Parts of speech

Intervenant

Laurence PetoudExecutive AssistantFormatrice en EntrepriseECDL Expertlaurence.petoud@gmail.comhttp://fce-cae.blog4ever.com/This support has been developed as part of my revisions for exams First Certificate in English.

English Parts of SpeechThere are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. When we want to build a house, we use concrete to make the foundations or base. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we want to build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job.We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of speech".Parts of Speech TableThis is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*. You will find more detail if you click on each part of speech.part of speechfunction or "job"example wordsexample sentences

Verbs action or state(to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, mustEnglishClub is a web site. I like EnglishClub.

Nouns

thing or personpen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, JohnThis is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

Adjectives

describes a nouna/an, the, 2, some, good, big, red, well, interestingI have two dogs. My dogs are big. I like big dogs.

Adverbs

describes a verb, adjective or adverbquickly, silently, well, badly, very, reallyMy dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

Pronouns

replaces a nounI, you, he, she, someTara is Indian. She is beautiful.

Prepositions

links a noun to another wordto, at, after, on, butWe went to school on Monday.

Conjunctions

joins clauses or sentences or wordsand, but, whenI like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjections

short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentenceoh!, ouch!, hi!, wellOuch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don't know.

Some grammar sources categorize English into 9 or 10 parts of speech. Examples of other categorizations are: Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech: Lexical Verbs (work, like, run) Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must) Determiners may be treated as a separate part of speech, instead of being categorized under Adjectives

Parts of Speech ExamplesHere are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:verbnounverbnounverbverb

Stop !JohnworksJohnisworking

pronounverbnounnounverbadjectivenoun

ShelovesanimalsAnimalslikekindpeople

nounverbnounadverb

TaraspeaksEnglishwell.

nounverbadjectivenoun

TaraspeaksgoodEnglish.

pronounverbprepositionadjectivenounadverb

Sherantothestationquickly.

pron.verbadj.nounconjunctionpron.verbpron.

ShelikesbigsnakesbutIhatethem.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:interjectionpron.conj.adj.nounverbprep.nounadverb

Well,sheandyoungJohnwalktoschoolslowly.

Words with More than One JobMany words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun; "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.To analyse the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this word doing in this sentence?"In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of the words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word "but" has six jobs to do:verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjunction!wordpart of speechexample

worknounMy work is easy.

verbI work in London.

butconjunctionJohn came but Mary didn't come.

prepositionEveryone came but Mary.

welladjectiveAre you well?

adverbShe speaks well.

interjectionWell! That's expensive!

afternoonnounWe ate in the afternoon.

noun acting as adjectiveWe had afternoon tea.

VerbsWhat Are Verbs?The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words likerun, fight, doand workall convey action.But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs likebe, exist, seemandbelongall convey state.A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English",Johnis the subject andspeaksis the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subjectdoesoris; they describe:Action(Ram plays football.)State(Anthony seems kind.)There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc.) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For example, the verbto work has five forms:To work, work, works, worked, workingOf course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty or more forms for a single verb.Verb Classification helping verbs: primary/modalmain verbs: transitive/intransitive, linking, dynamic/stative, regular/irregularWe divide verbs into two broad classifications:Helping VerbsImagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:I can.People must.The Earth will.Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because these verbs arehelping verbsand have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.

Main VerbsNow imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:I teach.People eat.The Earth rotates.Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs aremain verbs and have meaning on their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.helping verbmain verb

Johnlikescoffee.

Youliedto me.

Theyarehappy.

The childrenareplaying.

Wemustgonow.

Idonotwantany.

Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following pages.Helping VerbsHelping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:beTo make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)To make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)haveTo make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

doTo make negatives (I do not like you.)To ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)To show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)To stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:can, couldmay, mightwill, would,shall, shouldmustought toHere are examples using modal verbs:I can't speak Chinese.John may arrive late.Would you like a cup of coffee?You should see a doctor.I really must go now.Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like modal helping verbs and partly like main verbs:needdareused toMain VerbsMain verbs are also called "lexical verbs".Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:Transitive and intransitive verbsA transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:transitive:I saw an elephant.We are watching TV.He speaks English.

intransitive:He has arrived.John goes to school.She speaks fast.Linking verbsA linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (>). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).Mary is a teacher. (Mary = teacher)Tara is beautiful. (Tara = beautiful)That sounds interesting. (that = interesting)The sky became dark. (the sky > dark)The bread has gone bad. (bread > bad)Dynamic and stative verbsSome verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).dynamic verbs (examples):hit, explode, fight, run, gostative verbs (examples):belike, love, prefer, wishimpress, please, surprisehear, see, soundbelong to, consist of, contain, include, needappear, resemble, seemRegular and irregular verbsThis is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.regular verbs: base, past tense, past participlelook, looked, lookedwork, worked, workedirregular verbs: base, past tense, past participlebuy, bought, boughtcut, cut, cutdo, did, done

Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs.One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: all verbs are irregular and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large group of irregular verbs.Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb could be irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular, transitive and stative.Verb Forms to sing, sing, sings, sang, sung, singingTensesI sing, I am singing, I have sung, I have been singing, I sang, I was singingPresent TensesTenseexample

Present SimpleI tweet

Present ContinuousI am tweeting

Present PerfectI have tweeted

Present Perfect ContinuousI have been tweeting

English Tense SystemIn some languages, verb tenses are not very important or do not even exist. In English, the concept of tense is very important.In this lesson we look at the idea behind tense, how to avoid confusing tense with time, and the structure of the basic tenses, with examples using a regular verb, an irregular verb and the verb "be".What is Tense?Tense (noun): a form of a verb used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation or completeness, of an action in relation to the time of speaking. Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time - past, present and future. Many languages use tenses to talk about time. Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk about time, using different methods.So, we talk about time in English with tenses. But, and this is a very big but:we can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going to is a special construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense)One tense does not always talk about one time (see Tense & Time for more about this)

Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.MoodIndicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be positive (affirmative) or negativeI like coffee.I do not like coffee.Interrogative mood expresses a questionWhy do you like coffee?Imperative mood expresses a commandSit down!Subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possibleThe President ordered that he attend the meeting.VoiceVoice shows the relationship of the subject to the action. In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice). In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice are eaten by cats). Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus of attention.AspectAspect expresses a feature of the action related to time, such as completion or duration. Present simple and past simple tenses have no aspect, but if we wish we can stress with other tenses that:the action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still relevant), for example:I have emailed the report to Jane. (so now she has the report)(This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.)the action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing (that is, uncompleted), for example:We are eating.(This is called progressive aspect, using progressive [continuous] tenses.)Tense & TimeIt is important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way we use it to talk about time.For example, a present tense does not always refer to present time:I hope it rains tomorrow."rains" is present simple, but it refers here to future time (tomorrow)Or a past tense does not always refer to past time:If I had some money now, I could buy it."had" is past simple but it refers here to present time (now)The following examples show how different tenses can be used to talk about different times.

