will lack perfection altogether.” Soler refers to this type of fast-paced

modulation which he often uses in the excursions of his sonatas as “quick modulation or

61 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarllati: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, 251-279.

25

the means of modulating from one key to another in the fewest measures possible.”62

Soler explains that “quick modulation” works best in instrumental writing, as opposed to

vocal music. He further explains that his own methods of quick modulation are derived

from his experiences as a church organist. In fact, he states that his harmonic rules are

essential for church organists.63 While playing an offertory, which could be in a distant

key, an organist might receive a signal from the priest to finish the offertory, and, without

the slightest interruption, the player should be able to seamlessly return to the liturgical

service in its original key. It is for such situations that Soler offers his four rules for

quick modulation:

• Use of a common note or a chord between the two keys

• Arrival at the dominant of the new key

• Use of enharmonic spellings

• Stepwise and contrary motion between the outer voices

Soler’s use of these harmonic ideas, set forth in his treatise, will be observed in the

individual sonatas in Chapter Three.

62 Soler, Antonio. Llave de la Modulacion. New York: Broude Brothers, 1967.80.

63 Ibid. 84.

26

Choice of Keys

Similarly to the composers of the early classic period, it has been observed that

Soler prefers keys that have three or fewer accidentals in their signatures.64 However,

there is an additional consideration which I believe may have influenced Soler’s

predilection for certain kays; Soler’s choice of keys often coincides with the primary keys

often used in Flamenco guitar music, which are derived from the open strings of the

guitar (E-A-D-G-B-E). Flamenco guitar specialist Paco Pena has identified the key of E

major, E minor, A major, A minor, D major, and D minor as those most commonly used

in Flamenco guitar music.65 He explains this by pointing out that the three lowest keys

of the Spanish guitar (E, A, and D) have a special quality in relation to each of the open

strings (E, A D, G, B, E). The tonic, subdominant and dominant scale degrees of E major

and minor, A major and minor, and D major and minor may be found on the open strings

of the Spanish guitar.

64 In sonatas in minor keys which have flat(s) in the key signature, one flat is almost always omitted and the designation “en modo dorico” appears in the title of the piece. Almarie Dieckow in his dissertation states that “no modal element is found in the works themselves, and the practice is merely a notational convention retained from the past.” Dieckow, A. A Stylistic Analysis of the Solo Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, Saint Louis, 1971, 226.

65 Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 227.

27

Table 1. Correlation between keys and scale degrees:

KEYS SCALE DEGREE

TONIC

SCALE DEGREE

SUBDOMINANT

SCALE DEGREE

DOMINANT

E Major

E Minor

E B A

A Major

A Minor

A E D

D Major

D Minor

D A G

While Soler uses many keys in his extant sonatas, he tends to favor E major and

minor, A major and minor, and D major and minor. In examining this relationship of

keys, we can assume that Soler, consciously or unconsciously, was influenced by the

Spanish guitar music which surrounded him.

Themes and Phrase Structure

The melodies in Soler’s sonatas tend to be diatonic rather than chromatic. Soler

constructs his melodies using fragments of scalar motion, which are sometimes

interrupted by neighboring notes, thirds or large leaps. He also implements the triadic

motion in his melodic construction, whether in arpeggios or broken chords. Melodic

fragments of Moorish origin are found in Soler’s sonatas through the use of the

augmented second interval.

28

Example 2. Sonata M.2 in C Minor, mm. 9-10.

As mentioned above, the use of the Phrygian cadence (i.e. A-G-F-E, also the last

four notes of natural minor) is frequently used by Soler as well.

Soler does not establish only a single melodic or thematic idea, but instead, he

introduces multiple themes within sections. The two most important thematic structures,

however, are the head-motive, the theme at the beginning of the first section, and the

second theme, which is the theme stated at the beginning of the second section. This

analytical approach to identifying Soler’s themes, while differing from the way in which

similar terminology is used to describe the thematic material of mature classical sonata-

allegro movements, is often employed among Soler scholars. Typically, the head-motive

is stated twice. The repetition often appears an octave lower or higher with harmonic

alterations or ornaments. Fragments of the opening motive often appear sequentially.

The second theme is generally shorter than the head motive.

The thematic content of the excursion can be independent of earlier material;

however, at least a common rhythmical motion unifies the two theme-groups between the

sections. The second theme can also be restated twice, embellished or modified by quasi-

developmental procedures, such as a sequence. In some sonatas, he inserts a cadenza-like

passage or a small section before the “recapitulation.”

29

Example 3. Sonata M. 4 in C Minor, mm.70-73.

In the footnote to this measure Marvin provides a continuation of the cadenza passage

offered by Soler or a copyist in another manuscript of this sonata.

Example 4. Sonata M.4 in C Minor, footnote to measure 73.

These very short, improvisatory cadenza passages are usually based on one of the

themes used before. This compositional procedure often appears in the sonatas of the

later classical period.

Soler’s sonatas are predominantly organized in short phrases often consisting of

irregular groups of measures. Unlike the mostly predictable phrase lengths of mature

classical style based on multiples of two measures, or the symmetrical phrases of most

Baroque works, Soler’s fragmented melodic organization is typical of stile galant.

Phrases of three, five, and seven measures are common in his sonatas.

30

Rhythm

The most commonly used rhythmical patterns in Soler’s sonatas consist of eighth

and sixteenth notes. This is to be expected, as the sonatas were written for non-sustaining

instruments, such as the harpsichord or the early fortepiano.66 However, some longer

notes are encountered in the sonatas as well, which may imply adding ornamentation for

sustaining purposes. I will discuss Soler’s ornamentation in more detail below.

The performer of French Baroque music is accustomed to executing notated

straight eighth notes as dotted eighth notes (notes inégales.) However, Italian and

Spanish composers wrote out dotted eighths. 67 Therefore, the performer of Soler’s

sonatas should play exactly the values notated in the score.

Soler frequently uses characteristics considered typical of Spanish dance types,

such as combinations of duple and triple rhythmical patterns, dotted rhythmical

figurations, and syncopated melodic motives with an emphasis on the weak beat. The

combined use of triplet and duplet figures was common in Spanish songs dating from the

fourteenth century.68

66 The early fortepiano did not sustain the sound nearly as long as the modern piano.

67 As the French theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau points out “In Italian [and Spanish] music all the eights [are] equal, unless they are marked pointées [dotted]. But in French music one makes the eights exactly equal only in the four-beat meter; in all the others one always makes them a little unequal, unless they are marked cloches égales. Hefling, Stephen E. Rhythmic Alteration in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Music: Notes Inegales and Overdotting. New York, Toronto, and New York: Schirmer Books, 1993, 38.

68 Storm, Elizabeth Nancy. The Harpsichord Sonatas of Padre Antonio Soler. Thesis, University of Washington, 1948.80.

31

Example 5. SonataM.9in D Major, mm. 48-56.

Soler often uses the technique of the rhythmical crescendo; he intensifies the

emotional character of the section by gradually shortening the rhythmical values.

Example 6. Sonata M.9 in D Major, mm. 11-21.

32

In some sonatas Soler also uses specific rhythmical patterns associated with

particular Spanish dance types, such as the bolero or the Andalusian folksong Saeta.69


Complementing these Spanish rhythmic patterns, Soler frequently imitates the

sound of castanets, banduria, and zapateado, which were popular accompanying

instruments in the dances of Spain.70

The subdivision of the strong beat into small melodic elements appearing not only

at the end of the motifs but also at their beginnings can suggest vocal glissando of

Moorish and Gypsy association.

69 Saeta is an Andalusian folk song for Lent or the Feast of the Nativity. Yoon Soo, Cho. The Spanish Guitar Influence on the Piano Music of Isaac Albeniz and Enrique Granados: A Detailed Study of “Granada” and “Asturias”of Suite Espanola by Albeniz and “Andaluza” and “Danza Triste” of Doce Danzas Espanolas by Granados. DMA Treatise, The University of Texas in Austin, 2006,7.

