Paul Poiret(The King of Fashion)

Introduction:

Paul Poiret, c. 1913

Paul Poiret (20 April 1879 - 30 April 1944) was a French fashion designer. His contributions to twentieth-century fashion have been likened to Picasso's contributions to twentieth-century art. And so he is also been called “the king of fashion’’.

Early life and career:

Poiret was born on April 20, 1879 in Paris. His father was a cloth merchant, and Poiret lived with his parents and his three sisters in an apartment above the shop. Poiret's parents had an interest in the arts and embellished their home with whatever art works they could afford. The family also owned a country house outside of Paris, at Billancourt, where Poiret spent his spare time constructing fountains, pressing petals from the garden, and gathering odd bits of iron and junk into what he called his antique collection.

1

When Poiret was 12, he and his family moved to Rue des Halles in Paris, where Poiret attended Ecole Massillon. When his sisters contracted scarlet fever, he was sent away to boarding school in order to avoid the illness He was only an average student and was often homesick. Poiret was already interested in fashion and found pleasure in scanning magazines and catalogs; he also enjoyed going to the theater and art exhibits. After his graduation, at the age of 18, his father sent him to an umbrella maker to learn the trade. Poiret hated the business and continued to pursue his interest in fashion by drawing and sewing designs in his spare time, using a small wooden mannequin his sisters had given him.

The Maison Doucet

Poiret's big break came when a friend encouraged him to take some of his designs to a woman named Mademoiselle Choruit, at the Maison Raundnizt Soeurs. Mme. Choruit was impressed with Poiret's work and bought 12 designs from him, encouraging him to return with more. From there, Poiret started to gain other clients and to visit other dress houses. In 1896, a designer named Doucet offered Poiret a full time job. Poiret had to take his disbelieving father to Doucet's studio in order to convince him that the offer was real.

Poiret thrived at the Maison Doucet, which was at the height of its prosperity. His first design was a red cloak; 400 copies sold and customers demanded the design in other colors. Thus Poiret's position in the designing business was secured. At Doucet's, Poiret created new designs every week, which were then exhibited by ladies at the horse races on Sundays. Poiret also designed costumes for various theatrical productions, which he enjoyed greatly.

Encouraged by Doucet, who expressed appreciation and admiration for his employee's designs, Poiret threw himself into his work. People began to recognize his name and his designs. He was encouraged to venture out into Parisian society a little more. Upon doing so, Poiret met Madame Potiphar, with whom he began a love affair. Relations with his father became tense, as Poiret developed a taste for independence. His relationship with Doucet suffered a similar strain because of some professional indiscretions. As a result, Poiret left the Maison Doucet, but was relieved to learn that his mentor did not bear a grudge. Poiret always respected Doucet and considered him to be a friend.

Moved Up in the World of Design

Two months after leaving the Maison Doucet, Poiret was recruited into the army and spent the next year in military service. He did not enjoy this time, but did manage to gain a short leave of absence during which he returned to Paris and again engaged in, as Poiret explained in his autobiography, King of Fashion: The Autobiography of Paul Poiret, "the study of what pleased me: feminine elegance."

2

After fulfillment of his military obligations, Poiret returned to Paris and accepted a position at the dressmaking firm of Maison Worth, which was run by two brothers.Gaston and Jean Worth. Here, Poiret began to design dresses for the general public, rather than the high-society ladies of Paris. The result was a reformation in fashion that freed the body from constricting forms. Poiret's new dresses were simple in design, featuring a classical-style high waist-line, tubular shape, and long skirt. The colors were plain and bold, often with very small designs, which were popular at the time.

Gaston Worth appreciated the profit Poiret's designs brought. His brother Jean, on the other hand, hated the lowering of standards he perceived Poiret was bringing upon their business. At one point Poiret presented some designs to a Russian princess, who was appalled with them. Discouraged at his inability to please such an audience, and becoming more interested in designing for the general market, Poiret left the Maison Worth.

