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SECTION 5 - ANNEXE 7Selected Bibliography Mineral Occurrences in the Democratic Republic of

Congo (DRC)

Partie A. Bibliographie avant 1966 Mineral sector of the Democratic Republic of Congo

Aderca, B.M., 1962. Etat d’avancement des connaissances en géologie minière et en

hydrogeology dans l’ex-Congo belgeet au Rwanda-Burundi. Bull. Soc. Belge Geol., LXXI, 23/40.

Aderca, B.M., 1962. Géologie minière et hydrogéologie. Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mer, Livre blanc II, 575/586. Akkersdijk, ME 1926. De ertsafzettingen van de Katanga. De Mijningenieur, VII année, n°5,

80-86. Ball, S.H., 1911. Mining in the Belgian Congo. MSP, January 1911. Ball, S.H., 1912. Mining in the Belgian Congo. MSP, January 1912. Ball, S.H., 1913. Mining in the Belgian Congo. MSP, April 1913. Ball, S.H., Shaler, M.K., 1914. Mining in the Belgian Congo in 1913. MSP, February 1914. Ball, S.H., Shaler, M.K., 1914. Mineral resources of the Belgian Congo. MM 101. Ball, S.H., Shaler, M.K., 1914. The economic geology of the Belgian Congo. EG 9. Ball, S.H., Shaler, M.K., 1920. Mineral resources of the Belgian Congo. EMJ 110: 809-810. Ball, SH. 1928. Belgian Congo grows in the Mining World. Engineering and Mining Journal,

17-20. Barthelemy, RE. 1934. Katanga ores offer a variety of treatment problems. Engineering and

Mining Journal, 401-403. Behrend, F. 1939. Geologischer Bau und Nutzbare Lagerstätten in Belgisch Kongo.

Metallwirtschaft (berlin), 18 (52), pp. 1049-1052. Bertossa, A., 1966. Liste des travaux ayant trait à la géologie du Rwanda et des régions

limitrophes publiés en 1965-1966, et compléments pour la période 1960-1964. Bull. Serv. Géol. Rwanda 3: 57-72.

Bouffioux, P. 1932. Aperçu géologique et gîtes de Congo belge. Revue de l’Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles, 12e année, n°6, 211-224.

Briart, P., 1895. Les richesses minérales du Congo. PCA. Brien, V., 1907. Voyage de recherches minières au Mayumbe (Bas-Congo). BAILg XXXII,

3, 380-381. Brien, V., 1910. Notice sur l’exploration géologique et la recherche des Mines au Congo

belge. CPCM XXIII, P. 550. Brien, V., 1910. La prospection des mines en Afrique. Les gîtes métallifères du Congo belge.

BAEEIL. N°1 et 2, n°18, col.230. Buttgenbach, H., 1905-1906. Notes minéralogiques. ASGB XXXIII, p.M 9-16. Buttgenbach, H., 1910. Description des minéraux du Congo belge. AMCB , I, 1, 1-35. Buttgenbach, H., 1911-2. Description des minéraux du Congo belge (deuxième mémoire).

ASGB, PRCB, XXXIX, II, 1, 83-125. Buttgenbach, H., 1912-3. Description des minéraux du Congo belge (troisième mémoire).

ASGB, PRCB, XL, 31-70. Buttgenbach, H., 1913. Minéraux du Congo belge. BSBEC, 9-10, 667-680. Buttgenbach, H., 1914. Description des minéraux du Congo belge (quatrième mémoire).

ASGB, PRCB, XLI, p.C12-51.

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Buttgenbach, H., 1921. Description des minéraux du Congo belge (5e mémoire). Mém Ac roy Bel, in-8e VI, 33p.

Buttgenbach, H., 1923. Description des minéraux du Congo belge (6e mémoire). Mém Ac roy Bel, in-8e VII, 1-36.

Buttgenbach, H., 1923. Minéraux du Tanganyike-Moëro. ASGB XLVI, p.B 229-234. Buttgenbach, H., 1923-24. Minéraux du Congo belge. ASGB, PRBC, XLVII, p.C 31-40. Buttgenbach, H., 1924. Liste des espèces minérales et leurs formes cristallines trouvées en

Belgique et au Congo belge. LJSGB III, 7-49. Buttgenbach, H. 1925. Minéralogie du Congo belge. Mémoires de la Société Royale des

Sciences de Liège, 3e série, tXIII, 1-181. Buttgenbach, H. 1932. Les recherches géologiques et minières au Congo belge. Bulletin de

l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, t. III, n°3, 545-570. Buttgenbach, H. 1937. Histoire des découvertes minières. Revue Universelle des Mines,

8ième série, 13, 107-111. Buttgenbach, H., 1947, Les minéraux de Belgique et du Congo belge, Liège, sans éd., 573p. Cailleux, A., 1957. Les paroxysmes des minéralisations africaines. CRAcSc, 245, 23 : 2070-

2071. Cambier, R., 1946, La conquête minérale du bassin congolais, B.S.R.B.G., 70e année, fasc. 1-

4, p. 3-25 Carte des concessions minières du Congo et du Rwanda-Burundi avec notice. 1962. Atlas

Général du Congo. Bruxelles, Académie royale des Sciences Outre-Mer, 1 carte au 1/5 000 000 avec notice.

Cesaro, G., 1911-1912. Rapport sur le travail de H. Buttgenbach intitulé : « description des minéraux du Congo belge ».ASGB, PRBC XXXIX, II, 126-128.

Clifford, T.N., 1965. Structural units and tectono-metallogenic provinces within the Congo and Kalahari cratons of Southern Africa. Univ. Leeds, Res Inst Africa Geol, 9th Ann Rep on Scient Rseults, session 1963-1964: 30-33.

Clifford, T.N., 1966. Tectono-metallogenic units and metallogenic provinces of Africa. EPSL 1: 421-434.

Chemery, J., 1960. Histoire de la mise en valeur minière des territoires d’Afrique centrale 21 : 175 p.

Colonna, M., Fischer, F.L., 1947, Mineral resources of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, U.S.B.M., Foreign Minerals Survey, vol. 2, n°6, 95p.

Corin, F., 1962. Minéralogie. Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mer, Libre Blanc II: 568-574. Cornet, J., 1899. Chapitre XI. Géologie et gîtes métallifères ; dans l’ouvrage : A.J. Wauters.

L’Etat indépendant du Congo. Bruxelles, Falk fils. Dalle, P. 1930. Les industries extractives. Revue des Questions Scientifiques, n° spécial : »le

Congo belge et les Sciences ». t XVII, n°2-3, 361-395. Davidson, C.F., feb. 1953, The Gold-Uranium ores of the Witwatersrand, M.M., 13p. De Dycker, R., 1949, Observations géologiques dans la région du Mont Ibenga (Maniema),

N.M.S.B.G.P.H., nouvelle série, n°3, p. 21-46 De Kun, N. 1957. On the Central African metallogenetic provinces. Geologische Rundschau,

XLVI, 2, 494-505. De Kun, N., 1965. The mineral resources of Africa. Elsevier, Amsterdam, London, New-york,

740 p. De Launay, L., 1913. Les richesses minérales de l’Afrique. Paris et Liège, Béranger, 395p. De Launay, L., 1913. Traité de métallogénie. Gîtes minéraux métallifères, « vol.. Paris et

Liège, Béranger. Delhaye, F., Sluys, M., 1921-1922. La région métallifère du Niari et du Dju (AEF). ASGB,

PRBC, XLV, p.C45-73 .

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Delhaye, P., 1898. Les mines au Congo. BC 4e année, 31 : 364-365. De Magnée, I., 1954, De Ertsmijnbouw in de Belgische Congo, D.I., n°37, Mijnbouw – en

Petroleum techniek, 5, 6p. De Rauw, H., 1924. Les traits essentiels de la géologie du Congo. BSAEESL, 21e année, 6 :

343-364. Derry, D.R., 1961. Economic aspects of Archean-Proterozoic boundaries. Econ. Geol. LVI, 4:

635-647. Fourmarier, P. 1936. La géologie du Congo belge. Les richesses minérales. Chronique des

Mines Coloniales, V, 49, 145-151. Furon, R., 1953, La conquête minérale de l’Afrique, Bull. Conféd. Gén. du Commerce et de

l’Ind. De Tunisie, n°49, p. 717-737 Furon, R., 1961. Les ressources minérales de l’Afrique. 2e édition. Payot, Paris. 284 p. Galpas, P., 1962. L’exploitation des ressources minérales du Katanga (Congo). Génie civil

139, 8 : 174-181. Gautier, A., Geets, S., 1966. Zware mineralen van de zoetwaterafzettingen in de Albert- en

Edwardmeren-Slenk. Natuurw. Tijschr. 48: 141-156. Gevers, J., 1961. Les autres exploitations et les gisements non encore exploités. Publ. Univ.

Etat à Elisabethville II: 297-303. Grosemans, P. 1964. Le bilan de quatorze années de prospection dans le Bas Congo. Bulletin

de l’ Académie royale des Sciences Outre-Mer, 4, 1066-1074. Guernsey, T.D., 1962. Report on four mines of the Anglo-American corporation. Gisements

stratiformes de cuivre en Afrique – Symposium 1ère partie (Copenhague, 1960). Assoc. Serv. Géol. Afric., Paris: 151-157.

Henry, J. Etudes géologiques et recherches minières dans la contrée entre Ponthierville et le Lac Kivu. Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, Sec Sc nat méd, in 8°, t. II, fasc 8

Herman, P., Vanderstappen, R., Hubaux, A., 1960-1961. Contribution à l’étude des minéraux congolais. Ann. Soc. Géol. Belgique LXXXIV : 297-309.