70 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959, 224.

33


Texture

Soler’s sonatas typically contain a free-voiced texture based on two-part writing.

The texture is predominantly homophonic, and sometimes, quasi-polyphonic. In nearly

all of Soler’s sonatas, the bass functions as harmonic support for the more important

melodic upper voice(s). However, the bass is often given brief thematic imitations. Such

imitative polyphony in Soler’s sonatas lasts only a few bars and occurs mostly at the

beginnings of sections. Pseudo-polyphony, typical of guitar music, appears as a “third

voice.” This voice enters throughout the piece, if only for a few beats or measures, and

acts independently from the other two voices.

Example 9. Sonata M.17 in E Minor, mm. 12-22.

34

A third voice may also be added as two or three notes in different registers;

however, it soon blends into the other voices and becomes harmonic filling in the texture.


In his treatise, Key to Modulation Soler states that in counterpoint the outer parts

are supposed to be the most important ones, because these are the voices that the “ear

catches.” Respectively, the inner parts are supplements or “fillings.” 71 This statement

helps to explain Soler’s practice of adding and dropping voices without preparation.

Kirkpatrick, explaining this as an expression of “free thought that was so usual in Spain,”

believes that “this kind of “free contrapuntal handling can be connected to both

composers’ [Scarlatti and Soler] desire to imitate the sound of the Spanish guitar.”72

71 Soler, Antonio. Llave de la Modulacion. New York: Broude Brothers, 1967, 84.

72 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968, 224.

35

Soler knew the guitar and approved its use in the role frequently assigned to keyboard

instruments.73

Other elements of texture include Soler’s use of Alberti bass (accompaniment in

broken chords) and Murky bass (accompaniment in broken octaves).

Example 11. Sonata M.5 in C Major, mm. 19-24.

73 Fisk, Eliot, A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review, 56: 10.

36

Example 12. Sonata M.5 in C Major, mm. 5-10.

In Soler’s sonatas, octaves appear in the left hand much more often than in the

right hand. Hand crossings so characteristic of Scarlatti’s style, are present in some of

Soler’s sonatas, as well.

Example 13. Sonata M.16 in B Major, mm. 21-26.

37

Tempi and Meter

Tempo markings are present in almost all of the editions of Soler’s sonatas, but

we cannot know with certainty which tempo indications are those of Soler, and which

were later added by copyists. As described in chapter one, Soler scholarship is made

much more challenging because there are no extant original manuscripts of Soler’s

keyboard sonatas. Furthermore, there are discrepancies between many of the copies of

Soler’s manuscripts, making research complicated.

About half of the sonatas are marked simply as Allegro or Andante. Others range

from the very fast Prestissimo, through moderate tempi such as Allegro Moderato and

Allegretto, to the slower markings of Andantino and Largo Andante. Sometimes,

descriptive terms such as Espressivo, Gracioso, Spiritoso, Maestoso, and cantabile take

the place of tempo markings. These terms indicate the musical characteristic of the

passage and often imply a corresponding tempo.

The majority of Soler’s sonatas are in duple meter. Allabreve meters, which

indicate a half-note beat, are more common than meters indicating a quarter-note beat

(4/4 or 2/4.) When using triple meters, Soler chooses the 3/4 meter more frequently than

the 3/8 meter.

Ornamentation

Regarding ornamentation and embellishment in Soler’s sonatas, Kirkpatrick

suggests that Soler’s ornamentation closely resembles that of Scarlatti.74 Both

composers rarely use ornamentation signs; instead, the ornaments are explicitly written

74 It is not surprising that both Scarlatti and Soler gave their musical indications in Spanish as well as in Italian or Latin in addition to such notational correlations as Arbitri for ad libitum and deto solo for glissando.

38

out using smaller notes and become an integral part of the melodic lines.75 Marvin, in

the preface to his edition of Soler’s complete set of sonatas, points out that the three most

frequently used ornaments are the turn, the trill and the appoggiatura. According to

Marvin, the speed of the trill varies according to the tempo of the particular composition.

As with most scholars of eighteenth-century music, Marvin also believes that in the

music of Soler, most ornaments should begin on the upper auxiliary note. In his

dissertation, Esses, quoting the eighteenth-century theorist Nazzare, argues that Spanish

sources of the period make no mention of the upper-note trills (trinos) in keyboard works.

Esses even states that in keyboard works by non-Spanish composers living in Spain,

ornaments should be started on the main note, not the upper auxiliary note.76 Although

it might be difficult to determine a hard and fast rule for the starting note of ornaments in

the music of Soler, I agree with Marvin and generally begin my ornaments on the upper

auxiliary note. Esses and Kirkpatrick both agree that most keyboard ornaments begin on

or after the beat, not before it.77

In the preface to his edition, Marvin also mentions that Soler did not use a sign for

a turn. If he desired a turn, he usually wrote it out with small notes. However, in the

English edition of the sonatas, as discussed by Marvin, Soler indicates the trill and the

turn with the same sign, tr. Thankfully, in parallel passages Soler often shows which of

the ornaments he wished to be used by writing notes out. Soler usually writes out most of



77 In his dissertation, Dieckhow states that grace notes should be played before the beat. However, the vast majority of scholars now believe that ornaments in Baroque and Classical music should begin on the beat. Dieckow, A. A Stylistic Analysis of the Solo Keyboard Sonatas of Antonio Soler. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, Saint Louis, 1971.255.

39

the appoggiaturas as well. Marvin suggests that appoggiaturas should be executed

according to the basic eighteenth-century practice, e.g. starting on the beat. Soler

mentions the mordente in Key to Modulation but does not give any examples of it.78

Esses explains in his dissertation that performers in the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries frequently added mordents, even though there were no indications for them in

the scores.79

Scholars such as Kirkpatrick and Rubio suggest that the performer of Soler’s

music should resist using additional ornaments or adding and dropping lines as they

would when playing French and German compositions of the same period. Yet,

Frederick Marvin convincingly argues that “. . . embellishments were freely used and

improvised at the time, and it is certain that one cannot play a work of Soler, or a work of

any other composer of the era, without adding ornamentation. That’s a ‘must’.”80 Alicia

De Larrocha confesses that in her interpretation of Soler’s sonatas she uses entirely her

own version of ornaments. As she observes, many liberties were taken in the manner of

executing ornaments in seventeenth and eighteenth century Spain, therefore “. . . . It is

not possible to play pieces of this era in any one way.”81

I respectfully agree with Marvin and DeLarrocha and would like to add that, with

the help of specific ornamentation, a performer can heighten the Spanish elements in

Soler’s music. As opposed to the Baroque ornamentation traditions of C.P.E. Bach and

78 Carroll, Frank. An Introduction to Antonio Soler. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1975, 193.

79 Mordents, were called quibro senzillo in the seventeenth century and aleado in the eighteenth century. Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental “Diferencias”in Spain During the 17th and Early 18th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986. 416.

80 Fisk, Eliot, A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review 55 (1983): 11.

81 Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia DeLarocha Recording. Clavier, no. 1 (1971): 10:23.

40

Francois Couperin, there were no written rules or treatises concerning the traditions of

ornamenting eighteenth-century Iberian instrumental music.82 Nonetheless, it appears

that Iberian composers were aware of the traditional eighteenth-century performance

rules since they were not working in isolation from the rest of Western Europe as they

had been in the seventeenth century. Moreover, eighteenth-century composers were first

of all improvisers, and the use of ornamentation was part of their improvisatory skills.

