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![Page 1: Pediatric Procedural Sedation in the Emergency Department 15 years later...... Are we there yet? Bo Kennedy, MD Pediatric Emergency Medicine.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062308/56649e565503460f94b4dc01/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Pediatric Procedural Sedation in the Emergency
Department
15 years later...... Are we there yet?
Bo Kennedy, MDPediatric Emergency Medicine
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Urgent Painful Procedures in ED
• Fracture reductionFracture reduction
• Burn debriedmentBurn debriedment
• Abscess drainageAbscess drainage
• Laceration repairLaceration repair
• I.V. placement, I.V. placement, venipuncturevenipuncture
• Lumbar punctureLumbar puncture
• NG tube placementNG tube placement
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15 years ago....
Kids were half as likely as adults to receive pain medications in the ED for painful conditions....
(fractures, burns, SS pain crises)
– 30% kids vs 60% adults got pain meds» Steve Selbst, Ann Emerg Med, 1990
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15 years ago.... Undertreatment
Why?
1. Kids thought not to feel or remember pain
2. Kids expected to cry
3. Fear of adverse effects of opioids
4. Lack of training
5. Lack of consensus on meds, monitoring» Selbst, Drug Safety, 1992
» Schechter, Berde, Yaster, 1993
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What we now know:
1. Kids thought not to feel pain
Infants have less maturation of their descending inhibitory pain pathways therefore they may actually experience pain more intensely compared to older children when exposed to the same stimulus.
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What we now know:
1. Infants’ Memory for Procedural Pain
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Baseline Vaccination
Circumcised
Uncircumcised
• Distress in 87 infants during vaccination 4 to 6 months after circumcision vs. no circumcision
020406080
100120140160180200
Baseline Vaccination
Cry Duration Facial Action Score
Tadio, Lancet, 1997
seco
nds
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What we now know:
1. Kids’ Memory for Procedural Pain
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Originalstudy
1 2 3 4
Placebo
Oral Fentanyl
Me a
n O
u ch e
r S
core
s• Children < 8 yrs with cancer
• L.P., bone marrow asp.
• self-report pain
Weisman, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 1998
For ensuing procedures, all received oral fentanyl
Original study
Ensuing LPs and BMAs
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1. Next steps....Impact of Memory?
Evaluation of Long term effects
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Conscious vs subconscious memory
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What we now know:
2. Kids Are Expected to Cry
Difficulty in distinguishing pain from anxiety
No objective measures of pain
Parents and Healthcare Providers tend to underestimate children’s procedure related pain.
Schneider, CHC, 1992
“It hurts if I say it hurts!” David Kennedy, 5 yr old, while backpacking
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2. Measures of Pain and AnxietyValidated Measures of Pain / Anxiety used for ED studies
When the patient is able to verbalize (self-report) Visual Analog Scales for Pain or Anxiety (5+ yrs of age) Oucher Score (Beyer, 3+ yrs)FACES scales (Bieri, 5+ years of age)
When the patient is too young or sedated to verbalize Measures of distress
OSBD-r information seeking verbal pain cry
(Jay, 1983) emotional support restraint flailverbal resistance scream
PBCL muscle tension pain verbalized cry (LeBaron, 1984) restraint used anxiety verbalized scream
verbal stalling physical resistance
CHEOPS Facial expression Torso position Cry (McGrath, 1985) Verbal expression Leg positionTouching wound
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2. Measures of Pain and Anxiety
Needed
Practical measures developed and validated in ED for bedside assessment of pain or distress in verbal, pre-verbal, and sedated children.