Huge, J., Egoroff, A., 1947, Ressources minérales du Congo (Liste provisoire), Bull. serv. Géol. C.B. et R.U., n°3, p. 21-35

Jamotte, A., Lepersonne, J., 1947, Les ressources minérales du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi, C.A.I.Lg., Section Coloniale, p. 227-293

Knight, C.L., 1957. Ore genesis. The source bed concept. Econ. Geol., 52, 7: 808-817. Laude, N. 1937. Carte économique du Congo belge au 1/3 000 000. Université Coloniale de

Belgique, Anvers. Legraye, M., 1958. L’avenir de l’industrie minière du Congo belge. Bull. Aca. Roy. Sc. Col. :

1117-1131. Léonard, H. 1931. Les mines du Congo belge. Congo, Revue générale de la Colonie belge, t

II, n°2, 186-192. Léonard, H. 1937. Les mines au Congo belge. Congo, Revue générale de la Colonie belge.

n°3, t. 1, 338-346. Letcher, O., 1911. Mineral resources of central Africa. MM, V: 213-218. Lombard, J. 1933. Les grandes minéralisations de l’Afrique sud-équatoriale et la géologie

régionale. Chronique des Mines Coloniales, 2e année, n°10, 3-21 et n°11, 67-85. Lombard, J., Répartition linéamentaire de quelques métaux en Afrique. Chron. Mines et Rech. Min. 357: 319-328. Luja, C.H., 1924. A general note on the country and the minerals being exploited in the Katanga Province of the Belgian Congo. JCMMSSA, 24: 245-250. Malaise, C., 1912-1913. Rapport sur le mémoire “Description des minéraux du Congo belge (3e mémoire), par H. Buttgenbach ». ASGB, PRCB, XL : 71-72.

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Malaise, C., 1913. Manuel de minéralogie, 4e édition 1913. Annexe 12 : espèces minérales du Congo. Mertens de Wilmars, E. 1963. L’Energie. Bruxelles, Académie royale des Sciences Outre-

Mer, livre blanc, III, 1039-1053. Minette d’Oulhaye, M., 1924. Quelques mots sur la géologie du Congo belge (résumé).

AFASc Congrès Liège, 1924, 48e session, Paris 1925, p. 374-380 et LJSGB, II, 53-61. Minette d’Oulhaye M. 1926. Les mines du Congo. Bulletin de la Société Royale belge de

Ingénieurs et des Industriels, Bull, t VI, n°1, 77-95. Ministère des Colonies. 1930. Le cuivre au Katanga. Ministère des Colonies. 1930. L’étain du Congo. Ministère des Colonies. 1930. Mines d’or. Moisel, M., 1910. Karte von Deutsch-Ostafrika mit Angabe der ntzbaren bodenschatze.

Berlin, Dietrich-Reimer, 1910. Moureau, A., 1961. Introduction à la géologie du Katanga. Publ. Univ. Etat à Elisabethville

II: 229-233. Mouvement Géographique. Au Katanga. Les opérations du Comité Spécial. MG, 47 : 602-

606. Musée royal du Congo belge, 1957. Rapport annuel: 1-37. Nicolini, P., 1958. Etude bibliographique sur la cadre géologique et l’origine des

minéralisations de l’Afrique central. Discussion des hypothèses génétiques proposées. Chron. Des Mines d’Outre-Mer et de la Rech. Min., 26e année, 263 : 132-159.

Palausi, G., 1961. Sur la présence de glauconie dans le niveau supérieur des grès de l’Inkisi (Congo). C.R.somm.Soc.géol.France 4 : 91-93.

Panorama de l’industrie minière du Continent africain en 1960. Ann. Mines, 1961 : 487-514 & 519-525.

Panorama de l’industrie minière du Continent africain en 1961. Ann. Mines, 1962 : 430-459. Passau, G., 1946, Gisements sous basalte au Kivu (Congo belge), M.I.R.C.B., sc. Nat et méd.,

t. XV, fasc. 6, 24p. Passau, G., 1951, Prospections et découvertes des gisements à la Compagnie Minière des

Grands Lacs Africains (M.G.L.), Loviana, n°18, p.7-17 Pelissonnier, H., 1962. Classifications métallogéniques : problèmes et essai de synthèse.

Chron. Mines et Rech. Min. 43-57: 83-95. Pelletier, R.A., 1964. Mineral resources of South-Central Africa. Oxford University Press,

277p. Polinard, E., 1925, La phase nouvelle de l’exploration minière en Afrique centrale, Bull. Soc.

Belge Et. Expans., p. 204 Polinard, E. 1936. Les gîtes d’éluvions et d’alluvions au Congo belge. Leur prospection et

leur exploitation. Revue Universelle des Mines, 8ième série, t. XIII, n°3, 121-133. Polinard,E., 1937. Les règles de répartition des richesses minières en Afrique centrale.

Scéance Acad . Univ . Col. Belg., 6 novelmbre 1937, 7 p. Polinard, E. 1939. Les gîtes miniers au Congo. Société Belge de Ingénieurs et des Industriels,

bull n°10. Quennell, A.M., 1956. Metallogenic epochs in East and Central Africa. CCTA/CSA, First

meeting, East-Central Regional Committee for Geology, Dar-es-Salaam, 1956, 139-150. Raguin, E., 1961. Géologie des gîtes minéraux. Paris, Masson et Cie, 3e éd., 686 p. Raucq, P., Lepersonne, J., Delhal, J., Thoreau, J., 1966. Carte géologique du Congo à

l’échelle du 1/200.000. Feuille Dibaya (S7/22-SB.34.15) et notice explicative. Kinshasa, Serv. Geol. Rep. Dem. Congo, 51p.

Reeve, W.H., 1962. The geology and mineral resources of Northern Rhodesia. Geol. Surv. N. Rhodesia, Bull. 3.

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Reh, H., 1961. Zum geologischen Bau der Republik Kongo. Geologie Jg. 10, 3: 257-265. Reh, H 1962. Ueber die Lagerstätten der Republik Kongo. Berichte der Geolischen

Gesellschaft, Berlin, DDR, 6, 105-116 Reichard, P., 1885. Afrikanische grund und boden. DKZ, p. 41. Remaele, G. 1934. Les richesses du Katanga (Congo belge). La Nature, n°2925, 262-264. Robert, M. 1930. La minéralisation au Katanga Méridional. Bulletin de la Société belge de

Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XL, fasc 1, 35-39. Robert, M. 1931. An outline of the geology and ore deposits of Katanga, Belgian Congo.

Economic Geology., XXVI, n°5, 531-539. Robert, M. 1932. Le centre Africain. Bruxelles, M. Lamertin, 261p Robert, M., 1949, La minéralisation du sous-sol (Congo belge), Industrie, Revue de la

Fédération des Industries belges, 3e année, n°5, p. 291-295 Robert, M. 1956. Géologie et Géographie du Katanga. Bruxelles, 620p. Schneiderhoehn, H., 1949, Erzlagerstätten. 2. Aufl., Stuttgart, Piscator Verlag Sluys, M., 1944-45, La région de Kasongo (Manyema méridional), A.S.G.B., t. 68, p. B. 251-

257 Sinclair, WE 1954. The Belgian Congo, a makjor mineral producer. Mining magazine, 91,

n°5, 273-282. Stainier, X., 1897. La géologie (du Congo belge). In GEIC : 269-280. The stratiform copper deposits of Africa. 1962. Mining Mag. 107, 5, 288-289. Sullivan, C.J., 1954, Metallic melting point and ore deposition, E.G., vol. 49, n°6, p. 555-574 Unesco. 1963. Enquête sur les ressources naturelles du continent africain. Unesco. Paris. 448p Trefois, G. 1922. Contribution à l’étude des méthodes de recherches minières applicables en Thoreau, J., 1925. Observations minéralogiques dans le haut Uele. Ann. Soc. Sci. Brux., p.518. Afrique centrale. RUM ; 6e série, XIII, 1 : 1-18. Vaes, A., 1950, Production minière et main d’œuvre indigène en 1948 (Rapport annuel du

Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. XLIX, 2e livraison, p. 223-243 Vaes, A., 1951, Production minière et main d’œuvre indigène en 1949 (Rapport annuel du

Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. L, 2e livraison, p. 305-326 Vaes, A., 1952, L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1950 (Rapport

annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. LI, 2e livraison, p. 254-273 Vaes, A., 1953, L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1951 (Rapport

annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. LII, 2e livraison, p. 276-301 Vaes, A., mars 1954, L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1952

(Rapport annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. LIII, n°2, p. 248-269 Vaes, A., nov. 1954, L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1953

(Rapport annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge), A.M.B., t. LIII, n°6, p. 827-851 Vaes, A., 1955, L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1954 (Rapport

annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge), à paraître dans A.M.B., … Vaes, A. 1955. L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1954 (rapport

annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge). Annales des Mines de Belgique, LIV, 6, 1046-1967

Vaes, A., 1956. L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Ann. Mines Belgique, 11 : 1106-1133.

Vaes, A. 1956. L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1955 (rapport annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge). Annales des Mines de Belgique, LV, 6, 1000-1025

Vaes, A. 1958. L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1957. Annales des Mines de Belgique, 1958, nov, 11, 1001-1014.

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Vaes, A. 1959. L’industrie minière du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi en 1958 (rapport annuel du Service des Mines du Congo belge). Annales des Mines de Belgique, 1959, 11, 1091-1121.

Vanecek, M., 1960°. Nerostne bohatstvi republiky Kongo. Geol. Pruzkum. Ceskosl. 2, II: 327-329.

Wery, A., 1948, Le domaine minier de la Compagnie des Grands Lacs, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. 57, p. 40-75

Wheeler, A.E., 1924. Copper operations in the Congo. MAM, V, 206: 53-59. Woodtli, R., 1961. L’Europe et l’Afrique I. Le potential mineral africain. Lausanne, Centre de

recherches européennes, Université de Lausanne, 302p. Woodtli, R., 1965. Le role de l’Afrique dans l’approvisionnement mondial en produits

minéraux. Revue économique et sociale, Lausanne, janivier 1965. 49-58. Yakzhin, A.A., 1961. Mineralo-surevye resursy Kongo. Sovet Geol, 2: 145-157.