Spanish Characteristics

Although Soler’s music incorporates many of the sophisticated international

characteristics of the late Baroque and early Classical periods, it also contains some

elements which may be identified as specifically Spanish. As Gilbert Chase points out,

the Iberian Peninsula is richer in folklore than any other region in the western world. He

explains that “. . . the reason for this is the strong musical individuality that was retained

by the various provinces and the very strong imprint of Moorish and Gypsy influences

left on the musical formulae of the people.”83 The collective musical traditions of its

provinces, such as Andalucía, Castile, Galicia, and Catalonia, are all accepted today as

belonging to the “Spanish” idiom. Furthermore, the Muslim domination of Spain lasted

from 711-1492, and the first Gypsies arrived in Spain in 1449.84

One of Soler’s favorite musical traits, a direct influence of the “Spanish” idiom, is

the use of the minor second interval. He uses the interval both melodically and

82 Speer, Klaus. Review of Soler’s Nine Sonatas; Fandango recorded by Marin. Musical Quarterly, 44/3:414.


84 Ibid163.

41

harmonically. I believe that this distinctive Spanish sound is closely related to the use of

what Spanish guitarists refer to as the “Natural” mode in Flamenco guitar music.85

Flamenco guitar music is based on three modes: the Dorian, Lydian and Phrygian.

The Phrygian mode is the most commonly used in Flamenco guitar music and is referred

to as the “Natural mode”86. The most important cadential chord progression in the

“Natural” mode starts with a minor chord on the fourth mode degree followed by the

descending major chords on the third, second, and first mode degrees of the “Natural”

mode, e.g. iv – III – II – I. 87 In Flamenco guitar music this type of cadence is called a

“Phrygian” cadence.

Interestingly, there is a close relationship between the natural minor scale of the

major/minor tonal system and the “Natural” mode (Phrygian mode) of Flamenco guitar

music. The following table demonstrates the correspondence between the scale and its

mode degrees:

85 Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 227.

86 The use of the term “Natural” to refer to Phrygian mode by Flamenco guitarists can be confusing for the western-trained musician, who is used to using “Natural” as a term to describe one of the minor scales. In this discussion I will use “Natural” to mean Phrygian.

87 In Flamenco guitar music it is customary to substitute a major triad for a diatonic minor triad in this particular chord progression. Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Compiled and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 227.

42

Table 2. Correspondence between Natural Minor scale and Natural mode degrees:

Pitches A B♭ C D E F G A

Natural Mode

(Phrygian)

1 ♭2 3 4 5 6 7 1

Natural Minor Scale 5 ♭ 6 7 1 2 3 4 5

Therefore, the A Natural mode corresponds to the D natural minor scale. The

following table will illustrate the correspondence between the major/minor tonal system

of E, A, and D harmonic minor scales, and the “Natural” (Phrygian) modes through their

common Phrygian cadences.

Table 3. Correspondence between Western key and Natural mode through their

Phrygian Cadence:

Western Key Natural/Phrygian Mode Phrygian cadence

E Minor B Natural e-D-C-B88

A Minor E Natural a-G-F-E

D Minor A Natural d-C-B♭-A

88 The capital letters represent major chords, while the small letters are for minor chords.

43

A striking characteristic of Flamenco music is that even if the tonic is in major,

the whole character of the piece is still “minor sounding.”89 The Greek rhetoricians

thought that the Dorian mode had a modest, grave and religious character. The Phrygian

mode, in their opinion, had a suggestive and warlike quality.90 The eighteenth-century

French composer, Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, in his “Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et

Moderne,” included a chart that compares the two scalar systems.91 According to de

Laborde, the “Natural” (Phrygian) mode is also defined as: “ardent, proud, impetuous,

vehement, and terrible.”92 It is remarkable to note that very similar adjectives were used

to describe the Phrygian mode by many other French, German, and English composers

and theorists of the eighteenth century. In my opinion, it is important to note these terms

in relation to the description and the character of many of the Spanish dances, and

particularly those in Flamenco style. The factor of “pride,” along with the other

abovementioned qualities, is significant in many of these dances and songs and is

reflected in the choreography, as well as costumes of the dancers. Therefore, the frequent

appearance of the Phrygian cadence or other Phrygian gestures in Spanish music, and

accordingly in the sonatas of Antonio Soler, is not a mere coincidence.

According to Martin Kunnigham, “Spain has over one thousand

choreographically different dances, and over two hundred are known only in

Catalonia!”93 Since Soler incorporated Spanish dance elements into many of his

89 Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And

Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 227. 90 Steblin, Rita. A History Of Key Characteristics In The Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth Centuries”UMI

Research Press, Ann Arbor, 1981.69. 91 Steblin, Rita. A History Of Key Characteristics In The Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth Centuries”UMI

Research Press, Ann Arbor, 1981.71. 92 Ibid 76.

44

sonatas, I would like to mention a few of them. Generally, Spanish dances are divided

into two main groups: classic dances and Flamenco. The most popular classic dances are

Bolero, Sevillanes, and the Jota. The best known Flamenco dances are the Tango,

Farruca, and the Garrotin.94

Farruca, is a virtuosic solo dance performed by one man. The music for the

farrucas is usually in a very fast tempo with a complex staccato rhythmic structure and a

wide dynamic range from very soft to very loud. The Tango is the opposite of Farruca.

It is a solo dance for a woman and has a very gentle and soft character. The meter of

these Flamenco dances is generally 2/4. The Bolero, which originates from the Spanish

verb “volar” , “to fly,” is a dance that is composed of three parts. In the outer parts the

dancers dance together, whereas in the middle section one of the dancers performs a solo

dance.95 According to Gilbert Chase, “. . . the additional rhythmic complexity is created

by the dancers themselves; the guitar, which provides basic rhythms, is accompanied by

the zapateado (stamping and tapping of the feet), pito (finger snapping), palmada

(clapping of the hands with a sharp, dry “clack”, also slapping of the thighs) of the

dancer, and by the jaleo (the stimulating shouting and clapping of the spectators).” 96

I will discuss dances such as the Jota Aragonesa, Passeo, and Sardana, as well as

specific Spanish guitar techniques, and the Flamenco singing style “cante jondo” in more

details in Chapter Three, since each of these Spanish art forms is reflected in the

individual sonatas I have chosen to analyze.

93 Oxford Music Online. Spain: Traditional and Ethno musical Research. Martin Kunnigham.



96 Ibid252.

45

CHAPTER THREE: STYLISTIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE

GUIDE TO THREE KEYBOARD SONATAS OF ANTONIO SOLER

Sonata M.1 In C Minor

Formal, Harmonic and Melodic Structure

This sonata is in a simple binary form with clear A and B sections. Both sections

have an introduction and two subsections. The introduction in the A section is from mm.

1-9. The first subsection is from m. 10-31, and the second subsection is from mm. 32-55.

The introduction is a harmonic descending gesture, which spans two octaves and is

restated immediately. Soler’s irregular phrasing is evident in the introduction. The

opening five-bar phrase creates an expectation that the repetition of the phrase beginning

in m. 6 will be another five-bar phrase. Soler heightens the dramatic entrance of new

material in m. 10, when he truncates the second phrase of the introduction.

The first subsection starts on the dominant. The motive is based on the repetition

of minor seconds (e.g. G-A♭, B-C, D-E♭ in mm. 10-18) over the harmonic alternations

between the dominant and the subdominant (mm. 13-15), and the dominant and the tonic

(mm. 16-18). This motive will reappear in different keys throughout the sonata.

The prominent use of this interval and the repeated alternation between the

dominant and the subdominant harmonies are characteristic features of Spanish music.