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3. Fear of Adverse Effects
Sedation Related Disasters Related to:
Sedations in non-hospital settings, w/o resuscitation equipment or trained personnel
Lack of use of pulse oximetry
Use of 3 or more sedating medications
Home administration of sedation meds or discharge before sufficient recovery
» Cote, Pediatrics, 2000
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3. Frequency of Adverse Effects
Review of 1,022 ED procedural sedations with ketamine • No clinical evidence of pulmonary aspiration
Green, Ann Emerg Med, 1998
Review of 1,180 procedural sedations in pediatric ED• 2.3% experienced adverse events
O2 sats < 90% requiring intervention Emesis
Paradoxical reactions Apnea
Laryngospasm Bradycardia
Pena, Ann Emerg Med, 1999
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3. Frequency of Adverse Effects
• 260 children
• ASA-PS I, II • Displaced
fractures
• Randomized to F/M or K/M
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Hypoxia AirwayManeuver
BreathingCues
Oxygen Vomiting Dysphoria
F/M K/M
%
Kennedy, Ped, 1998
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3. Adverse Event Timing
1,367 procedural sedations
Adverse Event: (% total) Potential life-threats:
hypoxia (84%)stridor (2%)hypotension (1%)
Other:Emesis (6%)Agitation (3%)Rash (3%)
Regimens
F/M: 108 / 660 (16%)K/M: 31 / 326 (10%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
-120-110-100-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
F/M
K/M
Minutes from final PSA medications
Num
ber
Newman, Ann Emerg Med, 2003
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3. Adverse Effects / Events…Next?Needed Uniform definitions, e.g.,
– Hypoxia (< __% O2 sat. on Rm Air x __ seconds)
– Hypercarbia (> __ rise in mm CO2 x __ seconds)
– Bradycardia
– Hypotension
– Airway maneuvers
Frequency/Type for specific clinical scenarios – Procedure type
– Patient type
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4. Lack of Training Development of Pediatric Emergency
Medicine
Incorporation of sedation training in EM
programs
Training guided by Procedural
Sedation/Analgesia research
Next.....Uniform training standards?
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4. Effect of Training
Survey: Would you sedate for reduction of a 40 angulated radius fracture in a 3 or 8 year old?
Yes 57% general EDs100% children’s hospital EDs
Krauss, Ped Emerg Care, 1998
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5. Lack of Consensus ...monitoring
Monitoring Guidelines
AAP, 1989, 1992, 2002ASA, 1996, 2002 ACEP, 1998JCAHO, 2002
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5. Consensus: Goals of Sedation
• Patient safety and welfare
• Minimize pain
• Minimize negative psychological response
• Maximize amnesia
• Behavior control
AAP Committee on Drugs, 1992
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5. Consensus Guidelines
Definitions1. Minimal
2. Moderate
3. Deep
4. General Anesthesia
AAP, ASA, JCAHO, 2002
– Dissociative sedation ? (Ketamine)
Conscious sedation
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5. Consensus Guidelines
Monitoring (Deep Sedation)1. Dedicated observer of pt’s
cardiopulmonary function
2. Pulse oximetry
3. HR, ECG AAP, ASA, JCAHO, 2002
Next ?– End-tidal CO2
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5. Consensus GuidelinesNeeded
Standardization of stimulus or means to objectively determine depth of sedation, including when patient stimulation is undesirable, e.g., MRI scan.
• BIS ?• Standardized stimulus, command ?
Development of means to assess reactivity of protective airway reflexes
• different agents • different depths of sedation
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5. Consensus Guidelines....NPO? Currently recommended fasting periods for
elective sedations are based more upon long-standing practice than careful study.
ASA Taskforce, Pre-op Fasting, Anesthesiology 1999
ASA/AAP NPO Guidelines for Elective SedationAge Time
Clear Liquids All Ages 2 hours
Breast milk Newborn - 6 months 4 hours
Infant formula All Ages 6 hours
Solids (light meal) > 6 Months 6 hours
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5. Consensus Guidelines....NPO?
Many sedations performed in the ED do not meet elective NPO recommendations, especially for solids.
– e.g., 56% of 905 sedated children in Boston Children’s ED did not meet fasting guidelines for elective sedations.
» Agrawal, Ann Emerg Med, 2003
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5. NPO......... Does it matter? Painful injuries and narcotic pain medications may
delay gastric emptying.
Correlation of fasting time with emesis is unclear in children sedated for urgent procedures.
(905 patients)Fasting time (hours)
Solids Clear Liquids
No emesis 6.8 6.0
Emesis 6.8 5.8 Agrawal, Ann Emerg Med, 2003
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Pulmonary Aspiration in Children with General Anesthesia
63,180 cases - 24 with aspiration (Mayo Clinic) 1 / 373 in emergency cases
• 1 / 4,544 in elective cases
• 9 / 24 who aspirated developed respiratory symptomsWarner, Anesth, 1999
50,880 cases – 52 with aspiration (CHIP)• 21 / 52 active vomiting during induction
• 15 / 52 required intervention Risk doubled if emergency case
Borland, J Clin Anesth, 1998
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3&5. Risk of Pulmonary Aspiration and other Adverse Events?