1. Energy Resources

1.1 Fossil fuels

Coal, oil, natural gas, peat, oil shale and tar sands are called fossil fuels because they consist of plant and animal remains, which have been preserved in rocks. Organic material is changed easily by geological processes. Most organic matter decomposes by oxidation and are recycled in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, but a small amount is preserved due to burial beneath other sediments and becomes fossil fuels. 1.1.1 Coal – Peat (De Kun, 1965) The Karroo covers considerable areas on the eastern edge of the Congo basin. However, the coal measures of its early Lualaba stage were only deposited in small lakes. The principal deposits are located near the upper Lualaba Valley and the Upemba Graben, and also at Luena north of Likasi in Katanga, Greinerville in the Lukuga Valley, Kalemie west of Lake Tanganyika, and Walikale west of Lake Kivu. The latter seams, which are flexured and jointed, mainly carry Gangamopteris which indicates Dwyka, Upper Carboniferous age. West of Luena, Permian (lower Karroo) coal has sedimented from deltas in four basins of Basement schists and quartzites along a 12 mile long, north-northeast trending arc. Erosion of the Kisulu and Luena basins has started in the north, while Kaluku and Kalule lie in the south. At Luena, a 2 mile long and 0.5 mile wide oval is oriented in a northeasterly direction, and bulges towards the southeast. A total of four seams may be present, attaining 35 ft. of thickness. The coal contains pyrite and Glossopteris. The warped sediments dip 25° to the southeast, and sub-horizontally to the northwest, but open post-Karroo fissures cut the strata. At Kisulu coal seams dip slightly south, and the lowest pinches out northwards; two seams average 3 ft. of thickness. There have been found two seams at Kaluku, and three at Kalule North, which respectively attain 10 and 8 ft. of thickness. Hard coal is abundant and contains 5.5 % moisture, 20.5 % ash, 34% volatiles and 40.0 % fixed carbon. The calorific value reaches only 8,300-9,200 B.T.U./lb. for humid coal, with 25% ash, and 10,600-11,200 B.T.D./lb. when reduced to 15% ash. The Lukuga coal is resinous, containing pollen and relies of wood; five seams and seven seamlets attain a total thickness of 15-20 ft. Since the measures carry Glossopteris, Phyllo-

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teca and Cyclodendron, they are of Permian (Ecca) age. The measures have been strongly dissected south of Albertville and also at Greinerville. The coal contains 5.6-5.9 % moisture, 15.3-19.4 % ash, 31 % volatiles and 43.4-46.8 % fixed carbon. Lignite occurs at Mbanza Ngungu in the Lower Congo

----- Cambier, R. 1929. Le charbon au Congo. Bulletin de l’Association pour le Perfectionnement

du Matériel Colonial. 19e année, n°77, 128-140. Cambier, R. 1930. Contribution à l’étude géologique des bassins houillers de la Luena.

Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t I, 1-52. Cambier, R. 1942. Les possibilités de développements des charbonnages congolais. Bulletin

de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 12, 3, 480-510. Cambier, R., 1952, Le charbon, Encyclopédie du Congo belge, Bruxelles, éd. Bieleveld, t. II,

ch. III, p. 653-660 Clerfayt, A. 1960. Le développement énergétique du Congo belge et Ruanda-Urundi.

Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc techn, in 8°, XII, fasc 2 Duparque, A. 1934. Contribution à l’étude pétrographiques des houilles de la Lukuga et de la

Luena. Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t V, 69-147. Duparque, A. 1935. Sur les caractères pétrographiques des houilles permiennes au Congo

belge. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, t.CC, 17, 1490-1492. Feys, R., Fabre, J., 1966. Carte des dépôts houillers de l’Afrique (1 :10.000.000) ; avec notice

explicative. Assoc. Serv. Géol. afric., Paris, 61p. Fourmarier, P., 1913-1914. Résumé de ses observations sur le bassin charbonnier d’âge

permien de la Lukuga (Katanga). ASGB, 41, p.B 83-84. Fourmarier, P., 1913-1914. Le bassin charbonnier d’âge permotriasique de la Lukuga. Etude

géologique de la Lukuga et de la Lubumba, au voisinage du lac Tanganyika. ASGB, PRCB, XLI : 77-227.

Fourmarier, P., 1918-1919. Etude comparative des fromations postprimaires de la Malagarasi (Afrique orientale), de la Lukuga et des autres régions du Katanga. ASGB, PRCB, XLII, p. C15-26.

Fourmarier, P., 1919. Le bassin charbonnier de la Lukuga. RUM, I : 118-134. Fourmarier, P. 1935. Quelques considération au sujet de la corrélation entre les terrains

anciens du Bas Congo et du Katanga. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LVIII, fasc 3, 132-144.

Gérard, A.E. Le charbon en Afrique australe et centrale. RUM, XVI, n°4 : 247-262. Jamotte, A. 1929-1930. Esquisse géologique du bassin charbonnier du Tanganyka. Annales

de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LIII, 35-45.

Jamotte, A. 1931. Contribution à l’étude géologique du bassin charbonnier de la Lukuga. Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t.II, 1-75.

Jamotte, A., 1952, Les gisements charbonniers du Katanga dans le cadre africain, C.S.K. 50e Anni. Congrès Elisabethville 1950, vol. II, t. I, p.271-287

Lohest, M., 1912. Le charbon de la Lukuga. BCScAcRB : 849-850. Minette d’Oulhaye, M., 1923. Le charbon au Congo. RUM, 6e série, XVIII, 14p. et

CRCSIAILg : 141-143. Noel, R., 1958. Contribution à l’étude des charbons du Congo belge ; application de l’analyse

pétrographique aux problèmes pratiques relatifs à des charbons très cendreux. Rev. Industr. Minér. N° spécial : pétrologie charbons, 32-40.

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Polinard E. 1933-1943. Sur un dépôt de tourbe des environs de Thysville. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LVII, C149-152

Reintjens, E. 1928-1929. Notes sur la découverte de charbon au Sud de la rivière Lubileye (région d’Albertville). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. II, C1-3

Renier, A., 1913. Les gisements charbonniers du Congo belge – The coal reosurces of the world. XII Int Geol. Congress, Canada 1913, vols. I et II.

Renier, A. 1926. Forêts congolaises et fôrets houilleres. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t. XLIX, B337-344.

Stockley, G.M., 1947, Coal resources of east and east central Africa, M.M., v. 77, n°1, p. 9-16 Varlamoff, N., 1957. Contribution à la connaissance des lambeaux des formations de la

Lukuga, situés au Sud d’Albertville. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 411-431. 1.1.2 Crude oil – Natural Gas 1.1.2.1 Crude Oil In the Albertine rift valley of Uganda and the DRC, oil seeps from the Pleistocene Kaiso lacustrine clay, sand and bone beds. Oil seeps also occur on the northern tip of Lake Tanganyika (De Kun, 1965).

----- Cornet, J., 1909-10. Présentation d’échantillons. ASGB, XXXVII, p.B148. Cornet, J., 1910-11. Sur la possibilité de l’existence de gisements de pétrole au Congo.

ASGB, PRCB, XXXVIII : 9-15. Passagez, A. 1925. LA question des carburants. Comment la résoudre en Belgique. BSBII, t.

V, n°2, 125-182 Pirson, SJ. 1934. Oil possibilities of Belgian and Belgian Congo. Bulletin of the American

Association of Petroleum Geologists, vol 18, n°9, 1160-1174 De Grand Ry, G. 1941. Les grabens africains et la recherche du pétrole. Mémoire de l’Institut

Royal Colonial Belge, in 4°, t. 4, fasc 2 (Sc techn) Jamotte, A. 1944. LA question des combustibles minéraux au Congo belge. Publication de

l’Association des Ingénieurs de l’Ecole des Mines de Mons, Sect Congolaise, n°7, 25-41. Legraye, M., oct. 1951, Le pétrole au Congo belge, R.U.M., 9e série, tome VII, p. 372-376.

Petroleum Geologists, XLV, 7: 1143-1185. Hedberg, H.D., jul. 1952, Petroleum Developments in Africa in 1951, B.A.A.P.G., vol. 36,

n°7, p. 1395-1426 Hedberg, H.D., jul. 1953, Petroleum Developments in Africa in 1952, B.A.A.P.G., vol. 37,

n°7, p. 1648-1684 Hedberg, HD 1955. 1954 developments in foreign petroleum fields – Africa. Bulletin of the

American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 39, n°7, 1320-1361. Straley, H.W., 1955. Belgian Congo geology offers possibilities. World Oil, 141, n°1: 224-

225. Hedberg, H.D., 1957. Petroleum developments in Africa in 1956. Bull. Amer. Assoc.

Petroleum Geologists, 41, 7: 1540-1590. Lange, E., 1958. Die sedimentarbecken Afrikas. Zeitschri. Für angewandte Geologie, 4, 6:

282-284. Evrard, P., lepersonne, J. 1956. Etat des connaissances concernant l’existence de gisements de

pétrole au Congo belge et au Ruanda-Urundi. Congrès géologique international, XXe sess. Mexico 1956. Simposium sobre yacimientos de petroleo y gas, t I, afica, 69-79.

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Illing, V.C., The world’s oilfields. The Eastern hemisphere, Oxford University Press, 174p. (The Science of Petroleum, vol. IV, pt I)

Hedberg, HD, Moody, JD, Sass, LC 1959. Petroleum developments in Africa in 1958 Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, XLIII, n°7, 1625-1675.

Hedberg, HD, Moody, JD 1960. Petroleum developments in Africa in 1959. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, XLIV, n°7, 1102-1143.

Hedberg, H.D., 1960. Petroleum developments in Africa in 1960. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Chelman, W. 1959. Le marché pétrolier au Congo belge et au Ruanda-Urundi, Léopoldville,

XI, Editions de l’Université, 198pp. Clerfayt, A. 1960. Le développement énergétique du Congo belge et Ruanda-Urundi.

Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc techn, in 8°, XII, fasc 2 Cordry, E.A., 1965. Petroleum development in Central and Southern Africa in 1964. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 49, 8 : 1257-1291. Cordry, E.A., 1966. Petroleum development in Central and Southern Africa in 1965. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 50, 8 : 1704-1740. 1.1.2.2 Natural Gas (De Kun, 1965). Carbon dioxide frequently escapes from the volcanic Rift Valleys of eastern Africa. Between the Congo and Rwanda this gas, along with methane, is absorbed in the peculiarly layered waters of Lake Kivu. The Kivu basin has been drained through the Ruincli Valley towards Lake Edward and the Albertine Nile. However, after the eruption of the volcanic chain of the Virunga Mountains had barred this pass, Lake Kivu was created at an altitude of 4,670 ft. The flow of the Kivu drainage was then inverted, the Ruzizi River spilling over between Bukavu in the Congo and Shangugu in Rwanda, and entering Lake Tanganyika and the Congo drainage. Since Lake Kivu occupies a system of valleys, it has an irregular shore line and numerous islands, the largest of which is Idjwi.The maximum dimensions of the Lake are 70 by 20 miles. Methane and carbon dioxide are absorbed by its waters below 210 ft. of depth and, between 600 ft. and its maximum depth of 1,620ft., gas accumulation is such that gas separates from this water when pumped to the surface. Experts estimate a reserve of 10.7 cubic miles of gas, or 12.6 cubic miles expressed in methane, which equals the calorific power of 250 million barrels of gas-oil. The deposit is dynamic and continues to form. Indeed, its tapping would enhance the development of gas in the residual waters. Since the relative nitrate and phosphate content of the gas free waters returned to the lake would increase, lacustrine vegetation would develop even faster. At present, life has only been observed above a depth of 200 ft. Since decomposed fossils undergo anaerobic fermentation, their water sinks, becomes heavier, and thus produces the deposit. Although the proportion of methane and carbon dioxide is variable, the gas content and the layering of the lake is not. Sulphuric acid is abundant in the lower layers.

----- Borgniez, G. 1960. Données pour la mise en valeur du gisement de méthane du lac kivu.

Mémoire de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’Outre-mer, Cl Sc techn, in 8°, XIII, fasc 1. Capart, A. 1955. Les gaz du Lac Kivu. Revue colonial belge, n°245, 873 Chaigneau, M., Fabre, R. Tazieff, H. 1960. Sur l’extraction et l’analyse des gaz occlus dans la

lave du volcan Nyiragongo. Annales de Géophysique, XVI, 4, 561-564. Dubois, J.T., 1958. Le gaz méthane du Lac Kivu. Folia scientifica Africae centralis, IV, 3 :

55-57.

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Dubois, J Th 1959. Le gaz méthane du lac Kivu. Publication de l’Institut pour la recherche scientifique en Afrique Centrale, 11e rapport annuel 1958, 116-120

Kufferath, J. 1960. Le méthane du lac Kivu. Naturalistes belges, XLI, 10, 418-426. Oleinikov, I.N., 1966. Gisement de méthane du Lac Kivu. Geol. Nefti. Gaza, SSSR, 10, 32 :

62-64. Schmitz, DW, Kufferath, J 1955. Problèmes posés par la présence de gaz dissous dans les

eaux profondes du lac Kivu. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, 326-356.

1.1.3 Tar sands 1.1.4 Oil shale In the eastern Congo, Jurassic, bituminous shales cover vast areas. Indeed, the Stanleyville deposits are the only major occurrence of hydrocarbons in interior basins (De Kun, 1965). In the Congo bituminous shales, argillites and, less frequently, sandstones are interbedded with the sediments of the Stanleyville Stage, and sometimes with the Loia Stage of the Lualaba Series (Karroo). The deposits are therefore considered to be of Upper Jurassic and, possibly, of Lower Cretaceous age. Their sub-horizontal layers, which average 30 ft. of thickness, cover vast areas in the bend of the Congo River. They are mainly located between Kisangani and Ubundu, but also south of Ubundu, southwest of Kisangani on the Lomami River, and downstream from Kisangani as far as Basoko. The shales average a density of 1,82, but only 14-16% organic matter. They contain 40.5 gallons of oil and 19.5 lb. of ammonium sulphate per ton, 2.7% fixed carbon and 64.8% mineral residues. The most extensive layer yields 6% tar, that is, 23 gallons/ton. The Minjaro-Mekombi layer, which outcrops 25 miles south of Kisangani, contains oil similar to diesel oil. Sediments have also been impregnated by bitumen at Banningville and Mpo (Kwango). On the coast bitumen is carried in Cretaceous (Albian) sediments at Mavuma, in Senonian rocks at Vonzo, and in others at Makungu Lengi. Various limestones respectively contain 11, 16 and 37% asphalt, while sands are impregnated by 12-18% bitumen. Along the Angolan and Congolese coast, from Mayombe in the Cabinda enclave to Mossamedes, cretaceous bituminous limestones and sandstones frequently outcrop. The column of up to 150ft rests on a basal conglomerate and Precambrian rocks. Thin beds of bituminous shale are interbedded with the basal conglomerate of the Cretaceous system.

----- Brosius, R., 1953-54, L’exploitation des roches bitumineuses et asphaltiques du Congo belge,

B.I.R.C.B., XXIV, p. 1592-1607 Clerfayt, A. 1960. Le développement énergétique du Congo belge et Ruanda-Urundi.

Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc techn, in 8°, XII, fasc 2 Cornet, J., 1921-22. Rapport sur le mémoire: la géologie du bassin de schistes bitumineux de

Stanleyville (Congo belge), par G. Passau. ASGB, PRBC, XLV, p.C 244-251. De Grand Ry, G., sept. 1950, Etude sur les schistes bitumineux, A.M.B., p. 592-611 Demaret, L. 1926. Les gisements, l’exploitation et la distillation des schistes bitumineux.

Bulletin de la Société Royale belge des Ingénieurs et Industriels. Bull t VI, n°1, 7-48. Fourmarier, P., 1921-22. Rapport sur le travail de G. Passau : La géologie du bassin des

schistes bitumineux de Stanleyville (Congo belge). ASGB, PRCB, XLV, p.C 252. Mertens, E., 1953, Sur les schistes bitumineux congolais, B.I.R.C.B., XXIV-4, p. 1555-1562 Mertens de Wilmars, E. 1959. Considérations sur la nature des huiles des schistes bitumineux

du Congo. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, V, 6, 1441-1450.

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Passau, G., 1912-1913. La géologie du bassin des schistes bitumineux de Stanleyville (Congo belge). Présentation. ASGB, XL, p.B 492.

Passau, G., 1921-1922. La géologie du bassin des schistes bitumineux de Stanleyville (Congo belge). Présentation. ASGB, PRCB, XLV, p.C 91-243.

Passau, G. 1935. Les schistes bitumineux du Congo belge. Comptes Rendus du Congrès International des Mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, t. 1, 521-526.

Schoep, A. 1937. Over de bitumineuze gronden van de Kahoezi, Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, XIX, n°3, 83-85.

Van Ganse, R. 1955. Propriétés et applications des asphaltes naturels du Bas-Congo. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, I-1955-4, 768-782.

1.2 Other Energy resources 1.2.1 Nuclear Energy (De Kun, 1965) Uranium is especially widespread in the Copperbe1t in the Congo (Kalongwe, Kambove, Ruashi, Luishia and Kamoto mines), but its deposits are separate from the copper-pyrite beds. Shinkolobwe-Kasolo is located on the southern edge of the Likasi section where the Katanga geosyncline bends west. Accompanied by numerous secondary faults, the overthrust Tantara fold traverses an overturned, double syncline there. Following the magnesium enrichment of Roan dolomites, the ascending uraniferous solutions penetrated along a zone of inclined dolomitie shales, and expanded sub-horizontally under a nappe. Selenides, monazite and molybdenite were introduced during a later phase of chloritization, followed by the precipitation of the cobalt-nickel sulphides. The sulphides were then crushed and copper was deposited. Whereas molybdenite is widespread, copper remains scarce. Finally, during supergene alteration, uraninite was oxidized. We can distinguish the following phases: (1) quartz-tourmaline-apatite-chlorite-talc; (2) uraninite; (3) Fe-Ni-Co-Cu-Mo sulphides; (4) carbon. Near the surface, uranium veins have penetrated into two spurs of shaly dolomite along the foliation and fissures. At the sub-surface level uraninite is associated with cobalt and nickel, with subsidiary gold and palladium. Occurring also in hydrothermal chlorite of the lower Série des Mines, gold coats uraninite. At lower levels uraninite, accompanied by vaesite (NiS2) and molybdenite, occurs in fine veins and stockworks. Copper, cobalt and nickel sulphides are included in this uraninite. At the deepest level, uranium is no longer localized and nickel disappears progressively. More than 25 new minerais have been discovered at Kasolo; sulphides include siegenite (nickellinnaeite) with or without selenium and cattierite, a mineral exhibiting an antipathie relationship to uraninite. Vaesite forms veins and disseminations, but torbernite, kasolite and sklodowskite only coyer vugs. Finally uraninite has been oxidized in the zone of alteration, which extends to a depth of 200 ft. At Kalongwe (in the southern part of the Katangese Copperbelt) uraninite impregnates a fault zone intersecting the Série des Mines at the beginning of a three phase cycle in which cobalt, then cobalt-copper, and finally copper sulphides followed uranium. The age of this uraninite is 600 million years, i.e., 1.5 million years less than at Shinkolobwe. At Swambo, (west of Shinkolobwe) uraninite is disseminated in a transverse crush zone whieh cuts an écaille of antielinal remuants that extends from Shinkolobwe to Kalongwe. Closely resembling Kasolo, uraninite is followed by chlorite, cobalt-nickel sulphides and, after faulting, by chalcopyrite.

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Occurrences of the Likasi and Lubumbashi districts include Ruashi, Luiswishi, Luishia and Kambove. To them we may add Kamoto in the Kolwezi district. A majority of the world's stock of radium bromide and salts has been recovered from the uranium slimes of Shinkolobwe-Kasolo in the Congo. In uraninite and the complex uranium oxides of this deposit, the uranium/radium ratio averages 2,900/1. Selected ore contains 0.02 % radium.

----- Bailly, R. 1941-1942. Propriétes optiques de la Thoreaulite. Annales de la Société Géologique

de Belgique. 65, 5-6, 169-171 Begemann, F., von Buttlar, H., Houtermans, F.G., Isaac, N., Picciotto, E.E., 1952, Les

résultats préliminaires des mesures d’âge de la pechblende de Shinkolobwe par la méthode du RaD., B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LXI, fasc. 2, p.223-226

Begemann, F., von Buttlar, H., Houtermans, F.G., Isaac, N., Picciotto, E.E., août 1952, L’application de la méthode du RaD à la mesure de l’âge « chimique » d’un minerai d’uranium, Bull. Centre Physique nucléaire (ULB), n°37, 34p. + Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. IV, n°1-2, 1953, p. 21-35

Behrend, F. 1932. Die Radium Lagerstätte Shinkolobwe (Kasolo) in Katanga, Belgische Congo. Metall und Ertz, n°23, 499.