TENSETIME

pastpresentfuture

Present Simple I want a coffee.I leave tomorrow.

Shelikescoffee.

Present Continuous I am having dinner.I am taking my exam next month.

TheyarelivinginLondon.

Present Perfect SimpleI have seen ET.I have finished.

Present Perfect ContinuousI have been playing tennis.

We have been working for four hours.

Past SimpleI finished one hour ago.If she loved you now, she would marry you.If you came tomorrow, you would see her.

Past ContinuousI was working at 2am this morning.

Past Perfect SimpleI had not eaten for 24 hours.

Past Perfect ContinuousWe had been working for 3 hours.If I had been working now, I would have missed you.If I had been working tomorrow, I could not have agreed.

Future Simple Hold on. I'll do it now.I'll see you tomorrow.

Future Continuous I will be working at 9pm tonight.

Future Perfect Simple I will have finished by 9pm tonight.

We will have been married for ten years next month.

Future Perfect Continuous They may be tired when you arrive because they will have been working.

In 30 minutes, we will have been working for four hours.

Basic TensesFor past and present, there are 2 simple tenses + 6 complex tenses (using auxiliary verbs). To these, we can add 4 "modal tenses" for the future (using modal auxiliary verbs will/shall). This makes a total of 12 tenses in the active voice. Another 12 tenses are available in the passive voice. So now we have 24 tenses.24 Tensespastpresentfuture*

ACTIVEsimple tensespastpresentfuture

complex tensesformed withauxiliary verbspast perfectpresent perfectfuture perfect

past continuouspresent continuousfuture continuous

past perfect continuouspresent perfect continuousfuture perfect continuous

PASSIVEpastpresentfuture

past perfectpresent perfectfuture perfect

past continuouspresent continuousfuture continuous

past perfect continuouspresent perfect continuousfuture perfect continuous

Some grammar books use the word progressive instead of continuous. They are exactly the same.The use of tenses in English may be quite complicated, but the structure of English tenses is actually very simple. The basic structure for a positive sentence is:subject + auxiliary verb + main verbAn auxiliary verb is used in all tenses. (In the simple present and simple pasttenses, the auxiliary verb is usually suppressed for the affirmative, but it does exist for intensification.) The following table shows the 12 tenses for the verb to work in the active voice.structurepastpresentfuture*

auxiliarymain verb

simplenormal I workedI workI will work

intensivedobaseI did workI do work

perfecthavepast participleI had workedI have workedI will have worked

continuousbepresent participle -ingI was workingI am workingI will be working

continuous perfecthave beenpresent participle -ingI had been workingI have been workingI will have been working

* Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called "modal tenses". The examples are included here for convenience and comparison.

Regular Verbs Basic Tenses: Regular VerbRegular verbs listThis page shows the basic tenses with the regular verb work. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).The basic structure is:positive:+subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

negative:-subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

question:?auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:base verbpastpast participlepresent participle -ing

workworkedworkedworking

pastpresentfuture

SIMPLEdo + base verb(except future:will + base verb)+I did workI workedI do workI workI will work

-I did not workI do not workI will not work

?Did I work?Do I work?Will I work?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + past participle+I had workedI have workedI will have worked

-I had not workedI have not workedI will not have worked

?Had I worked?Have I worked?Will I have worked?

CONTINUOUSbe + ing+I was workingI am workingI will be working

-I was not workingI am not workingI will not be working

?Was I working?Am I working?Will I be working?

CONTINUOUS PERFECThave been + ing+I had been workingI have been workingI will have been working

-I had not been workingI have not been workingI will not have been working

?Had I been working?Have I been working?Will I have been working?

Irregular VerbsBasic Tenses: Irregular VerbThis page shows the basic tenses with the irregular verb sing. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).The basic structure is:positive:+subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

negative:-subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

question:?auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

These are the forms of the main verb that we use to construct the tenses:base verbpastpast participlepresent participle -ing

singsangsungsinging

pastpresentfuture

SIMPLEdo + base verb(except future:will + base verb)+I did singI sangI do singI singI will sing

-I did not singI do not singI will not sing

?Did I sing?Do I sing?Will I sing?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + past participle+I had sungI have sungI will have sung

-I had not sungI have not sungI will not have sung

?Had I sung?Have I sung?Will I have sung?

CONTINUOUSbe + -ing+I was singingI am singingI will be singing

-I was not singingI am not singingI will not be singing

?Was I singing?Am I singing?Will I be singing?

CONTINUOUS PERFECThave been + -ing+I had been singingI have been singingI will have been singing

-I had not been singingI have not been singingI will not have been singing

?Had I been singing?Have I been singing?Will I have been singing?

The basic structure of tenses for regular verbs and irregular verbs is exactly the same (except to be). The only difference is that with regular verbs the past and past participle are always the same (worked, worked), while with irregular verbs the past and past participle are not always the same (sang, sung). But the structure is the same! It will help you a great deal to really understand that.

BeBasic Tenses: BeThis page shows the basic tenses with the verb be. It includes the affirmative or positive form (+), the negative form (-) and the interrogative or question form (?).The basic structure is:positive (+):subject + auxiliary verb + main verb

negative (-):subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

question (?):auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

But for simple past and simple present tenses, the structure is not the same. In fact, it's even easier. There is no auxiliary verb. Here is the structure:positive (+):subject + main verb

negative (-):subject + main verb + not

question (?):main verb + subject

These are the forms of the main verb be that we use to construct the tenses:basepast simplepast participlepresent participlepresent simple

bewas, werebeenbeingam, are, is

pastpresentfuture

SIMPLEpresent simple orpast simple(except future: will +be)+I wasI amI will be

-I was notI am notI will not be

?Was I?Am I?Will I be?

SIMPLE PERFECThave + been+I had beenI have beenI will have been

-I had not beenI have not beenI will not have been

?Had I been?Have I been?Will I have been?