Needed
Large collaborative data bases (50-100,000+ cases) in which adverse events can be tracked to help elucidate the overall risks of adverse sedation event.
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5. Lack of Consensus ...
Medications
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5. 15 years later.... D.P.T. Prospective study of 63 children• mean age 3.6 years
• 29% were only mildly sedated
• Mean times to:– deepest sedation 45 minutes– discharge 4.7 hours– eating/drinking 11 + 8 hours– “ normal ” 19 + 15 hours
Terndrup, Ann Emerg Med, 1991
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5. D.P.T.
• Not easily titrated
• Delayed onset of action
• Protracted sedation
• No anxiolysis or amnesia
• High rate of therapeutic failure
• High rate of serious adverse effects
• Alternative sedatives/analgesics should be considered
AAP Committee on Drugs, 1995
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5. 15 years later....Consensus...meds
Medication Regimens
Opioids
Ketamine
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Midazolam (0.11-0.15 mg/kg)*
Fentanyl (1.6 ± .66 mcg)*
Glycopyrollate
Fentanyl / Midazolam vs. Ketamine / Midazolam
260 children, 5-15 years of age, ASA-PS I or II
Displaced fractureRandomized
* Mean 1st reduction dose, titrated to effect
Kennedy, Peds, 1998
Ketamine (1.1 ±.52 mg/kg)*
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5. F/M vs K/M: Results
0
20
40
60
80
100
Deep Sedation CompleteAmnesia
Successful First Attempt
F/M
K/M
%
Kennedy, Peds,. 1998
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5. F/M vs K/M: Effectiveness
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Pre-sedation Procedure Discharge
F/M
K/M
P< .0001
OSBD-R
(distress)
Kennedy, Peds,. 1998
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F/M vs K/M : Adverse Events
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Hypoxia AirwayManeuver
BreathingCues
Oxygen Vomiting Dysphoria
F/M
K/M
%
P= .001
P= .001
P= .04
Kennedy, Peds,. 1998
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Ketamine and Midazolam 266 children undergoing PSA in ED
Ketamine (1 mg/kg) +
PlaceboKetamine (1 mg/kg) + Midazolam (0.1 mg/kg)
Wathen, Ann Emerg Med, 2000
in single syringe
Randomized
Distress (OSBD-r)
O2 sat <90
(%)
Vomiting
(%)
Sedation
Time* (min)
Significant
Emergence (%)
Ketamine <1 1.6 19 78 7
Ket / Midaz <1 7.3 10 75 6 Agitation in > 10 yr olds: 36% w/ Midazolam vs. 6% w/ Placebo
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Next...Ketamine & Schizophrenia?
Olney, J, Science, 1991
Newcomer JW, Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999
NMDA-glutamate receptor hypofunction model of schizophrenia
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Next...Ketamine & Schizophrenia?
Newcomer JW, Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999
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Next...Ketamine & Schizophrenia?
Newcomer JW, Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999
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Next...Ketamine & Schizophrenia?
Newcomer JW, Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999
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5. Next...Ketamine & 2- Adrenergic Agonists?
40 young adults undergoing elective superficial surgery
Midazolam (0.07 mg/kg IM)
Dexmedetomidine (2.5 mcg/kg IM)
Ketamine anesthesia
Levanen, J, Anesthesiology, 1995
Recovery: Hallucinations, Confusion
Unrealistic Dreams, Nightmares
Midazolam 55 %
Dexmedetomidine 5 %
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5. Next steps......KetamineNeeded
– Use of validated measures of psychotomimetic effects
– Further evaluation of modulation of dysphoria by adjunctive GABA, alpha adrenergic agents (midazolam, dexmedetomidine, barbiturates)
– Avoidance of use in patients of families with history of psychosis?
– Variance across puberty?
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15 years later....