Belova, L.N., Frolova, K.E., 1960. Analogie des forms cristallines de la phosphuranylite et de la renardite. Zap. Vsesojuzn. Mineral. Obsc ., SSSR, LXXXIX 2 : 219-221.

Berman, R.M., 1957. The role of lead and excess oxygen in uraninite. Amer. Miner., 42, 11-12: 705-731.

Bignand, C. 1955. Sur les propriétés et les syntheses de quelques minéraux uranifères. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie, LXXVIII

Bignand, C. 1955. Sur les propriétés et les synthèses de quelques minéraux uranifères. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie, LXXVIII, 1-26.

Bignand, C., Goni, J., Guillemin, C., 1954, La phosphuranylite, ses relations avec la dewindtite et la renardtite, Bull. Soc. Franc. Minér. Crist., t. LXXVII, p.1299-1306

Billiet, V. 1936. Het uranotielvraagstuk. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 18, 3-6, 79. Billiet, V. 1936. Uranotiel en sklodowkiet. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 18, 8, 284-

303. Billiet, V. 1942. Onderzoek over het verband tusschen chrysocole, katangiet, plancheiet,

bisbeeiet, shattuckiet en dioptaas. Verhandeling de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België, Klasse der Wetenschappen, 58, 4.

Billiet, V., De Jong, W.F. 1935. Schoepiet en Becquereliet. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 17, 6, 157-162.

Billiet, V., De Jong, W.F. 1936. Over kasoliet. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 18, 7, 261-265

Billiet, V. en Vandendriessche, A. 1938. Sur l’hydroténorite, son identité avec la ténorite. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, 48, 2, 333-337

Brasseur, H. 1939. Sur la kasolite. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5ieme série, 25, 65-659.

Brasseur, H., 1948, Properties and chemical formulae of fourmarierite, A.M., vol. XXXVIII, p. 619-621

Brasseur, H., 1949, Etude de la billiétite, B. Cl. Sc. Ac. R.B., 5e série, t. XXXV, p. 793-804 Brasseur, H., 1950, Remarques sur les propriétés de quelques minéraux uranifères, C. N. Sc.,

III, vol. 8, Congo belge, p. 17-19 Brasseur, H., 1950, Etude roentgenographique de la masuyite, B.S.R.S.L., n°5, p. 239-241 Brasseur, H., 1950, Calcul des indices de réfraction de la billiétite, B.S.R.S.L., n°5, p. 242

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Brasseur, H., 1962. Essai de représentation des oxydes doubles mx++, UO3+.nH2O par une formule générale. Bull.Soc.franc.Miner.Crist. 85 : 242-244.

Brooke, C., Picciotto, E., Poulaert, G., 1958. Mesure directe de l’uranium et du thorium par spectrométrie gamma. Bull. Soc. Belge. Géol., LXVII, 2 : 315-328.

Bruet, E., 1952, Minéraux radioactifs et terres rares, éd. Bibliothèque scientifique Payot, 250p.

Buttgenbach, H., 1921. Note préliminaire sur des minerais d’uranium et de radium trouvés au Katanga. ASGB, PRBC XLIV, p.C59, RUMRUM 6e série X, n°5, 545-548, et ASGB XLIV, 3-7 et MG 27 : 349-352.

Buttgenbach, H., 1921. Note préliminaire sur des minerais d’uranium et de radium trouvés au Katanga. ASGB, PRBC XLIV, p.C59, RUMRUM 6e série X, n°5, 545-548, et ASGB XLIV, 3-7 et MG 27 : 349-352.

Buttgenbach, H., 1922.Note sur la kasolite. BCScARB 10 : 573-576. Buttgenbach, H., 1923-24. Minéralogie du Congo belge. La fourmariérite, nouvelle espèce

minérale. Minéraux nouveaux pour le Katanga. ASGB, PRBC XLVII, p.C41-44. Buttgenbach, H., 1924. Nouvelles observations sur les cristaux de schoepite. ASGB LXVII Buttgenbach, H. 1924-1925. La droogmansite, nouvelle espèce minérale provenant du gîte

uranifère de Kasolo. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t. XLVIII, 219-221. Buttgenbach, H. 1934-1935. Wulfénite et baddeleyite au congo belge. Annales de la Société

Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, 58, 2, 68-69.

Buttgenbach, H. 1935. Sur un sulfate d’urane au Katanga. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 6, 2, 449-455.

Buttgenbach, H. 1935. Les minérais radioactifs. Revue Universelle des Mines, 8ime série, 11, 12, 449-458

Cahen, L., Pasteels, P., Ledent, D., Bourguillot, R., van Wambeke, L., Eberhardt, P., 1961. Recherche sur l'âge absolu des minéralisations uranifères du Katanga et de Rhodésie du Nord. Annales Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale 41 (Série n°8 – Sciences Géologiques), 1–53.

Cahen, L., 1951, Les déterminations d’âge absolu de la pechblende de Shinkolobwe, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LX, fasc.. 2, p. 146-157

Cahen, L., 1951, L’âge de la pechblende de Shinkolobwe et la limite Cambrien – Précambrien, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LX, fasc. 1, p. 89-96

Cahen, L., 1953-54, Résultats géochronologiques obtenus sur des minéraux du Congo jusqu’en mai 1954, A.S.G.B., t. LXXVII, p. B. 269-281

Cesbron, F., Bachet, B., Oosterbosch, R., 1965. La demesmaekerite, sélénite hydraté d’urnaium, cuivre et plomb. Bull. Soc. Franç. Minér. Cristall 88 : 422-425.

Charlet, J.M. 1964. La spectrométire gamma et son utilisation dans l’étude des minéraux radioactifs. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, 73, 1, 7-32

Charrin, V., 1948, Les minerais d’uranium du Haut-Katanga (Congo belge), Génie Cicvil, t. 125, n°24, p. 475

Christ, C.L., 1965. Phase transformations and crystal chemistry of schoepite. Amer. Min. 50: 235-239.

Christ, CL, Clark, JR 1955. Crystal chemical studies of uranium oxide hydrates. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol 66, n°12, part 2, 1542.

Christ, CL, Clark JR, Evans, HT jr 1955. Crystal structure of rutherfordine UO2CO3. Science, 121, 472

Clark, JR, Christ CL 1956. Some observations on rutherfordine. American Mineralogist, vol 41, n°11-12, 844-850

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Collins, C.B., Farquhar, R.M., Russell, R.D., jan. 1954, Isotopic constitution of radiogenic leads and the measurement of geological time, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 65, n°1, p. 1-22

Collins, C.B., Freeman, J.R., june 1951, Geological age déterminations in the Canadian Shield, Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., vol. XLV, ser. III, section 4, p. 23-30

Collins, C.B., Freeman, J.R., Wilson, J.T., june 1951, A modification of the isotopic lead method for détermination of geological ages, Phys. Rev., vol. 82, n°6, p. 966-967

Collins, C.B., Russell, R.D., Farquhar, R.M., 1953, The maximum age of th éléments and the age of the earth’s crust, Canadian Journal of Physics, vol. 31, p. 402-418

Corin, F., 1962. A la poursuite de manifestations radioactives au Kivu et au Rwanda-Burundi. Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mer VIII, 2: 214-216.

Darnley, A.G., Horne, J.E.T., Smith, G.H., Chandler, T.R.D., Dance, D.F., Preece, E.R., 1961. Ages of some uranium and thorium minerals from East and Central Africa. Miner. Mag. XXXII: 716-724.

De Magnée, I., 1958. L’avenir du thorium congolais. Bull. Aca. Roy. Sc. Col. : 457-474. Derricks, J.J., Oosterbosch, R., 1958. The Swambo and Kalongwe deposits compared to

Shinkolobwe. Contribution to the study of Katanga uranium: Proceedings 2nd U.N. International Conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, Geneva, 2, pp. 663–695.

Derricks, JJ, Vaes, JF 1955. Le gîte d’uranium de Shinkolobwe : état actuel des connaissances du point de vue géologique et métallogénie. Actes de la conférence internationale de Génève, aout 1955 : l’utilisation de l’énergie atomique à des fins pacifiques, vol VI, 108-144.

Derriks, JJ, Oosterbosch, R. 1959. Les gîtes des Swambo et de Kalongwe comparés à Shinkolobwe. La chronique des mines et de la Recherche Minière, 27e ann, 279, 300-303.

Destas, A., Guillemin, C., Vaes, J.F., 1958. Minéraux d’uranium du Haut-Katanga. Tervuren « les amis du Musée royal du Congo belge », 88p.

Donnay, G., Donnay, J.D.H., 1953, Tyuyamunite, Carnotite and Sengierite, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 64, n°12, part. 2, p. 1412-1413

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36, n°9-10, p. 680-686 Frondel, C., 1952, Studies of uranium minerals (XI) : Gummite, Résumé dans Bull. Geol.

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539-568.

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Watznauer, A., 1957. Uranlagerstätten der erde. Sitz. Ber. Deutsche Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1, 26p.

White, W.C., Yagoda, H., 1950, Abundance of N15 in the nitrogen occluded in radioactive minerals, Science, vol. III, p. 3207-308

Wilson, J.T., Farquhar, R.M., Gretener, P., Russell, R.B., Shillibeer, H.A., 1954, Estimates of age for some African minerals, N., n°4439, p. 1006-1007

1.2.2 Geothermal Energy (De Kun, 1965) Thermomineral springs may be of vadose or endogene origin. The endogene springs are particularly frequent in the vo1canic and faulted areas of Ethiopia, and in the periphery of the Eastern and Western Rift Valley in Kenya, Tanganyika, western Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the eastern Congo, Malawi, Mozambique and Madagascar. Hot springs tend to be located on faulted alignments. Numerous hot springs are present at the edge of the Tanganyika (at Kayungwa, Kakonta, Ganza, Kianza and Sanga), Upemba (at Kapiambwa and Kafinga) and Lufira (at Mwashia, Tshapona and Nguba) grabens. The waters and brines carry variable amounts of salts, sulphur and carbonates, depending on the composition of the original gases and the rocks through which the water ascends. Geothermal steam is found in the same geologic environment as hot springs. Steam is believed to escape from the Rift Valley of Ethiopia, Tanganyika and the Great Lakes.