Poiret's influence expands:

With some financial help from his mother (his father had passed away by this time), Poiret set up his own house in 1903 at No. 5, Rue Auber, in Paris, and made his name with the controversial kimono coat.. His shop was modest, but Poiret gained the attention of passers-by with elaborate and colorful window displays and threw legendary parties to draw attention to his work; his instinct for marketing and branding was unmatched by any previous designer. In 1909, he was so famous that play boy mansion H. H. Asquith invited him to show his designs at 10 Downing Street.[1] The cheapest garment at the exhibition was 30 guineas, double the annual salary of

a scullery maid. Within a month, his dress shop became popular.Model in a Poiret suit, 1914

Poiret perfected the cloak that the Russian princess had scorned and that eventually became so popular that, as he said in his autobiography, "Every woman bought at least one." He called it "Confucius," and credited it with the beginning of the Asian influence in fashion.

This was the age of the corset, and Poiret waged war upon it. He popularized the brassiere, which gave women much more freedom and comfort. At the same time, however, he also created the innovative and popular tight skirt. Neither of these inventions was initially profitable because of his dishonest bookkeeper. The bookkeeper's response to Poiret's accusations of theft was to suggest that they visit a psychic, who promptly identified him as the man who was stealing money from Poiret. Thus the bookkeeper was

3

dismissed, and Poiret was able to move on with his business in a more successful way. Eventually the shop at Rue Auber became too small to contain Poiret's growing business, and he moved into a house on Rue Pasquier. A dressmaker operating out of his home was not a common occurrence at that time, and Poiret raised many eyebrows and endured many slanderous comments because of his unusual business practices. None of the criticism, however, affected his growing reputation.

Poiret was becoming increasingly popular with the public, but was somewhat dissatisfied with his personal life. He had drifted in and out of love affairs and now longed for something more stable. He decided to begin a family and married a simple country girl whom he had known as a child. Poiret and his new wife traveled throughout Europe, learning more about the arts.

A Strong Influence

In his autobiography, Poiret stated, "People have been good enough to say that I have exercised a powerful influence over my age, and that I have inspired the whole of my generation. I dare not make the pretension that this is true … "; however, he goes on to say that what influence he did have was not in the creation of new styles or restoring of color to a woman's wardrobe, both of which he did, but rather, he says, "It was in my inspiration of artists, in my dressing of theatrical pieces, in my assimilation of and response to new needs, that I served the public of my day." Fashion design had come under the influence of photography and the high standard of artistic influence, as revealed in the fashion plates of such publications as the Journal des Dames et des Modes, had disappeared. Poiret was refreshingly innovative in his approach to design, restoring the artist as an important and creative force in fashion.

An important example of Poiret's artistic influence was in his work with Paul Iribe. With Iribe creating the drawings that pictured Poiret's dresses, they produced a publication for the elite society titled Les Robes de Paul Poiret, racontees par Paul Iribe. Poiret produced a similar album with artist Georges Lepape two years later titled Les choses de Paul Poiret vues par Georges Lepape. Both publications were tremendously successful. In these ways, Poiret helped artists gain exposure in the public eye and helped them develop their talents. Consequentially, fashion illustration and literature once again became very popular. New publications appeared, such as the monthly Gazette du Bon Ton, which featured many of Poiret's designs.

Poiret illustrations by Paul Iribe, 1908

4

Poiret also promoted the careers of several actresses, who gained recognition partly because of the costumes he designed for them. Poiret was the first costume designer to consider the lighting and the background of each scene when creating dresses for a theatrical performance. For the first time, the costume creator and the scenic artists of the theater worked together to create a visual impression that was an experience in and of itself.

Expanding Interests:

Poiret continued to promote his own career. He said in his autobiography, "I did not wait for my success to grow by itself. I worked like a demon to increase it, and everything that could stimulate it seemed good to me." One of the ways he did this was by organizing a tour of the main capitals of Europe with nine models, showing his designs. The tour, taken in two automobiles, took Poiret and the women to such cities as Berlin, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Bucharest.

Blue silk damask chemise dress by Paul Poiret 1912

Poiret's interests included painting, boating, and participating in the Mortigny Club, a group of artists and dignitaries. He also established a school of decorative art in 1912, which he named Martine and which later provided Poiret with the inspiration for his founding of the Maison Martine. His school provided young Parisian women the opportunity to learn about design. The curriculum was unstructured, and the women were allowed to create as they wished, without criticism. The school gained the attention of many artists, including Raoul Dufy. Dufy and Poiret struck up a friendship, and Poiret sponsored Dufy in his artistic endeavors. Poiret even ventured into the world of art exhibition in 1924, when he exhibited Dufy's work. The endeavor proved to be unsuccessful, and Poiret did not pursue it further.