CONTINUOUSbe + being+I was beingI am beingI will be being

-I was not beingI am not beingI will not be being

?Was I being?Am I being?Will I be being?

CONTINUOUS PERFECThave been + being+I had been beingI have been beingI will have been being

-I had not been beingI have not been beingI will not have been being

?Had I been being?Have I been being?Will I have been being?

In the following table, we see be conjugated for 12 basic tenses.SIMPLEpastpresentfuture

singularIwasamwill be

youwerearewill be

he/she/itwasiswill be

pluralwewerearewill be

youwerearewill be

theywerearewill be

PERFECTpastpresentfuture

singularIhad beenhave beenwill have been

youhad beenhave beenwill have been

he/she/ithad beenhas beenwill have been

pluralwehad beenhave beenwill have been

youhad beenhave beenwill have been

theyhad beenhave beenwill have been

CONTINUOUSpastpresentfuture

singularIwas beingam beingwill be being

youwere beingare beingwill be being

he/she/itwas beingis beingwill be being

pluralwewere beingare beingwill be being

youwere beingare beingwill be being

theywere beingare beingwill be being

CONTINUOUS PERFECTpastpresentfuture

singularIhad been beinghave been beingwill have been being

youhad been beinghave been beingwill have been being

he/she/ithad been beinghas been beingwill have been being

pluralwehad been beinghave been beingwill have been being

youhad been beinghave been beingwill have been being

theyhad been beinghave been beingwill have been being

NounsIt's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things" (and verbs are "actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).What are Nouns?The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:person: man, woman, teacher, John, Maryplace: home, office, town, countryside, Americathing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkeyThe problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can also be a verb.Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:EndingPositionFunctionNoun EndingThere are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:-ity > nationality-ment > appointment-ness > happiness-ation > relation-hood > childhoodBut this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun "spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.Position in SentenceWe can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my, such):a reliefan afternoonthe doctorthis wordmy housesuch stupidityNouns often come after one or more adjectives:a great reliefa peaceful afternoonthe tall, Indian doctorthis difficult wordmy brown and white housesuch crass stupidity

Function in a SentenceNouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:Subject of verb: Doctors work hard.Object of verb: He likes coffee.Subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".Countable/Uncountable NounsThe major division of English nouns is into "countable" and "uncountable".Countable NounsCountable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:dog, cat, animal, man, personbottle, box, litrecoin, note, dollarcup, plate, forktable, chair, suitcase, bagCountable nouns can be singular or plural:My dog is playing.My dogs are hungry.We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:A dog is an animal.When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:I want an orange. (not I want orange.)Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:I like oranges.Bottles can break.We can use some and any with countable nouns:I've got some dollars.Have you got any pens?We can use a few and many with countable nouns:I've got a few dollars.I haven't got many pens.

Uncountable NounsUncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:music, art, love, happinessadvice, information, newsfurniture, luggagerice, sugar, butter, waterelectricity, gas, powermoney, currencyWe usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:This news is very important.Your luggage looks heavy.We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of:a piece of newsa bottle of watera grain of riceWe can use some and any with uncountable nouns:I've got some money.Have you got any rice?We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:I've got a little money.I haven't got much rice. Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns:CountableUncountabledollarmoneysongmusicsuitcaseluggagetablefurniturebatteryelectricitybottlewinereportinformationtipadvicejourneytraveljobworkviewscenery

When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it's countable or uncountable.Nouns that can be Countable and UncountableSometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.CountableUncountable

There are two hairs in my coffee!hairI don't have much hair.

There are two lights in our bedroom.lightClose the curtain. There's too much light!

Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.There are so many different noises in the city.noiseIt's difficult to work when there is so much noise.

Have you got a paper to read? (newspaper)Hand me those student papers.paperI want to draw a picture. Have you got some paper?

Our house has seven rooms.roomIs there room for me to sit here?

We had a great time at the party.How many times have I told you no?timeHave you got time for a cup of coffee?

Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's greatest works.workI have no money. I need work!

Partitive Structure with Uncountable NounsTo count or quantify an uncountable noun we use a unit of measurement - ameasure word. For example, we cannot usually say two breads because bread is uncountable. So, if we want to specify a quantity of bread we use a measure word such as loaf or slice in a structure like two loaves of bread or two slices of bread. We call this structure a partitive structure.

p a r t i t i v e s t r u c t u r e

quantitymeasure word(partitive, countable noun)"of"uncountable noun

two cups of coffeeseveral games of tennis a drop of water

We can use the same uncountable noun in different partitive expressions with different meanings. For example, a loaf of bread and a slice of bread are partitive expressions with different meanings. A loaf of bread is what we call a whole unit of bread that we buy from a baker. A slice of bread is what we call a smaller unit of bread after it has been cut from a loaf. Here are some more examples:Don't forget to buy a bag of rice when you go shopping.Can I have one cup of coffee and two cups of tea.The police found some items of clothing scattered around the floor.I need a truck that will take at least three pieces of furniture.You'd think a tablespoon of honey would be more than enough.

Common Measure Words with Uncountable Nounsa bag of flour | rice | gold dusta bar of chocolate | gold | soapa bottle of Coke | milk | water | winea bowl of cereal | rice | soupa box of cereal | papera can of cream | meat | tunaa carton of ice-cream | orange juice | milka cup of hot chocolate | coffee | teaa drop of blood | oil | watera glass of beer | juice | water | winea grain of rice | sand | truthan item of clothing | expenditure | newsa jar of honey | jam | peanut buttera piece of advice | furniture | papera roll of paper | tape | toilet paper | Scotch tapea slice of bread | cheese | meat | toasta spoonful of sugar | syrup | whiskya tablespoon of butter | honey | ketchupa teaspoon of cinnamon | medicine | salta tube of glue | lipstick | toothpaste

Measure words are common with uncountable nouns, but some of them can also be used with countable nouns, for example: two boxes of matches, a can of worms.Partitive Structure with Uncountable NounsTo count or quantify an uncountable noun we use a unit of measurement - ameasure word. For example, we cannot usually say two breads because bread is uncountable. So, if we want to specify a quantity of bread we use a measure word such as loaf or slice in a structure like two loaves of bread or two slices of bread. We call this structure a partitive structure.p a r t i t i v e s t r u c t u r e

quantitymeasure word(partitive, countable noun)"of"uncountable noun

two cups of coffeeseveral games of tennis a drop of water

We can use the same uncountable noun in different partitive expressions with different meanings. For example, a loaf of bread and a slice of bread are partitive expressions with different meanings. A loaf of bread is what we call a whole unit of bread that we buy from a baker. A slice of bread is what we call a smaller unit of bread after it has been cut from a loaf.