More specifically, the triple meter, the specific rhythmic figuration (♩ ♪), the constant

alternation between the tonic and the dominant that is seen throughout the sonata, and the

irregular phrasing, are all characteristic of the Jota Aragonesa. The Jota, which

originated in Aragon, spread to other regions of Spain, where the form developed

regional differences. However, the dance is invariably in rapid triple time and has

characteristic odd-numbered phrasing. I will discuss the Jota in more detail later in this

46

chapter. The following table demonstrates the large–scale pattern of the alternation

between the tonic and the dominant harmonies throughout the piece:

Table 4. Harmonic Scheme:

Tonic mm.1-9 m. 39 mm.47-55 mm.56-65 m. 103 mm.111-121

Dominant mm.10-29 mm.32-38 mm.40-46 mm.66.75 mm.93-102 mm.104-110

The second motive of the first subsection (mm. 20-31) continues the dominant

prolongation, which started at the beginning of the subsection in m.10. A new melody,

which is an arch-formed ascending and descending line, appears with a new texture of

sixteenth-notes as opposed to the eighth-notes of the first motive. The compound melody

in the right hand in mm. 20-28 suggests the guitar technique in which two strings are

plucked in alternation, creating a polyphonic effect. The middle voice acts as a drone on

the dominant pitch of G. The first subsection finishes with a Phrygian cadence and ends

on the dominant of the dominant (D Major, in measure 31.)

The second subsection of the A section (mm. 32-55) starts on the dominant of G

Minor and alternates between the dominant and the subdominant. Similarly to the

previous subsection, the beginning of the first motive of this subsection (mm. 32-34) is

based on the interval of the minor second. Measure 39 seems to be a very important

point, because there is a perfect authentic cadence in the new key of G Minor. Soler

could have ended the first part of the binary form here. However, he repeats the motive

once more, and then adds another motive (mm. 47-55) that is stated in the new key and

47

consists of the cadencial material of the previous motive (mm. 45-46 and 50-51). As

Kirkpatrick observes, this type of prolonged “multiple endings” of a section is a common

compositional feature in Scarlatti’s and Soler’s writing.97

Although slightly longer than the A section, the B section of this sonata also has

an introduction and two subsections. The introduction of the B section is from mm. 56-

65. The first subsection is from mm. 66-95, and the second subsection is from mm. 96-

121. The motive of the introduction is based on the motive of the A section. However,

the difference between the descending gesture of this motive from that of the A section is

in its harmonic path. The first phrase of the motive starts on the tonic of the new key G

Minor, but when we arrive at the cadence in mm. 59-60, we realize that we modulated to

B♭ Major, the relative major of G Minor. The second phrase starts in B♭ major and

modulates to D Minor (mm. 64-65). This switch is made possible by Soler’s substitute of

the natural minor scale in the third measure of the theme (m. 58) instead of the harmonic

minor scale of the A section (m. 3.) The first subsection of the B section starts on the

dominant of D Minor. The first motive of this subsection is based on the minor seconds

(mm. 66-75) and serves as a dominant bridge.

In the following subsection (mm. 76-95) the following motive is melodically

based on that of the A section and is presented as a sequence (mm. 76-83 in G Minor, and

mm. 84-95 in C Minor). These modulations are achieved through chromatic inflections

and secondary dominants. In the modulatory passage (mm. 76-95) Soler keeps the

“Phrygian” feel with the use of the lowered second degree of the scale.

97 Kirkpatrick, Ralph. Domenico Scarlatti: A Famous Harpsichordist’s Study of the Life, Times, and Works of One of the Greatest Composers for His Instrument. Apollo ed. Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York: Princeton University Press, 1968. 263.

48


Soler finishes the subsection with a Phrygian cadence in mm. 94-95, which is

very typical for his compositional writing and is identical to the comparable part in the A

section. In my opinion, this characteristic Spanish element should be emphasized in a

performance. The second subsection starts on the dominant of the home key, in m. 96,

and entirely mirrors the melodic material of that of the second subsection in the A

section, bringing the sonata back into the home key of C Minor. The second subsection

is longer in the B section. This compositional device also foreshadows the development

of the later classical sonata form.

Phrase Structure

The phrasing in this sonata is irregular, which is typical of Soler’s compositional

style and, as mentioned above, is one of the characteristic traits of the Jota. This type of

asymmetric phrase structure is called “aksak” which is a Turkish word and literally

means “limping” or “struggling.” 98 This type of phrasing is very popular in Spanish

music, as well as in the Middle Eastern and Balkan folk music. It designates a rhythmic

system in which the pieces or sequences in a fast tempo are based on an uninterrupted

98 Arcadio de Larrea Palacin. Oxford Music Online, Grove Dictionary online. Traditional and Popular

Music in Spain.

49

combination of ternary and binary construction of phrases, such as 2+2+3 or 2+3+3. It is

interesting to observe that despite the irregularity of the phrasing, on a bigger spectrum

the phrase structure within the two sections of this sonata is closely related and is rather

symmetrical. The following table demonstrates the phrasing within the two sections:

Table 5. Phrase structure in both sections:

Introduction

mm. 1-9

First Subsection

mm. 10-31

Second

Subsection

mm. 32-55

A

Motive

mm.1-9

First motive

mm. 10-19

Second motive

mm20-31

First motive

mm. 32-46

Second motive

mm. 47-55

5+4 3+3+4 3+3+3+3 5+3+5+2 2+3+2+2

Introduction

mm. 56-65

First Subsection

mm. 66-95

Second

Subsection

mm. 96-121

B Motive

mm. 56-65

First motive

mm. 66-75

Second motive

mm. 76-95

First motive

mm. 96-110

Second motive

mm. 111-121

5+5 3+3+4 3+3+2+3+3+3+3 5+3+5+2 2+3+2+4

50

Stylistic Observations and Performance Suggestions

The irregularity of the phrases suggests metrical changes and an emphasis on

this will make a performance more interesting. This may be achieved by a specific choice

of articulation, ornamentation and dynamics. For example, to highlight the five-measure

phrase of the introduction in the A section, a performer may add a trill on the first note of

each of the two first phrases in the A section, and continue playing the entire phrase with

a non-legato, marcato touch. Additionally, Soler indicates trills on the beginning of both

phrases in the introduction of the B section (m. 56, and m. 61). Taking a little time

between the introduction and the first subsection will help to articulate the irregular

length of the phrases in both A and B sections. The same case may be made for the

timing between the mm. 95-96. With a use of slight rubato between the end of the

modulatory passage and the next subsection (m. 96) the performer will draw attention to

the Phrygian cadence.

As a performer I respectfully disagree with some of the dynamic markings

suggested by Marvin in his edition of Soler sonatas. Marvin’s piano indication in m. 13

seems to imply that he believed that a new section begins here. Because of the

presentation of the minor seconds in the motive in m. 10, I believe the section starts in m.

10. There is a pattern of G, B♮, D, and F from m. 10-19.

51


Perhaps, because the G pitch is explored in the left hand in m.13, Marvin

misinterpreted the musical material. By starting the section softly in m.10, a performer

will be able to build a musically logical phrase towards its top in m.19. Likewise, I

would suggest beginning the section starting in m. 66 in piano. I do agree with Marvin’s

choice of subito mezzo piano in m.20, as well as his suggestion to change the articulation

from marcato to molto legato.99 These markings help to create strong entrance for the

new material, which is first introduced in m. 20. A choice of a specific accentuation,

such as accenting every subdominant eighth-note of mm. 22, 25-28 will bring out the

harmonic alternation between the dominant and the subdominant, already observed

above, and emphasize on the Spanishism of his musical language.

The ornamented first beats (eighth-notes in the right hand) of mm. 47-48 and 52-

53, 111-112, and 116-117 present an interesting choice to the performer. In Marvin’s

edition, the ornament indicated on the first beat of each of these measures is a grace note.

99 Marvin’s dynamic marking in m. 85 of the parallel passage represents an inconsistency. The pianissimo belongs in m. 84.