Perfumery and Parties

By now he had established himself in the businesses of perfumery and interior decoration. In 1911, he established the company Parfums de Rosine, named for his eldest daughter. Poiret's name was never linked to the company, but it was effectively the first fragrance launched by a designer. Poiret's house expanded to encompass furniture, decor, in addition to clothing and fragrance. Poiret also began conducting business with firms in America.

5

Poiret was notorious for throwing lavish parties and plays featuring his designs. For one of his famous parties, the June 24, 1911, "The Thousand and Second Night" (based on The Arabian Nights), he required his over 300 guests to dress in Oriental costuming.[5][3] Improperly dressed guests were requested to either outfit themselves in some of Poiret's 'Persian' outfits or to leave. One party even featured a python, a monkey merchant, and a garden of wild animals. Some were based on themes, and others revolved around a performance in the "Oasis," a theater Poiret had created in his garden. These huge fetes were elaborate and well attended and covered every gamut of entertainment, from dancers and orchestras to immense buffets and hundreds of carafes filled with exotic drinks. Poiret also planned parties and balls for other people, events that were long remembered and talked about by those who attended.

Personal life:

In 1905, Poiret married Denise Boulet, a provincial girl; they would later have five children together. Denise, a slender and youthful woman, was Poiret's muse and the prototype of la garçonne. In 1913, Poiret told Vogue, "My wife is the inspiration for all my creations; she is the expression of all my ideals." The two later were divorced, in a proceeding that was far from amicable.

Aesthetic:

Though perhaps best known for freeing women from corsets and for his startling inventions including hobble skirts, "harem" pantaloons, and "lampshade" tunics, Poiret's major contribution to fashion was his development of an approach to dressmaking centered on draping, a radical departure from the tailoring and pattern-making of the past. Poiret was influenced by antique and regional dress, and favored clothing cut along straight lines and constructed of rectangles. The structural simplicity of his clothing represented a "pivotal moment in the emergence of modernism" generally, and "effectively established the paradigm of modern fashion, irrevocably changing the direction of costume history.

Model in a Poiret dress, 1914

6

Paul Poiret's Directoire Styles

Paul Poiret made straight tube like sheath dresses in 1908. The styles were known as Directoire as they were similar to fashions of the early 1800s. The columnar style he introduced meant that women had to abandon their S-bend corsets and wear a longer straighter corset that almost reached the knees to achieve his early look. Later he encouraged women to free themselves from corsetry and adopt the bra.

Poiret was very sensitive to the mood of society and to trends among painters and designers. He was very influenced by Orientalism in Leon Bakst's Ballets Russes costume designs.  

Poiret's Harem and Lampshade Look 1913

Poiret loved bright colour and introduced brilliant hues whilst the sweet pea colours of the Edwardian era were still very fashionable. He had been influenced by the Ballets Russes and in 1913 he produced exotic designs

based on oriental harem pants. His lampshade tunic and turbans were all in vibrant glowing shimmering colours, with beaded embellishment.

To complete the outfits there were exotic Eastern inspired jewelled slippers which drew together Orientalism in the outfit. Right - Orientalism in Fashion history.

Gowns inspired by the orient complete with oriental parasol and coolie lampshade inspired hat.

Fur was a symbol of Orientalism and appeared on all sorts of garments from outerwear to lingerie as an edging trim. Right -  More Orientalism in Fashion history.  Cloche hats, fur edgings on coats and long columnar dresses worn by Poiret's models.

Poiret's Hobble Skirt

Having liberated women by putting them into pants Poiret then sought to design extremes and became famous for designing a hobble skirt which drew the legs closely together as it was so narrow. To increase the hobble effect women needed to wear a 'fetter', a kind of bondage belt that held the ankles together and prevented the wearer from making any movements other than small steps in imitation of Geisha girls. 

The hobble skirt was probably Poiret's last real success as new designers like Chanel and Lanvin opened up Fashion Houses and began to design unrestrictive clothes that women really felt comfortable wearing.

7

Paul Poiret: A man of various talents

8

9

King of Fashion:

"I am not commercial. Ladies come to me for a gown as they go to a distinguished painter to get their portraits put on canvas. I am an artist not a dressmaker," Poiret declared.