Here are some more examples: Don't forget to buy a bag of rice when you go shopping. Can I have one cup of coffee and two cups of tea. The police found some items of clothing scattered around the floor. I need a truck that will take at least three pieces of furniture. You'd think a tablespoon of honey would be more than enough.

The word "partitive" indicates that only "part" of a whole is being referred to. The partitive structure using a measure word is common with uncountable nouns, but it can also be used with countable nouns, for example: a series of accidents, two boxes of matches, a can of worms.Partitive Expressions with Uncountable NounsA list of 100 partitive expressions containing a partitive + uncountable noun, each with an example sentence. (These expressions are in alphabetical order based on the uncountable noun.)Note that most of these expressions collocate strongly.a torrent of abuseThe manager was so angry that he let loose a torrent of abuse at his workers.

a piece of adviceCan I offer you a piece of advice about investing your savings?

a fit of angerHarry slapped his girlfriend in a fit of anger.

a work of artEveryone says her gardens a work of art, its so beautiful.

a rasher of baconHow many rashers of bacon would you like with your breakfast?

a glass of beerIf you drink more than two glasses of beer, you shouldnt drive a car.

a drop of bloodThere were two or three drops of blood on the carpet.

a spot of botherIm in a spot of bother because I cant find my car keys, and Im already late.

a loaf of breadHow much does a loaf of bread cost in Japan?

a pat of butterCould I have three pats of butter and some jam, please?

a game of chessWe played three games of chess, and Bobby won all of them.

a bar of chocolateIf youre a good boy, Ill give you a bar of chocolate.

an item of clothingPut any items of clothing you no longer need into this box.

a lump of coalThe kids found some lumps of coal beside the railway tracks, and took them home.

a cup of coffeeThe first thing I do when I get to work is have a cup of coffee.

an ear of cornEars of corn are usually steamed or boiled and then served with butter.

a scrap of differenceWriting letters to corrupt politicians wont make a scrap of difference to the way they behave.

a speck of dustThey have no kids, and you won't find a speck of dust in their home.

a scrap of evidenceThere wasnt a scrap of evidence to prove hed done it, but he was still sent to jail for life.

an item of expenditureYou must have a receipt for every item of expenditure you want to claim.

an article of faithFreedom of expression is an article of faith among truly democratic people.

a morsel of foodThere wasnt a morsel of food left in the house, so we had to go out for dinner.

a breath of fresh airThe room was crowded and I felt faint so I went outside for a breath of fresh air.

a piece of fruitEveryone should eat at least three pieces of fruit a day.

a bit of funAfter working hard all day, we felt like having a bit of fun.

a piece of furnitureWe need a piece of furniture that will look good in that empty corner.

a clove of garlicTake two cloves of garlic, crush them, and then add them to the soup.

a pane of glassYou have to be very careful when transporting panes of glass.

a blade of grassThe ant walked all the way up the blade of grass, and then all the way down again.

a pang of guiltWhen I saw my brother being punished for what Id done, I felt a pang of guilt.

a lock of hairHe kept a lock of her hair in a small tin box with his other most precious possessions.

a jar of honeyShe stuck her fingers into the jar of honey, and then slowly licked them clean.

a glimmer of hopeThe president gave us a glimmer of hope when he promised to look into the issue.

a sense of humourHe lacks a sense of humour, and his laughter never sounds real.

a pang of hungerI felt a pang of hunger, and knew it must be getting close to lunchtime.

a block of iceHow long do you think itd take for this block of ice to melt?

a scoop of ice creamYou dont really need three scoops of ice cream on your apple pie, do you?

a piece of informationThere was an important piece of information missing from the report.

a plea of innocenceHe maintained his plea of innocence, even though everyone said he was guilty.

a touch of ironyThere was often a touch of irony in his voice when he spoke.

a jar of jamIf you leave a jar of jam open on the bench, the ants will find it.

a glass of juiceId like a glass of juice, but only if the juice is freshly squeezed.

an act of kindnessA simple act of kindness to a stranger is a wonderful thing.

a piece of landMy grandfather bought this piece of land over a hundred years ago.

a peal of laughterWe heard peals of laughter coming from her bedroom.

a ray of lightAs dawn broke, rays of light rose from behind the mountains.

a flash of lightningThe sky was lit up by flashes of lightning.

a work of literaturePoems, plays, novels and short stories are all works of literature.

a stroke of luckWas finding her there a stroke of luck, or did he know shed be there?

a piece of luggageYou can carry one small piece of luggage onto the plane.

a case of measlesWas it really a case of measles, or another disease that looked like measles?

a slice of meatPut one slice of meat into every sandwich, with some lettuce and tomato.

a dose of medicineI was given a dose of medicine that tasted like liquid chalk.

a bottle of milkEvery morning the milkman would leave two bottles of milk on our doorstep.

a litre of milkHow many litres of milk do we need?

a piece of musicThat was one of the most beautiful pieces of music Ive ever heard!

an item of newsWho decides if something becomes an item of news, or not?

a litre of oilHow much does a litre of oil cost?

a coat of paintThe house did look better after a coat of paint. But really it needed two or three coats.

a piece of paperI wrote his number on a piece of paper and slipped it into my wallet.

a crime of passionHis lawyer said it wasnt premeditated murder, but a crime of passion.

a dab of perfumeA couple of dabs of perfume on my neck, and I was ready to go.

an abuse of powerUsing falsified evidence to justify a war is a criminal abuse of power.

a shower of rainWe got caught in a shower of rain while walking to the station.

a sign of respectIn many cultures, bowing to someone is a sign of respect.

an act of revengeHed harmed many people in his life, so his murder was probably an act of revenge.

a bowl of riceWould you like another bowl of rice?

a grain of riceThere wasnt a single grain of rice left in the village.

a pile of rubbishWe found the bottles dumped in a pile of rubbish behind the factory.

a glass of rumAfter drinking four or five glasses of rum, I felt sick.

a pinch of saltAdd two or three pinches of salt as the water is coming to the boil.

a plate of seafoodHow many plates of seafood should we order for the party?