52

However, as Marvin points out in a footnote in his edition, in another copy of this sonata,

the first beat of each of these measures contains two sixteenth-notes instead of an

ornamented eighth-note. According to traditional eighteenth-century performance

practice, grace notes indicated over eighth-notes can be executed as running sixteenth-

notes. However, taking into account that many Italian and Spanish composers of the

time, including Soler, were not consistent with their indications for ornaments, and even

expected performers to improvise them, the grace note could also be replaced by other

ornaments, such as a trill or mordent. If we add a mordent or a short trill on the

downbeats of these measures, the new tonic will be emphasized. Adding such ornaments

will create a stop in the running sixteenth-note motion in the right hand. Adding a

mordent or a short trill will also help initiate a dramatic, clear rhythm ♪ ♩ since, an eighth

note followed by four sixteenth notes on a deeper level implies an eighth note followed

by a quarter note. The stop of the sixteenth-note motion also separates the two measures

(mm. 47-48, 52-53, 111-112, 116-117) in which the rhythm is changed from the

following three measures (mm. 49-51, 113-115, 118-121.) This highlights the ternary

and binary construction of the aksak phrase structure discussed earlier.

I personally believe that adding an ornament on the downbeats of these measures

greatly enhances the Spanish feel of the piece, because it mimics the instrumentation of

the jota. Usually the jota is sung and danced with accompaniment by castanets, guitars,

bandurias, lutes and drums. A mordent or a sharp short trill on the eighth notes suggests

the percussive sound of castanets and small drums, as well as the strumming of the

guitars and bandurias. Taking into consideration that the harpsichord has a rather

percussive tone-quality this type of ornament in such a quick tempo sounds very sharp

and dramatic.

The second option, appoggiatura sixteenth-notes, creates a smoother, more

elegant effect. If we consider the important emergence of the galant style in Spain during

the mid-eighteenth century, this more Classical rendering may also be considered a

53

reasonable stylistic choice. Taking into account that ornaments and rhythms were varied

in repeats of the sections, a performer may choose to make use of both of the

abovementioned interpretational choices.

Jota Aragonesa

Soler often changes the rhythmical patterns in this sonata, combining the common

rhythmical structure of the jota, quarter note to eighth note, ♩♪ with the reverse order of

the pattern; the eighth note to quarter note ♪ ♩. Salient cases of this change of the

patterns can be seen in mm. 38, 102, 103, and 115. The different rhythmical patterns in

mm. 55 and 121 are possibly copyists’ mistakes. Most likely Soler intended to use the

rhythmical pattern in m. 55 identical to that in m. 121. Such sudden changes in

rhythmical patterns should not be missed by the performer, as they usually symbolize the

different and sudden changes in the steps of the dance. There is a broad division between

the jota of upper Aragon, which is lighter, livelier and faster in tempo (the dancers touch

the ground only with their toes), and the jota of lower Aragon, which is slower and has

fewer leaps. In my opinion, this sonata with its lively allegro tempo marking corresponds

to the jota of the upper Aragon, which is danced by a couple or several couples.100

Gilbert Chase describes the costumes of the dancers and the steps of the dance in a rather

picturesque manner:

The girl wears the full peasant skirt, and over the upper part of her body she wraps a large shawl; the figure is completely concealed. The man wears a waistcoat and black breeches laced at the knee, with a broad, bright-colored sash around his waist and a headdress of vivid hue. His stockings and shirt are white. For both, the footwear is the alpargata, cord-soled sandals tied on with black laces. . . . Speed, emphasized by abrupt pauses in which the dancers hold

100 Arcadio de Larrea Palacin. Oxford Music Online, Grove Dictionary online. Traditional and Popular Music in Spain.

54

themselves immobile for a couple of measures, is the very essence of the jota. Strongly executed pirouettes and turns are frequent. Facing each other, with castanets held out at arm’s length, the dancers swing outward first one leg and then the other. In one figure the girl sits on the ground playing her castanets while the man pirouettes around her. In another they kneel down on one knee opposite each other, and alternately bump the ground with left and right knee, keeping rhythmic count. . .101

The jota was once danced during burial ceremonies; however, this custom has

changed over times. The content of the song is quite diverse, from patriotism and religion

to sexual exploits. Jotilla (little Jota) in Andalusia is danced to celebrate the end of the

olive harvest. Knowing and taking into consideration the historical context,

instrumentation and other stylistic characteristics of the jota will make the performance

of this wonderful sonata bright and colorful.

Sonata M.9 In D Major

The Formal Structure

This sonata is written in a binary form. Both the A and the B sections contain two

sections that are contrasting in their character, and could be interpreted as slow and fast

sections. The slow sections in the A and the B sections are divided into three

subsections, whereas the fast sections consist of two subsections. The form of this sonata

reflects elements of two traditional Spanish dance types, the Paseo, and the Catalan

dance Sardana. The slow parts of the A and B sections stylistically correspond to the

paseo, which is a slow and an elegant “promenade” that serves as an introduction to the

101 Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain Dover Publications, New York, 1959.252.

55

dance. The faster sections suggest elements of the quicker and livelier circle dance

Sardana. The following table demonstrates the formal structure of the piece:

Table 6. Formal structure:

A Section

mm.1-63

B section

mm. 64-122

Paseo Paseo

mm.1-21 mm.22-31 mm. 32-47 mm. 65-80 mm. 81-90 mm. 91-106

Sardana Sardana

mm. 48-57 mm. 58-64 mm. 107-113 mm. 114-123

The Thematic and Harmonic Structure

The first subsection of the Paseo of the A section, (mm. 1-21) starts on the tonic,

with a head motive that is repeated immediately an octave higher. After the repetition of

the head motive, the subsection continues through a chain of modulations in which Soler

briefly tonicizes A major and then E major in the passage from m. 12 to the unison Bs in

m. 21. Also, in this passage Soler demonstrates the use of a “harmonic crescendo,” a

compositional tool discussed in Chapter Two. In order to create this effect, Soler

gradually shortens the rhythmic values of the melody in the right hand, and the harmonic

changes in the left-hand accompaniment become quicker towards the end of the passage.

56

Also of note in this passage is the long series of sigh figures which chart a long ascent

from F-sharp in m. 12 to the high B in m. 20.


The subsection ends with unison Bs (m. 21) which represents a half cadence in

the key of E major or E minor. Soler established the key of E major in mm. 17-19, but

introduces a C natural in m. 20 (which most likely continues in m. 21 as the upper

auxiliary note of the trill). With the C natural, Soler implies the parallel minor key, E

minor, to which he shifts in the next phrase. Soler’s exploration of parallel major and

minor keys is an important facet of the compositional styles of later composers such as

Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert as well as that of his teacher, Scarlatti.

The following subsection (mm. 22-31) contains two phrases, the second being an

extended version of the first. The first phrase (mm. 22-25) starts on the dominant of E

Minor and progresses towards its tonic 6/5 chord. The second phrase in m. 26 also starts

on the dominant chord and echoing the melodic material of the first phrase goes through

57

the tonic 6/5 chord. However, it further develops that melodic material and finishes the

subsection on the E dominant chord in m. 31.

It is interesting to note that the main melodic notes in the initial phrase are: F#-B-

A-(D#)-F-#-E. Since we are in the key of E minor at this point, we can say that Soler has

neglected the third scale degree, G. In the extended version of the phrase, Soler creates

an even longer descending scale in mm. 29-31, and finally brings in a G# in the melody:

E-D-C-B-A-(B-A)-G#-F#-E. The G#, introduced first in the accompaniment in m. 29,

moves us away from E minor to A minor. There are many instances of Viennese

classical composers and Romantic composers intensifying the appearance of a pitch by

first avoiding it. It is exciting to note that this compositional device was used by Soler.