Medication Regimens
N2O
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N20 vs Midazolam: Suturing
Standard Care (L.E.T. + comforting)
50% N2O Oral Midazolam
N2O + Midazolam
204 children, 2-6 yrs old with facial lacerations
Luhmann, Ann Emerg Med, Jan 2001
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N2O SELF-ADMINISTRATION by a 3 yr old
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N20 vs Midazolam: Suturing
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
SC M N MN SC M N MN SC M N MN
OS
BD
-R(d
istr
ess)
Luhmann, Ann Emerg Med, 2001
p=.0002
p=.003
Injection Cleaning Suturing
% Adverse Effects
Ataxia Vomiting
Std. Care 0 0
Midazolam 24 0
N2O 2 10
Midazolam + N2O
28 2
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K/M vs N2O/HB
Enrollment
Oxycodone (0.2mg/kg)
Midazolam (2mg)
andKetamine (1 mg/kg)
Nitrous Oxide (50%)
& Hematoma Block (2.5 mg/kg 1% lidocaine)
Radiographs
102 children, 5-15 yrs, mid to distal forearm fractures
Luhmann, APA, SAEM 2004
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K/M vs N2O/HB Efficacy: PBCL Scores
10
11
12
13
14
15
Baseline FractureReduction
Recovery
KetamineNitrous Oxide
PBCL Score ( mean) p = 0.3
p = 0.2
p = 0.4
PBCL muscle tension pain verbalized cry restraint used anxiety verbalized scream verbal stalling physical resistance
Recovery time: K / M = 83 32 min N2O/HB = 16 10 min
(p< 0.0001)
Luhmann, APA, SAEM 2004
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15 years later....
Medication Regimens:
Pentobarbital
• Long track record of safety and efficacy• However, prolonged recovery and dysphoria • New ultra-fast CT scans dramatically reduce
need for sedation
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15 years later....
Medication Regimens:
Propofol
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Propofol Sedative anesthetic with no analgesic but some
anti-emetic and amnestic effects.
– Used for painless diagnostic procedures,
e.g., MRI or CT scans.
– For painful procedures, frequently combined with an opioid, e.g., fentanyl, morphine
– Rapid and gentle recovery makes it an attractive agent for brief procedures.
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Propofol For I.V. induction of general anesthesia:
1-3 mg/kg then continuous infusion of 75-300 mcg/kg/min.
For I.V. induction of deep sedation:1-2 mg/kg, repeated prn and/or continuous
infusion of 60-100 mcg/kg/min.
• Rapid onset: 0.5-1 minute, • Short duration of sedation: 5-10 minutes• Elimination half-life: 6-7 hours
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Propofol 89 ASA I and II fasted children 2-18 years old Undergoing fracture reduction
Propofol (1 mg/kg/2 min) +67-100 mcg/kg/min*
Midazolam (0.16 mg/kg)
Morphine (0.24 mg/kg)
* Additional 1 mg/kg bolus in 81%
Results Ramsey (mean)
Amnesia (%)
Recovery (min)
Hypoxemia (%)(< 93% on RA)
Midazolam 4/6 91 76 11.6
Propofol 5/6 80 15 10.9
Havel, Acad Emerg Med, 1999
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Propofol 113 children ASA-PS Class I or II, 3-18 years
old, undergoing fracture reduction
Propofol0.5-1 mg/kg (mean 4.6 mg/kg) +
Fentanyl 1-2 mcg/kg (mean 1.2 mcg/kg)
Ketamine 1-2 mg/kg (mean 2 mg/kg) +
Midazolam (0.05 mg/kg, max 2 mg)
Results OSBD-r
(mean)
Recovery time (mean) (min)
Hypoxia (%<90%)
Emesis
Propofol / Fentanyl 0.278 21 31 0
Midazolam / Ketamine 0.084 54 7 2
Godambe, Peds, 2003
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Propofol 393 sedations in children, ASA-PS I/II,
94% with fractures
• Fasted minimum of 3 hrs• Pre-emptive oxygenation• 3-member sedation team, in addition to
procedure team:1. Emergency physician2. RN documenter3. ED technician to assist with airway mgt
Bassett, Ann Emerg Med, 2003
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PropofolMedication protocol
• Morphine 0.1mg/kg if initially in pain, 11% of pts, mean dose 0.08
• Fentanyl 1-2 mcg/kg prior to procedure 72% of pts, mean dose 1.2 mcg/kg
• Propofol 1 mg/kg+ 0.5 mg/kg prn mean dose 2.7 mg/kg
92% with hypotension, usually transient 5% with hypoxia (< 90% sat), despite supplemental O2
– Duration 1-3 minutes
Capnography not measured No measure of procedure-related distress
Bassett, Ann Emerg Med, 2003
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Propofol for ED PSA
Concerns• Difficult to titrate to desired sedation endpoints
without overshooting to apnea and hypotension.