a sense of shameI doubt hes capable of feeling a sense of shame for what hes done.

a minute of silenceThere was a minute of silence before the game began.

a wall of silenceThe fear of punishment created a wall of silence around the truth.

a night of sleepI think I've had about three nights of sleep in the six weeks since our baby was born.

a cloud of smokeAfter the riots, you could see clouds of smoke rising into the sky as buildings around the city burned.

a fall of snowA heavy fall of snow left the whole landscape a glistening white.

a cake of soapTalk about extravagant! She uses a new cake of soap each time she showers.

a feeling of sorrowThere was a feeling of sorrow in the room as everyone thought about what had happened.

a bowl of soupAs soon as we all sat down, she brought three big bowls of soup and three spoons.

a lump of sugarThere was a little jar on the table full of lumps of sugar.

a spoonful of sugarHow many spoonfuls of sugar do you like in your tea?

a ray of sunshineBarry said his baby daughter was a little ray of sunshine in his life.

a cup of teaDo you prefer a cup of tea with your breakfast, or a cup of coffee?

a game of tennisIts just a game of tennis, so I dont know why youre getting so upset!

a clap of thunderThe silence was shattered by two sudden, loud claps of thunder.

a moment of timeIt was a moment of time that nobody who was there will ever forget.

a grain of truthShe said there wasnt a grain of truth in her husbands story.

an act of vengeanceThe police suspected the fire had been deliberately lit as an act of vengeance.

an outbreak of violenceAfter years of injustice, outbreaks of violence were becoming more frequent.

a drop of waterThe drop of water slowly grew, and then it fell from the tap.

a sign of wealthThe signs of wealth that took him fifty years to earn hardly seemed worth it.

an ear of wheatThe winning photograph is a close-up of a single ear of wheat.

a shot of whiskeyAs soon as he sat down at the bar, Hunter downed a shot of whiskey.

a gust of windA gust of wind grabbed the kite and swept it into an acrobatic loop.

a glass of wineOur waiter knocked over two glasses of wine as he tried to set down a plate.

a pearl of wisdomAfter stroking his beard and smiling, the guru dispensed a pearl of wisdom to his followers.

a block of woodJam some blocks of wood behind its back wheels, or the truck will roll down the hill.

a ball of woolIts just a tangle of wool now, but it was a ball of wool before our kitten found it.

a day of workThe workers only get five or six dollars for a full day of work.

AdjectivesAn adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun phrases.)An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog).Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (Itis hard).We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).DeterminersDeterminers are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun phrase.Articles:a, an, the A, An or The?When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only about singular, countable nouns.)The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like this:Articles

DefiniteIndefinite

thea, an

We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in general, we use a or an.Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we would say:I saw the moon last night.I saw a star last night.

Look at these examples:thea, an

The capital of France is Paris. I have found the book that I lost. Have you cleaned the car? There are six eggs in the fridge. Please switch off the TV when you finish. I was born in a town. John had an omelette for lunch. James Bond ordered a drink. We want to buy an umbrella. Have you got a pen?

Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation, not the word. Look at these examples:We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our umbrella, a particular umbrella.) This little story should help you understand the difference between the and a, an:

A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street. The woman saw a dress that she liked in a shop. She asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will accept a cheque? I don't have a credit card."Possessive Adjectives:my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whoseWarning! These are adjectives. Don't confuse them with pronouns!We use possessive adjectives to show who owns or "possesses" something. The possessive adjectives are:my, your, his, her, its, our, theirwhose (interrogative)numberpersongenderpossessiveadjectiveexample sentence

singular1stmale/femalemyThis is my book.

2ndmale/femaleyourI like your hair.

3rdmalehisHis name is "John".

femaleherHer name is "Mary".

neuteritsThe dog is lickingits paw.

plural1stmale/femaleourWe have sold ourhouse.

2ndmale/femaleyourYour children are lovely.

3rdmale/female/neutertheirThe students thanked theirteacher.

singular/plural1st/2nd/3rdmale/female (not neuter)whoseWhose phone did you use?

Compare:your = possessive adjectiveyou're = you areits = possessive adjectiveit's = it is OR it hastheir = possessive adjectivethey're = they arethere = adverb (I'm not going there / look over there / there is a car outside)whose = possessive adjectivewho's = who is OR who hasBe careful! There is no apostrophe (') in the possessive adjective "its". We use an apostrophe to write the short form of "it is" or "it has". For example:it's raining = it is rainingit's finished = it has finishedI'm taking my dog to the vet. It's broken Other determiners:each, everyEach and every have similar but not always identical meanings.Each = every one separatelyEvery = each, allSometimes, each and every have the same meaning:Prices go up each year.Prices go up every year.But often they are not exactly the same.Each expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality.Every is half-way between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in a group or in general.Consider the following:Every artist is sensitive.Each artist sees things differently.Every soldier saluted as the President arrived.The President gave each soldier a medal.Each can be used in front of the verb:The soldiers each received a medal.

Each can be followed by 'of':The President spoke to each of the soldiers.He gave a medal toeachof them.Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.Every is used to say how often something happens:There is a plane to Bangkok every day.The bus leaves every hour.Verbs witheachandeveryare always conjugated in the singular.either, neithersome, any, noSome, AnySome = a little, a few or a small number or amountAny = one, some or allUsually, we use some in positive (+) sentences and any in negative (-) and question (?) sentences.someanyexample situation

+I have some money. I have $10.

- I don't have any money.I don't have $1 and I don't have $10 and I don't have $1,000,000. I have $0.

? Do you have any money?Do you have $1 or $10 or $1,000,000?

In general, we use something/anything and somebody/anybody in the same way as some/any.Look at these examples:He needs some stamps.I must go. I have some homework to do.I'm thirsty. I want something to drink.I can see somebody coming.He doesn't need any stamps.I can stay. I don't have any homework to do.I'm not thirsty. I don't want anything to drink.I can't see anybody coming.Does he need any stamps?Do you have any homework to do?Do you want anything to drink?

We use any in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.I refused to give them any money. (I did not give them any money)She finished the test without any difficulty. (she did not have any difficulty)Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive YES answer. (We could say that it is not a real question, because we think we know the answer already.)Would you like some more tea?Could I have some sugar, please?much, many; more, mostlittle, less, leastfew, fewer, fewestwhat, whatever; which, whicheverboth, half, allseveralenoughAdverbsAdverbs are an important part of speech. They usually answer questions such as how? Where? When? How often? and how much?What is an Adverb?An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" adverb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:Modify an adjective:- He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)- That was extremely kind of you.Modify another adverb:- She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)- He drives extremely fast.Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.