The third subsection of the Paseo of the A section is from mm. 32-47. It starts on

the tonic of the new key of A minor and stays in this key until its end. Similarly to the

previous two subsections, this subsection consists of two phrases. The first phrase is

from mm. 32-39, and the second phrase from mm. 40-47. The harmonic structure of this

subsection is fairly simple, consisting mainly of tonic and dominant harmonies.

However, the ending of the subsection is highly unusual. The unresolved dominant

harmony in m. 46 follows with a rest under a fermata in the next measure.


58

This type of sudden ending is associated with the Bien Parado step present in

many of Spanish Dances. Bien Parado, which literally means “well stopped,” concludes

a dance or a section of a dance. It provides one of the sudden transitions and striking

attitudes that are so characteristic of Spanish dancing. Gilbert Chase describes the step:

“In the bien parado the dancer makes a sudden stop, assumes a motionless pose, placing one leg slightly forward, bent at the knee and turned outward, the body somewhat twisted and thrown back upon the support of the leg, while one arm is held arched over the head and the other is crossed in front of the chest. When this figure is skillfully executed, the spectators cry out “Bien Parado!”102

After the fermata, the new section with a completely new character starts with the

pick-up sixteenth-note in m. 47. The first subsection of the Sardana (mm. 48-57) starts

on the tonic of A Major, the parallel major of the key of the previous section, A minor.

Similarly to the following subsection (mm. 58-63) this subsection also consists of two

identical phrases. The entire section of the Sardana has a very simple harmonic

structure; a mere alternation between the tonic and dominant harmonies and a

“confirmation” of the tonic at the end of the section (mm. 61-64.)

The first subsection of the Paseo in the B section (mm. 65-80) starts in the key in

which the previous section ended, A Major. However, in m. 68 Soler introduces a

diminished seventh chord, which signals the start of a modulation to B minor. From mm.

71-78 Soler introduces a sequence that modulates through secondary dominant

harmonies, descending stepwise from B minor (mm. 71-73) to A Major (mm.74-76) and

finally to G Major (mm.77-79.) After a rather jarring harmonic progression in m. 69 (a G

major chord to B half-diminished seventh chord,) Soler finishes the subsection with a

Phrygian cadence to an E major chord in mm. 79-80.


59

The next subsection is from mm. 81-90 and starts on the dominant of A Minor.

This subsection, as well as the following subsection (mm. 91-106) in its harmonic and

melodic construction is nearly identical to those in the A section except that they are

transposed up a perfect fourth. As many composers do in the recapitulations of mature

Classical sonatas, Soler brings the repetition of the sub-phrase from mm. 99-105 down an

octave. This affords the performer a good opportunity to explore the darker placement of

the theme. Similarly, the Paseo section ends with the Bien Parado step in measure 106,

giving way to the Sardana, which is again virtually identical in its material to the one in

the A section, except that it appears now in the home key of D Major.

Each subsection consists of two phrases, except the first subsection of the A

section (mm. 1-21). That subsection has the extra phrase, which serves as a modulatory

bridge (mm. 12-21). Furthermore, each thematic phrase in this sonata is echoed in its

melodic material, except the second phrase of the first subsection in the B section

(mm.71-80). After the statement of the head motive in mm. 65-70, there is a modulatory

bridge phrase from mm. 71-80. Because there is a repetition of the head motive in the A

section and not in the B section, the opening section of the A is longer (21 measures) than

the opening section of the B section of the sonata (16 measures.) The following chart

demonstrates the measure groupings of the opening sections of the A and B sections.

Table 7. Measure groupings between the sections:

A Section B Section

6+5+10 6+10

60

Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions

Elements of Spanish music are found throughout this sonata. In the second and

third subsections in both the A and B sections (mm 22-31, 32-47, 81-90, 91-106), there

are salient examples of Soler’s stylistic use of two important facets of Flamenco, cante

jondo (deep song), and pulgado, a guitar technique in which the strings are plucked with

the thumb to produce a strong sound that separates the specific notes or voices in the

overall texture. 103 Characteristic of cante jondo, the typical Flamenco style of

Andalusian songs of lament, love, passion and sadness, the melodies of these subsections

employ descending diatonic gestures (mm. 30, 38, 89, 97). Since cante hondo often also

refers to a very expressive vocal timbre, the thirty-two notes of the melody should be

played in a tenuto manner (not too fast) and very expressively. This will also help to

create a bigger contrast between the first subsection in D Major and this subsection,

which is in E Minor in the A section and A Minor in the B section. To create this

expressive color, I do not start the first statement of the phrase in mp as suggested by

Marvin in mm. 32 and 81. Instead, I play these phrases statements louder, with a legato

touch and molto espressivo timbre the first time. While maintaining the same touch and

timbre, I play the repetition of these phrases softer and more delicately. Since inflections

in the form of accenting or descending appoggiaturas are typical to this style of singing

and are used to accentuate certain notes in the melody, I add appoggiaturas on the first

notes of mm. 33, 34, 40, 41, 92, 93, 100 99, and 101.

In mm. 35-37, 43-45, 94-96, and 102-104 Soler imitates the Pulgado guitar

technique, in which the guitarist pulls sharply on a string in order to create a strong

emphasis on a note, often with the aim of creating an additional line in the texture. In

103 Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Complied And Edited By Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 21.

61

these passages, Soler double stems the notes and creates a pedal point over each group of

three measures. The pianist, by playing those eighth-notes in a portamento style, will

emphasize the pseudo-polyphonic texture, and thus imitate the sound produced by this

guitar technique.


A further refinement for the execution of the above-mentioned eighth notes would be to

imitate a guitar technique called apagado,104 which is often used to produce a muffled

sound, comparable to that of the piano when the damper pedal is used. I recommend this

effect in the repetition of the passage to create an echo effect.

In the previous subsection, the modulatory bridge in mm. 12-21, represents a

“harmonic crescendo,” as mentioned earlier. If we consider that this piece may have

been performed on the harpsichord, then this type of compositional device was one of the

means to make a seeming crescendo with the help of a written-out rhythmic accelerando.

As a performer of these sonatas on the modern piano, I still perform a crescendo in this

104 Pena, Paco. “Flamenco Guitar”in The Guitar: A Guide for Students And Teachers. Compiled and edited by Michael Stempson. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 22.

62

passage and strengthen this effect with a slight accelerando and the use of the sustaining

pedal on each of the new harmonies. Breaking some of the chords in arpeggios in the left

hand and adding trills that gradually become longer in the right hand intensifies this

effect. The trills can be put on each eighth-note in mm. 12-17 in the right hand, and then

following the motivic trend, the trills are executed on the first sixteenth-notes of the beats

in mm. 18-20. To heighten the sense of arrival at in m. 21, I trill for a relatively long

time and linger on the final note of the trill for a little while as well. I breathe at the end

of the fermata, just before I start the next phrase in m. 22, in order to intensify the

heartbreaking cante jondo style. Similarly, where I envision the bien parado step in mm.

47 and 106, I would suggest holding the fermata in a dramatic and purposeful way. The

entrance of the Sardana dance in mm. 48 and 107 should act as a spirited relief of the

built-up tension.

