Perception and Learning

Organizational Behavior11th Edition

Chapter 3—Perceptions and Attributions

Don Hellriegel and John W. Slocum, Jr.

Prepared by

Argie ButlerTexas A&M University

PowerPoint Presentation to accompany

Chapter 3: PowerPoint 3.1

Learning Objectives for UnderstandingPerceptions and Attributions

Describe the major elements in the perceptual process

Identify the main factors that influence what individuals perceive

Identify the factors that determine how one person perceives another

Describe the primary errors in perception that people make

Explain how attributions influence behavior


The Perceptual Process (Figure 3.1)

Observation

Perceptual Selection

Perceptual Organization

Interpretation

Response

Objects in the person’s environment


External and Internal Factorsin Person Perception

External factors Characteristics of the person

being perceived Implicit personality theory

Internal factor Characteristics of the perceiver


External Factors inSelective Screening

SelectiveScreening

SizeIntensity

Contrast

Motion

Repetition

Novelty and familiarity


SelectiveScreening

Personality

LearningMotivation

Internal Factors inSelective Screening

Pollyanna principle Perceptual

set


Impression Management Tactics(Table 3.2)

Behavioral matching

Self-promotion

Conforming to norms

Flattering others

Being consistent


Common Perceptual Errors

PerceptualErrors

Perceptualdefense

StereotypingHalo effect

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Pygmalion effect

Projection

Role of culture

Accuracy ofjudgment


Manager’s behavior toward strong performers:

Manager’s behavior toward weak performers:

Subordinate participation in decision making

Mistakes viewed as learning opportunities

Subordinates given challenging tasks

Supervisor closely monitors behavior of subordinate

Mistakes are highlighted to subordinates

Subordinates given routine tasks

Examples of Attributions Based on Differing Perceptions of Performance

(Table 3.3)


The Attribution Process (Figure 3.4)

Perceived external or internal causes of behavior

Information Beliefs Motivation

Behavior Feelings Expectations

Antecedents– factors internal to the perceiver

Attributions made by the perceiver

Consequences for the perceiver


Guidelines for Dealing with theAttribution Implications of Being Fired

Work through the firing psychologically

Figure out what went wrong

Work with the former employer to develop an exit statement

Avoid negative attributions as part of the explanation for the firing

PowerPoint Presentation to accompany

Organizational Behavior11th Edition

Don Hellriegel and John W. Slocum, Jr.

Chapter 4—Learning and Reinforcement

Prepared by

Argie ButlerTexas A&M University


Learning Objectives for FosteringLearning and Reinforcement

Explain the role of classical and operant conditioning in fostering learning

Describe the contingencies of reinforcement that influence behavior

List the four schedules of reinforcementand explain when each is effective

Describe how social learning theoryexplains the development of behaviors


Classical Conditioning (Figure 4.1)

Unconditionedstimulus(food)

Conditionedstimulus(metronome)

Reflexresponse(salivation)


Examples of Operant Behaviorsand Their Consequences (Table 4.1)

BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES

The Individual works and

is late to work and

enters a restaurant and

enters a football stadium and

enters a grocery store and

is paid.

is docked pay.

eats.

watches a football game.

buys food.


Example of Contingent Reinforcement(Figure 4.2)

Manager andemployeeset goal

Doesemployee

achieve goal?

Manager is silentor reprimands

employee

Manager complimentsemployee for

accomplishments

Antecedent(precedes the

behavior

EmployeeTask

Behavior

Consequences(result of the

behavior)

ReinforcementContingent

on Consequences

NO

YES


Types of Contingenciesof Reinforcement (Figure 4.3)

Positivereinforcement

Omission

PunishmentNegative

reinforcement

PleasantEvent

UnpleasantEvent

Event is Added Event is Removed


Principles of Positive Reinforcement

Contingent reinforcement—only reinforcedesired behavior

Immediate reinforcement—reinforceimmediately after desired behavior occurs

Reinforcement size—a larger amount ofreinforcement has a greater effect

Reinforcement deprivation—deprivationincreases effect on future behavior


Rewards Used by Organizations(Table 4.2)

MATERIAL REWARDS

Pay

Pay raises

Stock options

Profit sharing

Deferred compensation

Bonuses/bonus plans

Incentive plans

Expense accounts

SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS

Company automobiles

Health insurance plans

Pension contributions

Vacation and sick leave

Recreation facilities

Child-care support

Club privileges

Parental leave

STATUS SYMBOLS

Corner offices

Offices with windows

Carpeting

Drapes

Paintings

Watches

Rings

Private restrooms


Rewards Used by Organizations(Table 4.2) (continued)

SOCIAL/INTER-PERSONAL REWARDS

Praise

Developmental feedback

Smiles, pats on the back, other nonverbal signals

Requests for suggestions

Invitations to coffee/ lunchWall plaques

REWARDS FROMTHE TASK

Sense of achievement

Jobs with more responsibility

Job autonomy/self-direction

Performing important tasks

SELF-ADMINISTEREDREWARDS

Self-congratulation

Self-recognition

Self-praise

Self-development through expanded knowledge/skills

Greater sense of self- worth


Short-termdecrease infrequency

ofundesirableemployeebehavior

Potential Negative Effects of Punishment(Figure 4.4)

Recurrenceof undesirable

employee behavior

Undesirableemotional reaction

Aggressive,disruptivebehavior

Apathetic,noncreativeperformance

Fear ofmanager

High turnoverand absenteeism

Butleads tolong-term

AntecedentUndesirableemployeebehavior

Punishmentby

manager

Which tendsto reinforce


Praise in public, punish in private

Pinpoint and specifically describe the undesirable behavior to be avoided

Develop alternative desired behavior

Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events


Make employees aware of the behaviors to be reinforced

Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions

Do not punish in front of others

Do not reward all employees the same

Let employees know what they are doing wrong

Make the managerial response equal to workers’ behavior


Symbolizing

Forethought

VicariouslearningSelf-control

Self-efficacy

Sociallearning


Self-Efficacy at Work

PastAccomplishments

Performanceof Others

EmotionalState

Set goals Preserve/practice Creatively solve

problems Visualize success Learn from failure

Avoid difficult tasks Think of excuses

for failing Develop low aspirations Quit Blame setbacks on

lack of ability or luck

HIGH

LOW

“I know I can dothe job and have outstanding quality”

“I don’t think I can do the job on time and have outstanding quality”

Self-efficacy


Guidelines for UsingSocial Learning Theory

Identify behaviors that lead to improved performance

Select the appropriate model for employees to observe

Make sure that employees have the competencies required by the new behaviors

Structure a positive learning situation

Provide positive consequences

Develop organizational practices that maintain newly learned behaviors


Conditions for Effective Useof Self-Control

The person must be able to:

Engage in behaviors that s/he wouldn’t normally want to perform

Use self-reinforcers

Set goals that determine when self-reinforcers are to be applied

Perception and Learning

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