Adverb FormWe make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:Adjective endingdo thisadjectiveadverb

most adjectivesadd -lyquicknicesolecarefulquicklynicelysolelycarefully

-able or -iblechange -e to -yregrettablehorribleregrettablyhorribly

-ychange -y to -ilyhappyhappily

-icchange -ic to -icallyeconomiceconomically

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The words friendly, lovely, lonely andneighbourly, for example, are all adjectives.And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples: well, fast, very, never, always, often, stillNote that the form of an adverb can also change to make it comparative or superlative.Kinds of AdverbsHere you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.Adverbs of MannerAdverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?" Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs. He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily. She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.

Adverbs of PlaceAdverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?" Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)Adverbs of TimeAdverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.They can answer the question "when?"He came yesterday. (When did he come?)I want it now. (When do I want it?)Or they can answer the question "how often?"They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)Adverbs of DegreeAdverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?)See also adverb vocabulary:Adverbs of Manner ListAdverbs of Place ListAdverbs of Time ListAdverbs of Degree List

Adverb PositionWhen an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause:1. FRONT - before subject NowI will read a book.

2. MID - between subject + verbIoftenread books.

3. END - after verb/objectI read bookscarefully

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example: adverbadjective

She gave him areallydirtylook.

adverbadverb

Wequiteoftenstudy English.

The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place, time, degree). The following table gives you some guidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb.Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many exceptions.

kind of adverbmainly modifiessentenceusual position

adverb

mannerverbsShe stroked his hairgently. END

placeverbsHe was workinghere. END

timedefiniteverbsHe finished the jobyesterday. END

frequencyWeoftengo to Paris.MID

degreeverbs, adjectives and adverbsInearlydied.MID

It wasterriblyfunny.before adjective

He worksreallyfast.before adverb

PronounsPronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.With pronouns, we can say:Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.Personal PronounsPersonal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:numberpersongenderpersonal pronouns

subjectobject

singular1stmale/femaleIme

2ndmale/femaleyouyou

3rdmalehehim

femalesheher

neuteritit

plural1stmale/femaleweus

2ndmale/femaleyouyou

3rdmale/female/neutertheythem

Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):I like coffee.John helped me.Do you like coffee?John loves you.He runs fast.Did Ram beat him? She is clever.Does Mary know her? It doesn't work.Can the engineer repair it? We went home.Anthony drove us. Do you need a table for three?Did John and Mary beat you at doubles? They played doubles.John and Mary beat them.When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsatian.The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.We often use it to introduce a remark:It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.It is important to dress well.It's difficult to find a job.Is it normal to see them together?It didn't take long to walk here.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:It's raining.It will probably be hot tomorrow.Is it nine o'clock yet?It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.Demonstrative Pronounsdemonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point toA demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:near in distance or time (this, these)far in distance or time (that, those) nearfar

singularthisthat

pluralthesethose

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration: This tastes good. Have you seen this? These are bad times. Do you like these? That is beautiful. Look at that! Those were the days! Can you see those? This is heavier than that. These are bigger than those.

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?That sounds like John.Possessive PronounsWe use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).We use possessive pronouns depending on:number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)gender: male (his), female (hers)Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:be subject or objectrefer to a singular or plural antecedentnumberpersongender (of "owner")possessive pronouns

singular1stmale/femalemine

2ndmale/femaleyours

3rdmalehis

femalehers

plural1stmale/femaleours

2ndmale/femaleyours

3rdmale/female/neutertheirs

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers) I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers) All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)

John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes) Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos) Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden) These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their'sNotice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?Interrogative PronounsWe use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, whichNotice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). subjectobject

personwhowhom

thingwhat

person/thingwhich

personwhose(possessive)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?"

Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.questionanswer

Who told you?John told me.subject

Whom did you tell?I told Mary.object

What's happened?An accident's happened.subject

What do you want?I want coffee.object

Which came first?The Porsche 911 came first.subject

Which will the doctor see first?The doctor will see the patient in blue first.object

There's one car missing. Whose hasnt arrived?John's (car) hasn't arrived.subject

We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?I found John's (keys).object

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?Reflexive Pronounsreflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirrorWe use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).There are eight reflexive pronouns: reflexive pronoun

singularmyselfyourselfhimself, herself, itself

pluralourselvesyourselvesthemselves

Look at these examples: reflexive pronouns

the underlined words are NOT the same person/thingthe underlined words are the SAME person/thing

John saw me.I saw myself in the mirror.

Why does he blame you?Why do you blame yourself?

David sent him a copy.John sent himself a copy.

David sent her a copy.Mary sent herself a copy.

My dog hurt the cat.My dog hurt itself.

We blame you.We blame ourselves.

Can you help my children?Can you help yourselves?

They cannot look after the babies.They cannot look after themselves.

Intensive pronounsNotice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:I made it myself. OR I myself made it.Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?The President himself promised to stop the war.She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.You yourselves asked us to do it.They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never read it themselves.

Reciprocal Pronounsreciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; [grammar] expressing mutual actionWe use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say:A and B are talking to each other.The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:each otherone anotherWhen we use these reciprocal pronouns:there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), andthey must be doing the same thingLook at these examples:John and Mary love each other.Peter and David hate each other.The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.Both teams played hard against each other.We gave each other gifts.Why don't you believe each other?They can't see each other.The gangsters were fighting one another.The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above than one another. That's because in general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a little formal. Also, some people say that we should use one another only for three or more people or things, but there is no real justification for this.Indefinite PronounsAn indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are:all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someoneNote that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in the following sentences:He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural.That's Not My Job!This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about that, because it was Everybody's job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it.It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done.Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:Each of the players has a doctor.I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:Many have expressed their views.pronounmeaningexample

singular

anotheran additional or different person or thingThat ice-cream was good. Can I have another?

anybody/anyoneno matter what personCan anyone answer this question?

anythingno matter what thingThe doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours.

eachevery one of two or more people or things, seen separatelyEach has his own thoughts.

eitherone or the other of two people or thingsDo you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind. Either is good for me.

enoughas much or as many as neededEnough is enough.

everybody/everyoneall peopleWe can start the meeting because everybody has arrived.