----- Boutakoff, 1933. Les sources thermo-minérales du Kivu, leurs relations avec grandes

fractures radiales et leur utilisation au point de vue tectonique. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLII, fasc 1, 75-81.

Bultot, F. 1959. Sur le régime des rivières du bassin congolais. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, V, 2, 442-456.

Bultot, F. 1959. Côtes hydrométriques et débits maxima et minima probables de quelques cours d’eau congolais. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, V, 4, 992-1011.

De Keyzer, WL, de Magnée, I 1956. Possibilité d’emploi de l’énergie hydroélectrique du Bas-Congo. Mémoire de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, Cl Sc techn in 8°, t IV, fasc 2.

22

Liegeois, P. 1933. A propos de la note de Mr Boutakoff sur les sources thermo-minérales du Kivu. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLIII, fasc 3, 226-227.

Mathieu, FF, 1912-1913. Les sources thermales du Bas-Katanga. ASGB, PRCB, XL : 103-125.

Passau, G., 1922-23. Note sur les souces thermales de la Lufubu. ASGB, XLVI, p. C35. Passau, G. 1933. Les sources thermales de la Province Orientale. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal

Colonial Belge, IV-1933-3, 778-814. Passau, G. 1935. Les sources hydrothermales du Congo belge. Comptes Rendus du Congrès

international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, t. II, 841-846. Polinard, E. 1931-1932. Découverte de gisements fossilifères d’eau douce sur les versants de

la LUbudi au Katanga Méridional. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t L, C63

Reichard, P., 1885. Bericht uber die reise nach Urua and Katanga (Die Ostafrikanische Expedition). Mitt. Des Afrik. Gesellschaft, IV, 5 : 303-309.

Rhodius, G. 1955. Regards sur les richesses hydro-électriques du Congo belge. Journal des Ingénieurs de l’Union des Revues Techniques belge, 4°année, n°1, 19-24.

Schuiling, H. 1959. Quelques considérations géologiques concernant les grands barrages katangais. Colloques internationaux, Université de Liège, vol 14. Barrages et bassins de retenue, 145-162.

Studt, F.E., 1913. The geology of Katanga and Northern Rhodesia. An outline of the geology of South Central Africa. TGSSA, XVI: 44-106.

Van Aubel, R. 1928-1929. Sur la série métamorphique de la Basumba (Haut-Katanga). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LII, fasc. 4, C167-169.

1.2.3 Hydrological Energy (De Kun, 1965) Hydropower reserves of the Congo basin have been estimated at 125,000,000-135,000,000 kW, with a margin of error of approximate1y 26,000,000 kW. Among the big rivers of Africa, the Congo is particularly favoured because its catchment area of 1,600,000 sq. miles extends on both sides of the equator. Rainfall and seasons alternate north and south of this line, but the flow of the Congo is affected only slightly by these variations. The flow increases from 470,000 cubic ft. per second at Stanley Falls, near Kisangani, to an average of 1,150,000 cubic ft. per second (five times the Niagara) 1,000 miles downstream in the Stanley Pool, near Kinshasa; even in the driest days the flow has been measured to attain 1,050,000 cubic ft./sec, there. While the sources of the Congo-Lualaba spring from an altitude of 5,350 ft., Kisangani is 1,200 ft. and Leopoldville 1,000 ft. above the sea. Between the latter and Matadi Harbour, the river traverses the late Precambrian geosyncline of the Lower Congo and the Mayombe Range, losing 900 ft. of altitude before it reaches Matadi Harbour and the coastal strip; thus il accumulates a potential of 85,000,000 kW (± 7 %), that is, 17% of the world total or 70 times as much as the Hoover Dam. The Great River cuts through bands of vo1canic rocks, dolerites, quartzites and schists at the Cataracts of Inga. According to the Van Deuren Plan, part of the flow of the Congo could be diverted into the Matamba Valley there, providing a head of 320 ft., but a more modest programme calls for the utilization of the adjacent Sikila Falls, which only provides a head of 133 ft. The potential of these sites respectively attains 25,000,000 and 3,000,000 kW of power. The Inkisi River, a tributary of the Lower Congo, is distinguished by a hydropower potential of 300,000 kW, of which 75,000 are particularly easy to harness. The Zongo and Sanga

23

plants, located respectively at 90 and 40 miles from Leopoldville, generate 31,000 and 25,000 kW, but the small turbines of Kwilu only provide 5,000 kW. In addition, a small plant operates at Boali near Bangui, the capital of the Central African Republic. The Stanley Falls connect the middle and upper (Lualaba) basin of the Congo between Kisangani and Ubundu (in the Congo). Over 32 rapids flow 470,000cubic ft. of water, with the sites boasting a potential of about 1,250,000 ± 300,000kW. The Tshopo River, an affluent of the Congo that descends from the late Precambrian plateau into the Congo basin at Kisangani, was easier to harness; generators already supply 17,000 kW there, although the capacity of the site is greater. The Kibali-Ituri drainage is tributary to the Congo; its headwaters have been utilized in the Kilo-Moto gold field in the northeastern corner of the country, with the Shari, an affluent of the Ituri, supplying 15,000kW and the Nzoro, a tributary of the Kibali, 3,000 kW. The Budana plant is situated only 20 miles from Lake Albert, that is, the Nile drainage. However, the Dubele plant is at a distance of 150 miles. Numerous plants have been built to exploit water falling from higher levels to the Karroo in the Maniema tin and gold districts. The combined capacity of these sites is in excess of 20,000kW. At Zalya near Kamituga, Magembe near Namoya, Kama near Kampene, Lubilu near Lulingu, Lutshurukulu near Kalima, and Belia near Punia, waterfalls are aligned at the contact of granite and the Karroo. The Lubiadja near Moga and the Ambwe near Kailo descend from the late Precambrian (Lindi) level to that of the Karroo. The extensive capacity of the Gorges de l'Enfer, the falls of the Congo-Lualaba, near Kongolo, is not needed yet. The sources of the Kiyimbi are situated near Lake Tanganyika, but this river flows towards the graben of the Luama, a tributary of the Lualaba; the site can supply 50,000kW to Kalemie. The Lukuga River regulates the water level of Lake Tanganyika, seasonally transferring its overflow to the Lualaba. The Piana-Mwanga plant, on the Lovua River 50miles from Manono, in North Katanga, generates 35,000 kW. A favourable site exists on the Luvua at its overflow from Lake Mweru, and on the Luapula River at the Giraud Falls (of 50 ft.) where it leaves Lake Bangwelu, with flows varying from 400-2,600 cubic ft./sec, The waters of the late Precambrian, Kundelungu and Biano plateau, and of the older Kibara Mountains, are drained by the Lualaba flowing 1,000 ft. below. However, the hydropower resources of the Katanga Copperbelt have been better utilized: above its confluence with the Lufupa at Zilo, near Kolwezi, the Lualaba loses more than 1,200 ft. of altitude, and a flow of 1,600 cubic ft./sec generates 120,000-276,000 kW. At the Cornet Falls, east of Jadotville, the Lufira River falls 380 ft. thus providing an energy of 59,000 kW, with the Koni Falls supplying 21,000kW downstream. The Kalule plant generates 7,000 kW near Lubudi, and near Bakwanga turbines of the Lubilash River supply 12,000kW.

----- Boutakoff, 1933. Les sources thermo-minérales du Kivu, leurs relations avec grandes

fractures radiales et leur utilisation au point de vue tectonique. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLII, fasc 1, 75-81.

Bultot, F. 1959. Sur le régime des rivières du bassin congolais. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, V, 2, 442-456.

Bultot, F. 1959. Côtes hydrométriques et débits maxima et minima probables de quelques cours d’eau congolais. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, V, 4, 992-1011.

De Keyzer, WL, de Magnée, I 1956. Possibilité d’emploi de l’énergie hydroélectrique du Bas-Congo. Mémoire de l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, Cl Sc techn in 8°, t IV, fasc 2.

24

Liegeois, P. 1933. A propos de la note de Mr Boutakoff sur les sources thermo-minérales du Kivu. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLIII, fasc 3, 226-227.

Mathieu, FF, 1912-1913. Les sources thermales du Bas-Katanga. ASGB, PRCB, XL : 103-125.

Passau, G. 1933. Les sources thermales de la Province Orientale. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, IV-1933-3, 778-814.

Passau, G. 1935. Les sources hydrothermales du Congo belge. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, t. II, 841-846.

Polinard, E. 1931-1932. Découverte de gisements fossilifères d’eau douce sur les versants de la LUbudi au Katanga Méridional. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t L, C63

Reichard, P., 1885. Bericht uber die reise nach Urua and Katanga (Die Ostafrikanische Expedition). Mitt. Des Afrik. Gesellschaft, IV, 5 : 303-309.

Rhodius, G. 1955. Regards sur les richesses hydro-électriques du Congo belge. Journal des Ingénieurs de l’Union des Revues Techniques belge, 4°année, n°1, 19-24.

Schuiling, H. 1959. Quelques considérations géologiques concernant les grands barrages katangais. Colloques internationaux, Université de Liège, vol 14. Barrages et bassins de retenue, 145-162.

Studt, F.E., 1913. The geology of Katanga and Northern Rhodesia. An outline of the geology of South Central Africa. TGSSA, XVI: 44-106.

Van Aubel, R. 1928-1929. Sur la série métamorphique de la Basumba (Haut-Katanga). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LII, fasc. 4, C167-169.

2. Iron and the Ferroalloy metals Iron and steel from the framework around which we have built our civilization. Steel is a major component of cars, ships, cans, bridges, etc. Even energy minerals are useless without furnaces, pipelines, engines, etc, which are usually made of steel. This wide range of uses reflects the relative ease with which it can be converted to steel. The simplest form, carbon steel, usually contains less than 1% carbon and 0.5% manganese. Alloy steel is steel in which other metals (Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, Co, Mo, V, W, Nb, Ta, etc) have been mixed with iron. They permit steel to be used in a wide variety of applications (Kessler, 1994 and references therein).