André Derain's 1915 portrait of Paul Poiret, now in the Musée de Grenoble, France.

(right)Paul Poiret on September 18, 1919, freshly arrived in England with dresses (and mannequins) for the opening of the musical Afgar at the Pavilion Theatre, London.

Paul Poiret, pictured here in 1922, described himself as "an artist of many arts, and an innovator in each."

10

Poiret was a gifted painter and wrote several books. On the proof of this 1926 photograph, he could tickle the ivories as well. This picture was once in the collection of Poiret's daughter Perrine.

(right)A self-portrait from 1928.

(left)Paul Poiret, the "Parisian fashion maker, whose skill at assembling a well-fashioned gown or dress has amazed thousands of American women during his tour of the United States," fitting a garment, circa 1930.

11

12

Fierce Competitor:

Poiret sold a dozen drawings to the fashionable Madame Cheruit in 1898. He spent the money he earned on cabs so that he could finish

(right)At 19, Poiret went to work for Jacques Doucet, known as "the grand gentleman of fashion." Doucet gave his protégé the opportunity to dress two of the most famous actresses of the day: Gabrielle Réjane, and Sarah Bernhardt (who later had him fired for his unsolicited theater criticism).

Soyez Discret! A tunic dress from Doucet.

(left)After his discharge from the army, Poiret was employed by the House of Worth, known for its elaborate eveningwear. Poiret's mission there, however, was to diversify the brand with a line of casual clothes. Gaston Worth, the business manager, referred disparagingly to Poiret's division as the "Department of Fried Potatoes."

A convertible Worth evening dress, circa 1900.

13

"In dressing Madame Poiret, I strive for omission, not addition," Poiret told Vogue in 1913. Don't be fooled by the vivid color and exotic touches; Poiret made clothes, says the Costume Institute's Harold Koda, with "intellectual simplicity, but structural complexity." Like Poiret, the Spanish couturier Cristobal Balenciaga was rigorous about the construction of his garments, favoring purity of line and integrity of pattern over surface froufrou.

Cristobal Balenciaga in 1927.

14

15

Marketing Man:

Poiret solidified his rank as artist through his vast collections and myriad collaborations with creative types—architects, painters, set designers, and, notably, a cadre of fashion illustrators. Early on, Bernard Naudin was responsible for the stationery and graphic materials of the maison. This trade card, circa 1906, advertises a showing of children's wear.

(right)Georges Lepape was the fashion illustrator behind this 1910 medallion logo. Used on delivery boxes, it's a rendering of Poiret's home—renovated by Louis Süe, a popular Art Deco-period architect—which included adjoining houses once belonging to Louis XV.

(left)"I did not wait for my success to grow by itself," Poiret wrote in his autobiography. "I worked like a demon to increase it, and everything that could stimulate it seemed good to me."

A letter from Poiret to Monsieur Beaulieu on Georges Lepape-designed stationery, shown at the annual Antiquarian Book Fair at the Park Avenue Armory in New York City, April 20 through 22, 2007.

16

(right)One of the first designers to explore licensing, Poiret got burned by illegal copies and trademark infringements. He fought this in court and became the head of the Syndicat de Défense de la Grande Couture Française, an organization to protect the rights of designers.

A warning against false labels, from Women's Wear Daily, 1913.

(left)Poiret not only believed in fashion as an extension of lifestyle—he and his family lived it.

Here, Denise Poiret reclines at home by a painting by Kees van Dongen.

17

(left)Historians consider Poiret the first haute couturier to have taken his collections on tour in Europe and America. He visited Berlin in 1910, and the next year went a on six-week trek (in a chauffeured car) to Moscow, St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Vienna, Frankfurt, Berlin, and Bucharest—where he was arrested for not having a proper permit. Poiret's arrival in New York in 1913 was prefaced by an open letter from John Cardinal Farley warning against the temptations offered by "the demon fashion."

Poiret on tour with his mannequins in Victoria Station, London, September 29, 1924.

(right)In 1911 Poiret diversified into fragrances and decorative arts, setting up ateliers named Rosine and Martine after his daughters.

Martine's exterior, 1924.

18

19

First in Fragrance

Poiret set up the Rosine perfume and packaging factory in the Paris suburb Courbevoie in 1911.

La Rose de Rosine bottle, designed by Georges Lepape.