The sardana is a traditional Catalan dance, which has been popular since the

seventeenth century and still represents a symbol of their national identity. In the words

of Enric Morera, a Catalan composer, “The Sardana is a dance, a Hymn, a Song, it is

Catalonia!”105 The sardana is a circle dance executed by a large group of men and

women who hold hands and turn first to the right then to the left, at the same time

executing fairly simple steps: two steps to the right, two steps to the left, and then four

steps to the right, followed by four steps to the left. In the first section the dancers hold

their hands down, and in the second section they hold their hands up. These steps can be

varied by “pointing” the toes before each step is taken. The group of musicians who play

for the sardana is called the cobla. It consists of eleven musicians, nine of whom play

the wind instruments, one plays the bass, and the most important member of the cobla

plays both the tamburi (a small drum attached to his elbow) and the fluviol (a three-holed


63

pipe). He not only announces the beginning of the dance but also keeps the time with the

unvarying beats of his drum taps.106

The musical structure of the “dance” section of this sonata (mm. 48-64 and 107-

123) corresponds to the harmonic and rhythmic structure of the sardana. This Catalonian

dance is depicted in one of the sculptured walls of the Montserrat Monastery, dating from

the fifteenth century.107 Soler’s native Catalonia, located in the northeast part of Spain,

did not undergo the intensive Muslim and Byzantine influences that were experienced in

southern Spain, and in particular in Andalusia. Harmonically, this section of the sonata

also reflects the least oriental inflections. It sounds more traditionally “European” to the

ear with its mostly tonic and dominant harmonic structure.

While sardanas are generally in a 6/8 meter, and the meter of this sonata is 2/4,

Soler introduces many triplet sixteenth notes throughout this passage, suggesting a

compound metrical feel. It is interesting to note that there is not a single triplet in this

sonata except in these passages. The performer can emphasize the sardana characteristic

by establishing and keeping the tempo very firmly from the beginning of the section, thus

creating a stylistic contrast with the fairly free, rubato style of the paseo section, and

imitate the pipe-like sonorities that are reflected throughout the section. Although there

is no indication of a new tempo, Marvin indicates the return to the B section (m. 65) with

a tempo primo mark, thus implying that the previous section (mm. 48-64) should be

performed in a different tempo.


107 Ibid.

64

Missing Indications and Editorial Remarks

For the reasons presented in the discussion above, I believe that there are missing

tempo indications in mm. 48 and 106. I would like to mention several other possible

problems present in the score of this sonata, possibly due to copyists’ mistakes. One of

them is at the very beginning of the sonata. The left hand plays a D octave quarter note

in the first measure, which is absent in the repetition of the phrase in m. 7. The left hand

staff curiously has no indication of a rest either. In its parallel passage, in m. 65, the tonic

bass chord is again absent, thus putting the relevance of the quarter note in the left hand

in the first measure in doubt. Since that chord is absent in all the parallel passages, in

my performances of this sonata, I prefer to omit the chord in the first measure as well.

Starting only with the right-hand melody gives this passage a feeling of delicateness,

which is emphasized by Marvin’s dynamic suggestion of piano.

I agree with most of the editorial suggestions made by Marvin. However, I will

have to respectfully disagree with his suggestion of slowing down in mm. 46 and 105.

The effect of what I believe to be a Bien Parado (sudden stop) step in Spanish dance in

the following measures will be more dramatic without a preceding ritenuto.

Sonata M21 In G Minor

The Form and Harmonic Structure

The form of the sonata M21 in G minor is a rondo. The sections of the sonata are

clearly delineated in the score by both meter and tempo or character indications. The

sections may be summarized as follows:

65

Table 8. Formal structure:

Sections A B A’ B C A’’ B’ A’’’ B’ A’’’’

Measure

numbers

1-23 24-29 30-35 36-41 42-45 47-65 66-71 72-77 78-83 84-91

In the chart above, “A” refers to fast sections, marked either prestissimo or

allegro in the score and “B” refers to the contrasting slower sections, marked cantabile in

the score.

The prestissimo section consists of four subsections. Each of these sections is

used to create the four returns of the A section (A’, A’’, A’’’, and the coda A’’’’). The

first subsection is from mm. 1 to 7 and is based on alternating tonic and dominant

harmonies. In the second subsection (mm.8-13) Soler introduces descending thirds in the

inner line of the right hand and parallel octaves in the left hand. In this subsection, Soler

also uses alternations of the harmonic and natural minor scales within one measure.

Example 19. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, mm. 12-13.

This coloristic use of two forms of the minor scale in conjunction with the guitar-

like texture of the section, and the soprano pedal point, create a Spanish flavor. The third

66

subsection, a modulatory bridge, is from mm. 14 to 18. It starts on the dominant of G

minor and modulates to C major. This modulation is achieved by following the fourth

rule of Soler’s “Quick Modulations”, stepwise motion between the moving lines. Soler

relies on secondary dominants, particularly, on a pivot ‘chord’, (the second beat of m.15)

to modulate from the key of G minor, through the key of F Major, and finally to the key

of C major.

Example 20. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, mm. 14-17.

The fourth subsection (mm. 18-23) comprises of two transpositions of the first

three measures of the second subsection (m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11.) The material

from m. 18 to the downbeat of m. 21, in the key of C major, is an exact transposition

(down a perfect fifth) of the material from m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11. The material

from m. 21 to the downbeat of m. 24, in the key of F major, is also a transposition of the

material from m. 8 to the downbeat of m. 11, but Soler changes the left hand part by

incorporating the textural pattern of the left hand part of m. 11 to the downbeat of m. 13.

The harmonic function of the two transpositions is the same as that of the original

material in mm. 8-11: IV-I-ii-I.

Soler uses the F pedals in the soprano and alto voices in mm. 21-23 to introduce

the first cantabile B Section (mm. 24-29) which is a long F dominant prolongation in the

key of B♭Major. This modulation is achieved by following the first and second rules of

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Soler’s “Quick Modulations”: the use of a common note or a chord between the two keys,

and the arrival at the dominant of the new key.

In the A’ section, (mm. 30-35) Soler uses the material of the fourth subsection

(mm.18-23). In the A’’ section, (mm. 47-65), Soler develops and extends the material of

the third subsection (mm. 14-17) by augmentation of its descending sequence of

secondary dominants. The following chart demonstrates the scheme of the modulation

and the augmentation of the sequence in the third subsection of the A section and the A’’

section of the sonata:

Table 9. Scheme of modulation and augmentation of the sequence:

Measure 14

Beat 1+

Measure 14

beat 2

Measure 14

beat 2+

Measure 15

beat 1

Measure 15

beat 1+

Measure 15

beat 2

Measure 47 Measure 48 Measure 49 Measure 50 Measure 51 Measure 52

G7 C F7 B ♭ E ♭ a0

(diminished)

Soler closes the A’’ section (mm. 60-65) with a nearly exact repetition of the

second subsection of the A section (mm. 8-13). The following A’’’ section (mm.72-77) is

also based on the second subsection. The coda (mm.84-91), section A ‘’’’, is in the main

key of the sonata, G minor. Soler uses the same melodic pattern as the opening of the

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sonata: two turn figures around the pitch G followed by three alternations of pitches G

and F ♯. However, in the coda Soler re-harmonizes the turn figures; the tonic and

dominant harmonies of the opening of the piece are replaced by a progression which

includes a subdominant-functioning chord: i-ii dim.-i 6/4-V. After four measures of

alternating between tonic and dominant chords, the sonata finishes with a unison G

without specifying the mode.

The first two appearances of the cantabile sections (mm. 24-29 and 36-41) are

identical in their musical material. These sections are in the key of B♭major, but the

tonic chord appears only close to the end of the sections, on the second beats of mm. 27

and 39. The B sections end harmonically unresolved on a dominant F7 chord. At the

end of the first B section (m. 29), the dominant F7 chord is reinterpreted as the tonic in

the following Allegro sections.

The first phrase of the Cadenza C section (mm42-43) begins in the key of B♭

major. However, our visit to the key is short-lived because Soler tonicizes F major in m.

43. The second phrase of the cadenza starts in C major (m. 44), which in measure 45

moves to a D dominant seventh chord of G major. The first ‘chord’ of the second phrase

(m44) acts also as a pivot chord since not only is it the dominant of F major, but it is also

the subdominant of G Major. Hence, through this pivot chord the modulation takes the

key of the section from F major to G major (the parallel major of the main key) where the

following Allegro section begins. This key is prepared by the modulation mentioned

above and is also anticipated by the use of the note B♮ (the second beat of m. 46.) The

following chart expresses the sequential relationships in mm. 42-46.