everythingall thingsThey have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake.

lessa smaller amount"Less is more" (Mies van der Rohe)

littlea small amountLittle is known about his early life.

mucha large amountMuch has happened since we met.

neithernot one and not the other of two people or thingsI keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me.

nobody/no-oneno personI phoned many times but nobody answered.

nothingno single thing, not anythingIf you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing.

onean unidentified personCan one smoke here? | All the students arrived but now one is missing.

othera different person or thing from one already mentionedOne was tall and the other was short.

somebody/someonean unspecified or unknown personClearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.

somethingan unspecified or unknown thingListen! I just heard something! What could it be?

youan unidentified person (informal)And you can see why.

plural

bothtwo people or things, seen togetherJohn likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good.

fewa small number of people or thingsFew have ever disobeyed him and lived.

fewera reduced number of people or thingsFewer are smoking these days.

manya large number of people or thingsMany have come already.

othersother people; not usI'm sure that others have tried before us.

severalmore than two but not manyThey all complained and several left the meeting.

theypeople in general (informal)They say that vegetables are good for you.

singular or plural

allthe whole quantity of something or of some things or peopleAll is forgiven.All have arrived.

anyno matter how much or how manyIs any left?Are any coming?

morea greater quantity of something; a greater number of people or thingsThere is more over there.More are coming.

mostthe majority; nearly allMost is lost.Most have refused.

nonenot any; no person or personsThey fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap?I invited five friends but none have come.*

somean unspecified quantity of something; an unspecified number of people or thingsHere is some.Some have arrived.

suchof the type already mentionedHe was a foreigner and he felt that he was treated as such.

* Some people say that "none" should always take a singular verb, even when talking about countable nouns (eg five friends). They argue that "none" means "no one", and "one" is obviously singular. They say that "I invited five friends but none has come" is correct and "I invited five friends but none have come" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to support this view. "None" has been used for hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural verb, according to the context and the emphasis required.Relative PronounsA relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that its relative clause modifies. Here is an example:The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.In the above example, "who":relates to "The person", which "who phoned me last night" modifiesintroduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for things and people only in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information) **. Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female.

Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses: example sentences S=subject, O=object, P=possessivenotes

defining relative clausesS- The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.- The person that phoned me last night is my teacher.That is preferable

- The car which hit me was yellow.- The car that hit me was yellow.That is preferable

O- The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher.- The people who I phoned last night are my teachers.- The person that I phoned last night is my teacher.- The person I phoned last night is my teacher.Whom is correct but formal. The relative pronoun is optional.

- The car which I drive is old.- The car that I drive is old.- The car I drive is old.That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional.

P- The student whose phone just rang should stand up.- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra.

- The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked.- The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked.Whose can be used with things. Of which is also possible.

non-defining relative clausesS- Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher.

- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.

O- Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher.- Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, is my teacher.Whom is correct but formal. Who is common in spoken English and informal written English.

- The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire.

P- My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.

- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.Whose can be used with things. Of which is also possible.

*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun. **Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom". There is no good reason for such a claim; there is a long history of "that" for people in defining relative clauses from Chaucer, Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of The Bible to Fowler's and Churchill.English PrepositionsA preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:She left before breakfast.What did you come for?(For what did you come?)English Prepositions ListThere are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Want the full list of 150 prepositions, with example sentences?

Download or browse prepositions online

Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage. L. Petoud - https://www.facebook.com/CambridgeExamsPreparation?ref_type=bookmarkPage 30 | 63http://fce-cae.blog4ever.com Parts of Speech Table aboard about above across after against along amid among anti around as at before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by concerning considering despite down during except excepting excluding following for from in inside into like minus near of off on onto opposite outside over past per plus regarding round save since than through to toward towards under underneath unlike until up upon versus via with within without

English Preposition RuleThere is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions.RuleA preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.By "noun" we include:noun (dog, money, love)proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)pronoun (you, him, us)noun group (my first job)gerund (swimming)A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.

Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the above rule:I would like to go now.She used to smoke.Here are some examples:Subject + verbpreposition"noun"

The food isonthe table.

She livesinJapan.

Tara is lookingforyou.

The letter isunderyour blue book.

Pascal is usedtoEnglish people.

She isn't usedtoworking.

I atebeforecoming.

Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, "to" is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive ("to go", "to smoke").Prepositions of PlacePrepositions of place describe the position of a person or thing in relation to another person or thing.Look at this picture:

Now look at these example sentences based on the prepositions in the picture:There is a cup on the table.The helicopter hovered above the house.The police placed a sheet over the body.He stood in front of the door and rang the bell.Ram sat beside Tara.A small stream runs below that bridge.He put the key under the doormat.He put his hands behind his back.Prepositions of Place: at, in, onIn general, we use:at for a POINTin for an ENCLOSED SPACEon for a SURFACEatinon

POINTENCLOSED SPACESURFACE

at the cornerin the gardenon the wall

at the bus stopin Londonon the ceiling

at the doorin Franceon the door

at the top of the pagein a boxon the cover

at the end of the roadin my pocketon the floor

at the entrancein my walleton the carpet

at the crossroadsin a buildingon the menu

at the front deskin a caron a page

Look at these examples:Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.The shop is at the end of the street.My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.When will you arrive at the office?Do you work in an office?I have a meeting in New York.Do you live in Japan?Jupiter is in the Solar System.The author's name is on the cover of the book.There are no prices on this menu.

You are standing on my foot.There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:atinon

at homein a caron a bus

at workin a taxion a train

at schoolin a helicopteron a plane

at universityin a boaton a ship

at collegein a lift (elevator)on a bicycle, on a motorbike

at the topin the newspaperon a horse, on an elephant

at the bottomin the skyon the radio, on television

at the sidein a rowon the left, on the right

at receptionin Oxford Streeton the way

Prepositions of Time: at, in, onWe use:at for a PRECISE TIMEin for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODSon for DAYS and DATESatinon

PRECISE TIMEMONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODSDAYS and DATES

at 3 o'clockin Mayon Sunday

at 10.30amin summeron Tuesdays

at noonin the summeron 6 March

at dinnertimein 1990on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtimein the 1990son Christmas Day

at sunrisein the next centuryon Independence Day

at sunsetin the Ice Ageon my birthday

at the momentin the past/futureon New Year's Eve

Look at these examples:I have a meeting at 9am.The shop closes at midnight.Jane went home at lunchtime.In England, it often snows in December.Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?There should be a lot of progress in the next century.Do you work on Mondays?Her birthday is on 20 November.Where will you be on New Year's Day?Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:ExpressionExample

at nightThe stars shine at night.

at the weekend*I don't usually work at the weekend.

at Christmas*/EasterI stay with my family at Christmas.

at the same timeWe finished the test at the same time.

at presentHe's not home at present. Try later.