20

21

Family Man: (left)Denise Poiret, once described as "the woman who had inspired the feminine silhouette of this century," photographed by Henri Manuel in 1911 with her daughter Rosine, age 5. Madame Poiret wears a gray velvet afternoon dress called "Toujours."

(right)"If you want to attract attention," Doucet is said to have told a young Poiret, "be seen in fashionable places with a striking young lady whom you dress according to your own ideas and

develop into a special type of your own."

Denise Poiret wearing her husband's design, 1913.

(left)"My wife is the inspiration for my creations, she is the expression of all my ideals," Poiret said.

(right)Poiret, and family, November 1922.

22

23

Art Patron:

(left)Directoire-style dresses from Les robes de Paul Poiret racontées par Paul Iribe, 1908. These portfolios were sent to big clients as well as to the crowned heads of Europe. The Queen of England returned hers with a note, Poiret biographer Palmer White recounts, that read: "The Queen of England does not read advertising catalogues. Kindly have the courtesy not to send anything of the sort again."

(right)"I have always liked painters. It seems to me that we are in the same trade and that they are my colleagues," Poiret said. This painting is by Kees van Dongen, the Dutch artist and sometime lover of Poiret client the Marchesa Casati. A member of Poiret's circle, van Dongen was associated with the Fauvist "Wild Beasts" school of painting. (This work is atypically monochrome.)

Kees van Dongen, Robe de Paul Poiret, in a private collection.

Edward Steichen, who had been painting in Paris, was encouraged to take his first fashion photographs by Paul Poiret. They appeared in Art et Décoration in 1911.

Poiret's "Battick" and "Négus" designs.

24

(left)In 1912, Poiret organized an exhibition of the work of painters Marie Laurencin and Robert Delaunay in the gallery that shared space with his atelier. It was the first large show for either artist. Laurencin worked with Poiret designing textiles.

Marie Laurencin's 1913 painting of Poiret's (estranged) sister Nicole, Madame André Groult.

(right)Poiret had web-like networks in which many artists were caught. Hilary Spurling, Henri Matisse's biographer, recounts the artist's foray into fashion. In 1919 Matisse designed a cape that could unfurl the full length of the stage at the Paris Opéra, and it was made in Poiret's studio. Matisse and Poiret's acquaintance went back further than this. This 1913 painting, The Blue Window, was commissioned—and rejected—by Poiret, who, according to MoMA records, "considered it too bold and refused it."

A Couturier," Poiret said, "has as many languages as he has fabrics with which to sing of the beauty of women." Raoul Dufy began working with Paul Poiret in 1911. Together they established La Petite Usine, a workshop where Dufy produced his first printed fabrics. The next year Dufy excited the interest of the noted Lyonnaise textile firm Bianchini-Férier, with whom he would have an extended business relationship.

"Bois de Boulogne" dinner dress, 1919. Medieval-scene textile design by Raoul Dufy.

25

(left)Poiret commissioned Edgar Brandt, the premier Art Deco ironworker, to design the grillwork doors and interior staircase for his atelier at 1 Champs-Elysées Round Point, 1925.

"Poiret's conceptions are unique—his designs are bold—his interpretations personal—his colorations powerful yet delicate." That's the opinion of F. Schumacher & Co., a New York-based textile firm, who commissioned fabric designs from Poiret in 1930.

"Primitive Gazelles," circa 1930.

26

27

Entertainer:

(left)Denise and Paul Poiret in Arabian Nights-inspired costume.

(right up)Georges Lepape's rendering of Denise Poiret's "Thousand and Second Night" costume, which the fashionable crowd was soon clamoring for.

A Exotic dress. 1911 Poiret costume.

28

Denise and Paul Poiret in costume as Juno and Jupiter for "Les Festes de Bacchus," June 20, 1912. The party re-created the Bacchanalia hosted by Louis XIV at Versailles, and was held at the Pavillion du Butard, an abandoned royal hunting lodge Poiret renovated for the event. The party's pièce de résistance? A performance by friend and client Isadora Duncan.

"I like evocations of by-gone ages and of things that people cherished. What is more moving than a search for the state of mind and heart of our fathers in their games and entertainments?"

Poiret le Magnifique, in costume.

29

30

Innovator:

(left)The cocoon coat.