• Loss of protective airway reflexes during apneic periods likely places patients at increased risk of pulmonary aspiration, especially if positive pressure ventilation administered. Gastric insufflation likely induces passive regurgitation.
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Propofol for ED PSAConcerns (cont.)
• Patients must be carefully screened for “full stomachs” and difficult airways.
• Propofol should only be used by providers with in-depth knowledge of its adverse effects and skilled in airway assessments and positive pressure ventilation.
• When propofol is administered, an experienced provider must be dedicated to administering the sedation and managing the airway and cardiorespiratory status of the patient and not involved with the procedure being performed.
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Propofol for ED PSANeeded
Large, thorough studies of patientsundergoing procedural sedation with propofol in the ED to better clarify:
1. Risks of adverse events,
1. Effectiveness of distress reduction, amnesia, and
1. Recovery and post-recovery experiences.
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15 years later....
Medication Regimens:
Etomidate
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Etomidate• Hypnotic anesthetic- no analgesia • Little hemodynamic effect• Frequently used in the emergency setting to induce
unconsciousness during endotracheal intubation (RSI)
When using a dose of 0.2-0.3 mg/kg • Onset of sedation: 15-45 seconds• Duration of sedation: 3-12 minutes• Rapid recovery of consciousness due to redistribution• Clearance half-life of 1-3 hours Rapid administration may result in transient apnea.
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Etomidate [3 reports on non-RSI ED use] 53 children (mean age 9.7 years, range 2-17 years)
retrospective series, fracture reduction
– Mean initial dose 0.2 mg/kg (range 0.1-0.4 mg/kg)• 17% required second dose
– Morphine (mean 0.21 mg/kg) as adjunct – 83% procedural success rate
Adverse Effects / Events– No desaturation below 94% on supplemental O2
(End-tidal CO2 not measured)– No apnea, or positive pressure ventilation – No vomiting– Transient hypotension in 1 pt
Dickinson: Acad Emerg Med,2001
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Etomidate 51 sedations in 48 patients - 18 were 1-25 years old
(most children underwent fracture reduction) • prospective feasibility study of adverse events
– Dose 0.1 mg/kg, repeated in 60%– Morphine or Fentanyl as adjuncts– “Adequate” sedation in 98%, Procedural success in 94%– Amnesia in 69%
Adverse Effects / Events– Face mask O2 needed in 10% (max desaturation 31%)– Bradycardia for < 30 seconds in 1 pt– Mean drop in B.P. 12 mm (max. 48 mm in 6 yr old)– Myoclonus in 8% – vomiting in 2% Ruth: Acad Emerg Med, 2001
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Etomidate 150 procedures, 15 in patients 6 to 17 years of age
• retrospective, observational
– Mean initial dose 0.2 mg/kg, 2nd dose in 9%
– Adjunctive meds (opiates, benzodiazepines) in 23%
– Sedation (Aldrete Recovery Score)• Moderate 32%, • Deep 68%
Adverse Effects / Events– O2 desaturation in 5 adults-- 4 received BVM (3%)– Emesis in 2 (1.3%)
Vinson, Ann Emerg Med. 2002
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Etomidate 101 patients < 19 yrs old, undergoing oncological
procedures• Retrospective chart review
– Etomidate 0.3 mg/kg
– Fentanyl 1 mcg/kg as adjunct
Adverse events/effects– Myoclonus in 18% – Vomiting in 10%, – Agitation in 4%– Hypoxemia in 2%.
McDowell: J Clin Anesth. 1995
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EtomidateNeeded
Prospective study of use in ED in Children • Standardized protocol
– Dose (titrated to effect?) – Analgesic adjunct – Procedure specific– Impact of myoclonus on CT scans, suturing?
Elucidation of risk of apnea, aspiration
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Next steps......• Comparative trials to determine safety and
efficacy of procedure specific sedation techniques
• Use of regional anesthesia– Fracture HB blocks
• Forearm, Ankle
– Regional Blocks• FNB
• Personalization of sedation techniques– Preferences: some don’t want to be ‘put to sleep’
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Non-pharmacological strategies: Positions of Comfort
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Next steps Building Bridges
Collaborative multidisciplinary studies– EM Physicians and Nurses
– Anesthesiologists
– Psychologists / Psychiatrists
– Pharmacists
– Child Life Specialists
SAFETY