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:inon

in the morningon Tuesday morning

in the morningson Saturday mornings

in the afternoon(s)on Sunday afternoons

in the evening(s)on Monday evening

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.I went to London last June. (not in last June)He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

ConjunctionsA conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.Here are some example conjunctions:Coordinating ConjunctionsSubordinating Conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, soalthough, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.FormConjunctions have three basic forms:Single Wordfor example: and, but, because, althoughCompound (often ending with as or that)for example: provided that, as long as, in order thatCorrelative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)for example: so...thatFunctionConjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:- Jack and Jill went up the hill.- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:- I went swimming although it was cold.PositionCoordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

Coordinating ConjunctionsThe short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":and, but, or, nor, for, yet, soA coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

+

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:I like [tea] and [coffee].[Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:She is kind so she helps people.When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:FANBOYS

ForAndNorButOrYetSo

Subordinating ConjunctionsThe majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, whileA subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

+

Look at this example:main orindependent clausesubordinate ordependent clause

Ram went swimmingalthoughit was raining.

subordinatingconjunction

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming."A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

+

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

+

Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.

InterjectionsHi! That's an interjection. :-)Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like OH!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing.When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence.An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.Here is a table of interjections with implied meanings and example sentences.Interjections ListHere is a list of interjections with meanings and example sentences. This list does not include all interjections but it does show the more common ones.interjectionmeaningexample

ahexpressing pleasure"Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization"Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation"Ah well, it can't be helped."

expressing surprise"Ah! I've won!"

alasexpressing grief or pity"Alas, she's dead now."

dearexpressing pity"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise"Dear me! That's a surprise!"

ehasking for repetition"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

expressing enquiry"What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise"Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement"Let's go, eh?"

erexpressing hesitation"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

hello, hulloexpressing greeting"Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise"Hello! My car's gone!"

heycalling attention"Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc"Hey! What a good idea!"

hiexpressing greeting"Hi! What's new?"

hmmexpressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement"Hmm. I'm not so sure."

oh, oexpressing surprise"Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain"Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading"Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouchexpressing pain"Ouch! That hurts!"

uhexpressing hesitation"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huhexpressing agreement"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, ummexpressing hesitation"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

wellexpressing surprise"Well I never!"

introducing a remark"Well, what did he say?"

Grammatical CategoryThe term "grammatical category" refers to specific properties of a word that can cause that word and/or a related word to change in form for grammatical reasons (ensuring agreement between words).For example, the word "boy" is a noun. Nouns have a grammatical category called "number". The values of number are singular (one) and plural (two or more).The boy is playing.The boys are playing.In sentence 1, "boy" is in its basic form, giving its "number" the value of singular. There is one boy and the related auxiliary verb "to be" is in the singular form (is).In sentence 2, the form of "boy" has changed to "boys", giving its "number" the value of plural. There is more than one boy and the related "to be" is in the plural form (are).In the above example, the "number" of "boy" influences the form of boy, and also influences the form of a related word (be). "Number" is a "grammatical category".English has over twenty grammatical categories. Below we list the most common ones for English learners and summarise their main features.NumberNumber is a property of nouns and pronouns, and indicates quantity. Number has two values:singular: indicates one onlyplural: indicates two or more number

singularplural

nounboyboys

pronounIwe

CaseCase is a property of pronouns and nouns, and expresses their relationship to the rest of the sentence. Case has three values (two of which do not apply to nouns):subjective (pronouns only): when the word is the subjectobjective (pronouns only): when the word is the objectpossessive (pronouns and nouns): when the word indicates possession (ownership) case

subjectiveobjectivepossessive

pronounImemine

nounboyboyboy's

GenderNatural gender is a property of pronouns, and differentiates the sexes. Natural gender has three values:masculine: indicates malefeminine: indicates femaleneuter: indicates everything else gender

masculinefeminineneuter

pronounhe/him/hisshe/her/hersit/its

Note that Old English had "grammatical gender" where words themselves had gender. Remnants of this are found in "natural gender", which is based on the sex of people rather than the gender of words.PersonPerson is a property of pronouns, and differentiates participants in a conversation. Person has three values:first person: refers to the speakersecond person: refers to the hearerthird person: refers to all other people or things person

1st2nd3rd

pronounI/mewe/usyouhe/him, she/her, itthey

TenseTense is a property of verbs, and most closely corresponds with location in time. Tense has two values:past: indicates before nowpresent: indicates now (and sometimes before and after now) tense

pastpresent

verbwasdidhadworkedranamdohaveworkrun

Note that "future tense" is not shown here because strictly-speaking it is not a tense but a structure to talk about the future (after now).

AspectAspect is a property of verbs, and expresses our view of the time structure of an activity or state. Aspect has three values:simple: the time has no structurecontinuous: expresses ongoing actionperfect: expresses completed action aspect

simplecontinuousperfect

verbthey workthey are workingthey have worked

MoodMood is a property of verbs, and relates to the speaker's feelings about the reality of what he is saying. Mood has three values:indicative: expresses simple statement of factimperative: expresses commandsubjunctive: expresses something desired or imagined mood

indicativeimperativesubjunctive

verbJames stood up.Stand up!We insist that he stand.

Is it quiet enough?Be quiet!It is essential that you be quiet.

VoiceVoice is a property of transitive verbs*, and expresses the relationship of the subject to the action. Voice has two values:active: the subject does the actionpassive: the subject receives the action voice

activepassive

transitive verbThe cat ate the mouse.The mouse was eaten by the cat.

* A transitive verb can have a direct object.

DegreeDegree is a property of gradable adjectives and adverbs, and indicates amount. Degree has three values:positive: indicates a basic qualitycomparative: indicates a greater qualitysuperlative: indicates the maximum quality degree

positivecomparativesuperlative

gradable adjectivehappyhappierthe happiest

gradable adverbcarefullymore carefullythe most carefully

Sources: Google Englishclub.com

Table of contents

Parts of Speech Table2Parts of Speech Examples3Words wi