2.1 Iron The largest deposits of the republic are in the northeast, Katanga and Kasaï. Systematic valuations have not been completed (De Kun, 1965). NORTHEASTERN CONGO Most of the itabirites are part of the Middle Precambrian Kibali system, remnants floating on the granites which occupy most of the northeastern Congo. Graphitic quartz-chlorite amphibole schists, albitites, amphibolites and carbonatic rocks build up the column. The banded ironstones consist mainly of magnetite and hematite with accompanying siderite, ankerite, chlorite, pyrite and arsenopyrite. Duhoux (1950) feels that the banded ironstones were formed by lateral secretion from the ferro-magnesian minerais of the schists or from carbonatic rocks, which seem to have been

25

abundant in the Precambrian of the northeastern Congo. Silicification of carbonatic layers would be a concomitant phenomenon of itabirization. Resources are vast and cover Uélé province east of Kisangani. Deposits are less frequent but abundant in the Kibali-Ituri province, west of the Albertine Rift. Several itabirite crests rise from the relief as 'Iron mountains'. Itabirites of the Duru area alone contain 2,000 million tons of Iron, excluding lateritic deposits. One of the elevations, Mount Tina, is 216 miles long, 1 mile wide, and rises 1,500 ft. above the level of the plateau. Other 'Iron mountains' include Ibi, Laï, Kaï and Edu. Furthermore, in the area of Paulis, Uélé, there are several large banded ironstone deposits such as the Mont de Fer and Mount Bahengo (between Pawa and Zino). Other vast itabirite deposits occur at Mount Asonga and dowu the Nepoko River, 30 miles west of Wemba, in Uélé. Many of the banded Iron ore bodies include areas of more than 60% Fe, with only traces of sulphur, chromium and nickel. Since they emerge from the relief they can be quarried. The belt extends west between the Bili and Uélé Rivers to the northwestern Congo, and reappears at Bosobolo and Zongo. Finally, lateritic-limonitic crusts have not been prospected at all, but are known to occur both as alteration products of bedded ironstones and of basic rocks at Libenge, east of Buta (Uélé) and near Watsa (Kibali-Ituri). KATANGA In northeastern Katanga itabirites are known to be part of the Muhila Series. In southwestern Katanga, banded ironstones interbedded with quartzite form a chain of hills, 20 miles long, in the valley of the Lupwezi River, a tributary of. the Lubudi. At sorne distance, Mount Konongo Kielu, or Songe Munonga, is 50 miles from the Bukama railroad. Other deposits have been found in the vicinity of Mutombo-Mukulu, Kanonge village, and between the Mujyay and Kibondobondo signals. These mountains are more than a mile long, hundreds of ft. wide and 100-300 ft. high. Itabirites consist of alternating beds of 1/4-1 inch thick quartzite, chert, schists or siliceous dolomite, and of 1/3-4 inches thick magnetite-hematite layers, including thicker magnetite bodies. Iron values vary between 35%a nd 65 %. These deposits extend into Kasaï. West of Lake Tanganyika a number of replacement deposits have been discovered on the plateau of Marungu. While the bedded Kabue Malue ores are related to basic intrusives, the Mount Kalolo-Fela Peak deposit of magnetite, martite and hematite (covering 2 square miles) developed at the contact of hornblendite and granites intruding Iimestones, Similarly, further east at Kondoka on the lower Tabo River magnetite lenses also occur in limestones. Southwest of Lubumbashi and part of the Copperbelt lies the iron zone of Upper Katanga at the sources of Lualaba and the Mwemashi basins, on the divide of the Zambezi and the Congo. The belt overlaps into Zambia. More than 30 major replacement deposits are situated in this zone. Irregular magnetite, hematite and martite lenses lie in the Katangian, i.e., latest Precambrian, Kakontwe limestones of the Kundelungu and Mwashya groups, generally adjacent to gabbros and amphibolites. Both the host rock and the gangue is affected by scapolitization, and lead, zinc, copper and silver precipitated between the iron and carbonate horizons. In the Kengere Valley near Lombe, corundum and colourless tourmaline are associated with hematite. North of this main iron zone the Kisanga deposit near Kambove (Jadotville) is already in the Copperbelt. In the Sakabinda area three deposits are related to pink limestones of the upper Kundelungu, and to Mwashya calcschists. Deposits of the lower Katangian Roan group can be divided into two categories: interbedded and massive. Between Lubumbashi and Lukafu, Moa-Mululu Hill is part of a northwest trending chain of iron occurrences. Some quartz is associated with the hematite bed, wedged between layers of

26

quartzite and siliceous ooliths. Kanunka, between Luambo and Mulungwishi, as well as Kasumbalesa in the southeastern corner and Kisanga near Likasi, are exploited. OTHER PROVINCES Replacement deposits of magnetite and hematite occur in the Precambrian Urundi system, e.g., in the southern part of Maniema province, southeast of Kindu on the Lualaba-Congo at Mwanankusu, Kabotshome, Mukukutshi etc. The West Katanga banded ironstones extend across the border into Kasaï province, and underlie Karroo sandstones west of Charlesville in an area, of 20 by 7-12 miles, between the Kasaï, Luebo and Lulua Rivers. Some of them rise from softer sediments for as long as three-quarters of a mile. Other deposits are found further south between Luisa and Lueta (Mulundu Mountains), and at the confluence of the Tshiumbe and Lubembe Rivers. In addition to these, lateritic durcicrusts outcrop, e.g., at Bakwa-Nianga in the northeast. In the Lower Congo, magnetite, hematite and pyrite have been partially altered to limonite at Sinyinya, Sali Mountain, and near Chambanze, 15 miles west of the Tshela bauxite deposit. Furthermore, large areas are covered by lateritic crusts, e.g., on the plateau between Matadi Harbour and Seke-Banza.

----- Ancion, Ch., Cahen, L., 1952, Les minerais de fer du Congo belge, C.G.I., C.R. de la XIXe

sess. Symposium sur le fer. Alger 1952, p. 83-100 Ball, S.H., Shaler, M.K., 1911-1912. Contribution à l’étude géologique de la partie central du

Congo belge, y compris la region du Kasai. ASGB, PRCB XXXIX, II : C199-247. Buttgenbach, H., 1904. Présentation d’un tore d’oligiste de Kambove (Congo). ASGB

XXXII, P. B53. Buttgenbach, H. 1931. Quelques mots à propos des latérites. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal

Colonial Belge, II, 320-326. Cahen, L., 1947-48, Etude d’échantillons « d’Itabirites » (Banded Ironstones) du socle ancien

de l’Entre-Luembe-Lubilash (Katanga), A.S.M.C.S.K., t. XII-XIII, p. 93-119 De Dorlodot, L., 1922-1923. Communication préliminaire sur un mémoire ayant pour titre :

« Note sur les roches à Itabirite et les roches schisto-cristallines de la région de Wanga ». ASGB, PRCB, XLVI, p.C 37-38.

De Dorlodot, L., 1923-1924. Note sur les roches à Itabirite et les roches schisto-cristallines de la région de Wanga. ASGB, PRCB, XLVI, p.C 11-30.

Duhoux, P.V., 1950, Les itabirites du nord-est de la colonie, C.S.K., 50e Ann. Congrès Elisabethville, vol. II, t. II, p. 486-492

Hotlz, P. 1960. Africa’s iron ore resources today. Canadian Mining Journal, LXXXI, 7, 68-71.

Jamotte, A. 1933. Roches éruptives et roches métamorphiques connexes de la region comprise entre la Lufunfu et le Mualaba. Leurs relations avec les gisements de fer de la région. Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t. IV, 22-55.

Jamotte, A., 1947, Over Ijzer – en Mangaanertsen uit Katanga, N.T., Jg.29, n°1, p. 27-30 Jamotte, A., 1950, L’importance des gisements de fer du Haut-Lualaba et leur signification

métallogénique, C.N.Sc., III, vol. 8, Congo belge, p. 20-21 Jamotte, A., 1951, L’importance des gisements de fer du Haut-Lualaba et leur signification

métallogénique, C.S.K. 50e Anni. Congrès Elisabethville 1950, vol. III, p.119-128 Langhans, P., 1902. Kupfer und eisen in Marungu. PM, 48, p. 12. Legraye, M. 1939-1940. Notes sur un cas de latéritisation au Congo belge. Annales de la

Société Géologique de Belgique, t. LXIII, 76-79. Merlon, A., 1887. Le fer au Congo . BSRBG, 11 : 709-714. Morelli, B., Raucq, P., 1961. Quartzite ferrugineux de Kanda-Kanda (Kasai, Congo). Ann.

Soc. Géol. Belg. 85, B: 123-147.

27

Scheibe, E.A., 1962. Eisenerz- und Manganerzlagerstatten in Afrika. Stahl und Eisen 82, 3: 137-146.

Schmitz, R.P., 1903. Les minerais de fer du Haut-Congo. BC, 9e année, 4, p. 40. Van Aubel, R. 1926-1927. Sur quelques minéraux du KAtanga: martite, marcasite, pholérite.

Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t L, C24-26.

Van Aubel, R. 1927-1928. Sur la martitisation des gîtes de magnétite du Katanga méridional. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LI, fasc. 1, C5-8

Woodtli, R. 1955. Une hypothèse sur l’origine des itabirites (notes préliminaire). Comptes Rendus sommaires de la Société géologique de France, 4, 52-54.

Waegemans, G. 1955. La latéritisation. IIIe congrès national des Sciences, Bruxelles, vol 4, pp 86-89.

Woodtli, R., 1956. Description de quelques sondages dans les itabirites du NE du Congo belge. XXe congrès géol. Int ., Mexico, p.412.

Woodtli, R. 1960. Description de quelques sondages dans des itabirites au NE du Congo belge. Congrès Géologique International. XXe Sess., Mexico 1956 Mexico 1959 (1960), Asociacion des Servicios geologicos africanos, 469-476.

Woodtli, R., 1961. Iron ore resources of the North-East Congo. Econ. Geol. 56, 8 : 1385-1391.