69

Table 10.Sequential Relationship:

Harmonies B♭Major-C Dominant-F Major C Major- D-Dominant- G Major

Measure numbers 42-43 44-46

The third and fourth B sections (mm. 66-71 and 78-83) are also identical in their

musical material, and both are on the dominant of the main key of G Minor. In these

sections Soler uses all three variants of the minor scale. He uses the ascending melodic

minor scale in mm. 68 and 80 raised VI and VII scale degrees: B♭, C♯, E♮). He uses the

harmonic and natural minor scales within one measure, which adds to the Spanish feel.

Example 21. Sonata M.21 in G Minor, m. 66-71.

70

Tempo and Meter Indications

The indication of meter and tempo markings of this sonata is of great interest

since this sonata introduces changes in both the tempo and meter between the sections,

which is quite rare for the period. The change of the meter from allabreve (2/4) to 6/8

creates an impression of naturally slowing down. This can be explained by the binary

division of the allabreve and the ternary division of the 6/8. Curiously, the original

tempo indication prestissimo in the opening material of the sonata is replaced with the

allegro in all of the returns of the A section. This case raises the question of whether the

tempo markings found in the copies of this sonata were given by Soler or whether they

were later added by a copyist. Whether this change of the tempo was a copyist’s mistake

or Soler indeed wanted the performer to play the first time faster than the following of the

times cannot be proven and remains one of the artistic decisions for the performer to

make. Since the material of the subsequent A sections is derived from the opening A

section, I choose to play all the A sections in about the same tempo.

To further enhance the contrast between the A and B sections, the cantabile

sections and especially the cadenza ad libidum, should be performed in tempo rubato and

in a recitative style as opposed to the more driving rhythmic style appropriate for the

prestissimo/allegro sections.

The meter is not only important to create contrast but it is also vital for phrasing

within each section. I believe that Soler’s irregular phrase lengths help to create an

interesting large-scale rhythmic connection between the contrasting allabreve and

cantabile sections. The lengths of the phrases in the A sections vary from two measures

to three and four measures. Thus, the grouping of measures into larger hyper-measures

gives the impression of switching back and forth between duple and triple meters. In

order to clarify this concept the phrases will be divided as follows: the first two phrases

consisting of two measures each and the following three phrases consisting of three

measures each. The bridge section of the A (mm. 14-17) makes a phrase of four

71

measures followed by two separate phrases of three measures each. If every group of

four eighth-notes is considered as one grouping, they can be numbered in regards to their

amount found in every phrase. Hence, the first two phrases will have four beats (four

groupings) while the following three phrases will have six beats/groupings each. The

chart below demonstrates the hypermetrical scheme of this section:

Table 11. Hypermetrical Scheme:

cut

time Measure 21 Measure 22

Measure 23

6

8

Measure 24

This irregular phrasing, so common in Soler’s sonatas, creates a metrical

instability. However, in this sonata the metrical instability contributes to continuity of

the work as a whole. For example, if we consider the last phrase of the A section (mm.

21-23) as one large measure in 6/2, the transition to the 6/8 meter of the cantabile will be

smoothened, contributing to a more seamless change in tempo between the two

contrasting sections.

72

Spanish Characteristics and Performance Suggestions

The Spanish influences in this particular sonata are reflected throughout. There

are two main aspects of Spanish Flamenco music that are translated into the sonata: the

transfer of the guitar idioms into the piano writing and the vocal flamenco style. The first

section represents the guitar plucking of the toque Flamenco style,108 whereas the

cantabile section is a sung melody in the cante Flamenco style.109 The short trills on the

sixteenth notes and the ascending four-note embellishments enhance the expressivity of

the latter style. The contrast between the toque and cante styles can be increased by the

use of different articulation and dynamics. The first section can be performed with a

more percussive and brighter quality in order to imitate the sound of the solo guitar,

which needs to be heard over the castanets and the tapping of the nailed shoes of the

dancers. The second section can have more legato and dolce espressivo quality that

would imitate the voice of a singer and the softer guitar accompaniment.

Along with the strong Spanish character of the piece, the influence of Italian

music and especially of Italian opera as well as instrumental works by Viennese classical

composers can be heard in this sonata. Particularly the cadenza section of the sonata is a

salient example of the eighteenth-century operatic cadenza that usually showcased the

technical capacities and the virtuosity of the performer. This type of cadenza was also

inserted into the concertos and sometimes sonatas of the more mature classical style to

display the virtuosity of the soloist. In this sonata Soler is slightly ahead of his time in

incorporating operatic cadenzas into his keyboard sonatas. Hence, if we go back to

Ceballos’s idea of composers creating their patrons’ musical portraits discussed in

Chapter One, then we can surely say that Soler, with such hybridism of his style in the

108 Solo sections performed on the Flamenco guitar accompanied by castanets and dancing.

109 Lyrical and expressive song accompanied by dancing and guitar playing, the heart of the Flamenco style.

73

sonatas represents the open character and various interests of his young prince, as well as

the new multiculturalism of his country.

74

CONCLUSION

The interpretation of a musical composition reflects the performer’s sentiments,

knowledge and musical ideas. The argument for a stylistically authentic performance is

even more diverse in regards to early music, since there are no recordings of the

composers or performers playing the works of the time.110 Accordingly, it is almost

impossible for a performer to have a definitive view on the performance practice of the

sonatas as executed by Soler himself. As discussed earlier, some scholars believe that the

performer of Iberian music should avoid using additional ornaments, yet others believe

the contrary. Some pianists state that Baroque music should be played without pedal,

while some state the opposite. Although in this essay I am providing a performance

guide to Soler’s keyboard sonatas on a modern piano, I would like to recall Alicia De

Larrocha’s quote introduced earlier in the essay: “. . . . it is not possible to play pieces of

this era in any one way.”111

However, an examination of the environment in which Soler lived and composed,

a study of the eighteenth-century keyboard traditions, an exploration of the Spanish

culture that influenced Soler’s compositional writing, as well as listening to various

interpretations of those sonatas performed on different instruments will be helpful for the

performers to make their own musical choices. Furthermore, I believe that in the

particular case of interpreting the keyboard sonatas of Soler, consideration of Spanish

110 Saint-Saens was the first major pianist to record. Schonberg, Harold C, The Great Pianists. Revised

and Updated Edition, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987. 15. 111 Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia deLarocha Recording. Clavier, no. 1 (1971):

10:23-8.

75

dances and guitar techniques is often inspiring and sometimes critical to an informed

interpretation.

76

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Dissertation, Washington University, Saint Louis, 1971. Donington, Robert. Baroque Music: Style and Performance: A Handbook. 1st American

Ed. New York: Norton, 1982. Elder, Dean. A Music Lesson on a Soler Sonata: Alicia deLarocha Recording. Clavier,

no. 1 (1971): 10:23-8. Esses, Maurice. Dance and Instrumental “Diferencias”in Spain During the 17th and

Early 18th Centuries. PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986. Fisk, Eliot, A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review 55 (1983): 9-14. ________. A Fresh Look at Padre Soler. The Guitar Review 56 (1984): 8-13. Freedman, Frederick. Antonio Soler: A 250th Anniversary. Review Article, Inter-

American Music Review (1979): 2:45-57. Gross Ceballos, Sara. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth

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of North Carolina press, 1966. _______. The Sonata in the Classic Era. Second ed. Chapel Hill: University of North

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Diputación Provincial de Cuenca, c.198, Cuenca, Spain: Sadie, Julie Ann, ed. Companion to Baroque Music. Forwarded by Hogwood,

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Performance guide to three keyboard sonatas of Antonio Soler

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