A 1908 illustration by Paul Iribe (who later became one of Coco Chanel's lovers).

(right)The corset-free silhouette, as seen photographically by Edward Steichen, 1911.

Poiret's "Bakou" and "Pâtre" designs.

(left)The corset-free silhouette as seen by Georges Lepape, 1911.

(right)Sultana skirts, or jupes-culottes, from L'Illustration, 1911.

31

(left)A lampshade tunic.

"Choose with taste what is suitable to your mood, what is most appropriate for your character," Poiret said, "for a gown like a faithful portrait reflects a state of mind, and there are gowns that sing of the joy of living and others that are harbingers of tragedy."

(right)The forreau, a sheath made of a single length of fabric. This 1914 linen-silk car coat, cut from one piece of rectangular cloth, set a record for couture sold at auction, selling for $168,500.

(left)The sack-back. A tunic cut wide so as to drape.

(right)Orientalism, done with subtlety. Perhaps inspired by Islamic architecture, this 1919 coat features white kid cutwork appliqué and broadtail trim.

32

(right)

"Le Minaret." A variation on the lampshade tunic conceived as a costume for the play of the same name, 1923.

(left)The hobble skirt, 1919.

"It was," Poiret declared in his autobiography, "in the name of Liberty that I proclaimed the fall of the corset and the adoption of the brassiere which, since then, has won the day. Yes, I freed the bust, but I shackled the legs."

(right)The French novelist and social luminary Louise de Vilmorin once stated: "Worth dresses the court, Poiret the artists, Jeanne Lanvin the young girls and the theatre."

Peggy Guggenheim photographed by Man Ray wearing a dress by Paul Poiret, 1923.

33

34

Icon:Denise Poiret modeling her husband's clothes.

Detail of a silk/wool, kid, and broadtail coat by Paul Poiret, 1919.

35

An unforgettable genius:

Mention the name Paul Poiret, and early 20th-century hobble skirts tend to jump to mind.

The scale of his influence on major designers all the way to the present day can never be unseen. The exhibit, which has been underwritten in part by Balenciaga, highlights the modern quality of his designs, including an off-the-shoulder babydoll-style minidress that a racy Denise rocked…sans the culottes of the day or even support for her bust! His construction techniques were equally forward-thinking, as evidenced by computer animations of two of his frocks which were constructed like fabric origami from a single piece of fabric. "When people normally talk about Paul Poiret, they refer to the fact that he liberated women from corsets, but hobbled their legs with hobble skirts," explains the exhibit’s curator Andrew Bolton. “What was interesting about the sale was that there was so much more than that. There were jackets with raw edges — pre-Martin Margiela — or coats made from one piece of fabric." His directional 1912 chemise dress, sported on a lounging mannequin, absolutely foreshadows the Twenties. "This is what has been forgotten about him," says Koda. "He didn't continue to advocate his modernity, because he had done it already. When [Jean] Patou and [Coco] Chanel became advocates of sportswear, he started to advance this fin de siècle beauty, and seemed lost."

In total, the 50 looks on display cover the years 1905 to 1925, exploring the oriental influences on the designer and his artistic talent, collaborating with Georges Lepape, Raoul Dufy and Paul Iribe. "Poiret saw himself as more of an artist than a designer, and throughout his career, he positioned himself as an artist whose medium of expression was fashion, and he would often collaborate with artists," says Bolton. Sadly, though, for the giant size of his artistic legacy, he hit upon tough financial times, dying penniless in 1944, outshone by “it” designers of the day Chanel and Patou.

36

Collapse of the Poiret fashion house:

During World War I, Poiret left his fashion house to serve the military by streamlining uniform production. When Poiret returned after war in 1917 he spent several months in Morocco, trying to recuperate from the experience of war , by then the house was on the brink of bankruptcy. New designers like Chanel were producing simple, sleek clothes that relied on excellent workmanship. In comparison, Poiret's elaborate designs seemed dowdy and poorly manufactured. (Though Poiret's designs were groundbreaking, his construction was not--he aimed only for his dresses to "read beautifully from afar.") Poiret was suddenly out of fashion, in debt, and lacking support from his business partners, and he soon left his fashion house.

In 1929, the house itself was closed, and its leftover clothes were sold by the kilogram as rags. When Poiret died in 1944, his genius had been forgotten.

37