2.2 Ferroalloy metals 2.2.1 Manganese (De Kun, 1965) Indices of manganese are frequently found in the whole country, particularly in the Lower Congo. The principal deposits of Katanga and northern Zambia, however, are situated in the larger aureole of the CopperbeIt, extending from the sources of the Zambezi to Lake Bangwelu. Kisenge, the principal deposit, is located in southern Katanga near the Angola border. Kasekelesa is 60 miles west of the copper centre of Kolwezi; Kiale is near by. The Mwaba Fita, Kipupa and Buyofwe c1uster of occurrences is located 90 miles north of Likasi, on the same latitude as Fort Rosebery. Other small occurrences are also known in southern Katanga (Schuiling and Grosemans, 1956). KISENGE The general trend of early Precambrian sericitic schists, quartzites and the inc1uded manganese deposits is east-west. Amphibolite schists, granites and gabbros outcrop in the south, while amphibole sehists, amphiboles and scricite-chlorite sehists outcrop in the north (Marchandise, 1958). The beds dip 45°-70° south. A series of manganese ore and gondite lenses trend east-northeast for 2.5 miles between Kisenge, Kamata and Kapolo. The width of the lenses rarely exceeds 300 ft. Some of them form swarms, with the distance between clusters increasing towards the east. On the crest of Kisenge Hill in the south, a large bed of rich manganese ore is followed by alternating beds of poor and rich ore and barren schists, completed by a thin lens of rich ore. Lithological variations are essentially functions of the proportions of garnet, graphite and mica in the schists surrounding the ore bodies. Muscovite-biotite-tremolite and garnet quartzites constitute the footwall, changing progressively into an andalusite-sillimanite-kyanite-tremolite-garnet schist. Manganese carbonates have been discovered in depth and may have constituted part of the original ore.

28

The original garnet is a calcareous spessartite containing subsidiary portions of the almandite molecule. These portions contain 35% Mn instead of the theoretical 43 %, and 2% calcium. Some titanium substitutes for Iron. Garnet crystals have been fractured into sectors. Always widening cracks and planes of twinning have been filled in by black manganese oxides. In the final stage, siliceous screens bear witness to the original spessartite in oxide filled polyhedra, Manganese grades are an inverse function of the silica content of poorer ores. Manganese is believed to have been liberated by laterite-type tropical weathering which eliminated silica. The remaining oxides have dissociated, and coagulating manganese concretions have been compacted by diagenetic changes. Subsurface concentration of manganese is followed by a gradual decrease of values. The principal ore mineral is cryptomelane, accompanied by pyrolusite and lithiophorite. Polianite is believed to occur in the upper reaches. Much of the bluish grey cryptomelane ore exhibits zonal structures, and is divided by thin layers of impurities from which radiate ore nodules. Pyrolusite layers show a more metallic lustre. Textures can be subdivided into (1) honeycombs of polyhedral pseudomorphs embayed by cryptomelane infillings or veinlets, and (2) colloform or distinctly zonal ore. KASEKELESA Kibarian (Middle Precambrian) light coloured and white quartzites alternate with closely bedded rubefied schists. The large, late Precambrian Kundelungu conglomerate covers the northern sector as weil as a spot further south. Post-Kundelungu faults trend north-south, as does the mineralized zone which measures 2 by 0.5 miles. Veins, soft and lateritic eluvia and manganiferous durcicrusts constitute the deposit. In the large conglomerate, vertical and horizontal veins of manganese ore extend to a depth of 60 ft. The shape of lenses is more irregular. Pyrolusite is the principal ore mineraI. Ore grades vary between 50% and 55%, with 0.6 %-2.5 % Pb appearing in sorne parts of the deposit. Vanadinite traces are also present.

----- Autenne, L., 1961. L’exploitation du manganèse à Kisenge. Publ. Univ. Etat à Elisabethville

II, 263-282. De Leenheer, L. 1937.Sur quelques minérais de manganèse du Katanga. Annales du Services

des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, 8, 32-64. Jamotte, A., 1947, Over Ijzer – en Mangaanertsen uit Katanga, N.T., Jg.29, n°1, p. 27-30 Marchandise, H., 1958. Le gisement et les minerais de manganèse de Kisenge (Congo belge).

Bull. Soc. Belge Géol., LXVII : 187-210. Morelli, B., Raucq, P., 1961. Lambeaux d’une série métamorphique manganésifère entre

Mwene Ditu et Luputa (Kasai). Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mes VII, 6: 908-923. Polinard, E., 1946. Les minerais de manganese à polianite et hollandite de la Haute-Lulua.

MIRCB, in-8e, XVI, fasc. 1, 41p. Scheibe, E.A., 1962. Eisenerz- und Manganerzlagerstatten in Afrika. Stahl und Eisen 82, 3:

137-146. Schuiling, H., Grosemans, P., 1956. Les gisements de manganèse du Congo belge. Congr.

Géol. Inter XXe session. Symposium sobre yacimientos de manganesos, II, Africa : 131-142.

2.2.2 Nickel (De Kun, 1965) Nickel appears with cobalt and molybdenum in the hydrothermal post-uranium paragenesis of the Congo Copperbelt. At Shinkolobwe nickel sulphides are abundant in the low levels, though not in the deepest. In the zone of oxidation nickel is associated with uranium, cobalt,

29

gold and palladium. In addition, chromium and nickel occur in the 2000 million year old ultrabasic rocks of the southern Congo, especially south of luluabourg in the serpentines of the 10 mile long and 1 mile wide lenticular dyke of the Lutshasha river.

----- Hey, MH 1962. A new analysis of villamaninite. Mineralogical Magazine, 33n 257, 169-170 Kerr, P.F., 1945, Cattierite and vaesite : new Co-Ni minerals from the Belgian Congo, Am.

Min., vol. 30, n°7-8, p. 483-497 Klemm, D.D., 1962. Sie synthesen des mischkristallreihen NiS2-NiSe2 and CoS2 und ihre

beziehung zum naturlichen auftreten des mineralien vaesit-bmockit und cattierit-trogtalit. Neues Jahrb. Miner. 2: 32-41.

Kullerund, G., Yund, R.A., 1962. The Ni-S system and related minerals. Journ. Petrology 3, 1: 126-175.

Schoep, A., 1921. Sur la linnéite [(Co, Ni, Fe)S2]2 (Ni, Co) du Katanga. BSBC, XXX 2.2.3 Chromium (De Kun, 1965) Chromium occurs in the 2000 million year old ultrabasic rocks of the southern Congo, especially south of Kananga in the serpentines of the 10 mile long and 1 mile wide lenticular dyke of the Lutshasha river.

----- Herman, P., Raucq, P., 1961. Données complémentaires sur les chromites du Kasai. Bull. Soc.

Belge Géol. LXX, 3 : 336-357. Legrand, R., Lohest, A., Raucq, P., 1958. Occurrence de la chromite dans le massif

ultrabasique de la Lutshatsha (Kasai). Bull. Soc. Belge Géol., 67, 2 : 259-264. Raucq, P., 1960-1961. Note préliminaire sur les massifs ultrabasiques du kasai oriental et

certains de leurs constituants métalliques. Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg. LXXXIV, 591-615. 2.2.4 Silicon Legraye, M. 1938-39. Quelques particularités de quartz filoniens. Annales de la Société

Géologique de Belgique, t. LXII, 530-532. 2.2.5 Cobalt (De Kun, 1965) A majority of the world's cobalt is found in the unique environment of the Katangan Copperbelt. Cobalt sulphides crystallize before copper in psammitic-pelitic dolomites of the Upper Roan; deposits are stratiform, but not controlled by sedimentation. Most of the sulphides, however, have been altered to complex earthy oxides, and traces have been reconcentrated during this process. In the hydrothermal, Katangian uranium deposits, cobalt accompanying either copper or nickel is also stratiform. It is absent, however, from bedded copper deposits in Katanga outside the Copperbelt and in the rest of Africa. Cobalt is scarcer in the earlier Ore Formation of northern Zambia, which has not been intensively altered. Cobalt/nickel ratios of the bedded sulphides might indicate (though not conclusively) a hydrothermal origin. The Moroccan cobalt-nickel deposits are directly related to epigenized ultrabasics. Cobalt (and occasionally nickel) show in the copper, copper-uranium and uranium deposits of the Copperbelt. Concentrations tend to decrease from the west towards the east; they vary, however, in deposits of the same district and within each deposit. The principal copper-cobalt occurrences include: Kamoto, Musonoï and Kingamyambo in the Kolwezi district,

30

Fungurume, Kabolela, Kambove and Luishia in the Likasi district, Luiswishi, Lukuni, Ruashi, Étoile du Congo and Kasombo in the Lubumbashi district (Chambishi, N'kana and Baluba in the Zambian district). At Kasombo-Lupoto only minor amounts of copper are found, but cobalt predominates at Luiswishi. In the Kolwezi district, several peaks of cobalt values have been distinguished; greatest concentrations. are achieved in various layers of each écaille or deposit. The copper/cobalt ratio averages 10/1, attaining up to 5/1. These variations are not controlled by the stratigraphy or lithology. The distribution of cobalt sulphides and their combinations with copper and nickel has, however, been affected by tectonics. The mylonitized R.A.T. shale, embaying the écaille, also carries cobalt and nickel. In the Fungurume écaille the distribution of cobalt is similarly unrelated to that of copper. At Tantara, southwest of Jadotville, pink cobalt calcite containing 2% Co occurs with strontianite in the Kakontwe limestone of early Kundelungu age. In the Lubumbashi district, cobalt appears in the basal shale (R.A.T.) and in the dolomitic shale (S.D.). At Luiswishi copper-cobalt-uranium and vanadium are associated. In southeastern Katanga cobalt shows in the copper bearing biotite shales and sandstones; in a drillcore of Musoshi, north of Bancroft, the hanging wall and footwall shales of the Lower Roan contain 0.03 and 0.02% Co respectively. Idiomorphous carrollite crystallizes before bornite and the chalcocites; indeed, bornite crystallites rim carrollite, penetrating also into its fractures. However, no replacement has been observed. Little cobalt is associated to the pyrite, chalcopyrite sequence, occurring in such cases as linnaeite. A majority of the cobalt, however, is leached and transferred into the hydrated earthy, black cobaltiferous oxides ('black ore') accompanying manganese oxides. Asbolane, heterogenite, mindigite, stainierite and trieuite represent variations of the formula. At Musonoï, massive hydroxides of cobalt have replaced several horizons of the layered dolomitic shales (S.D.), impregnating the gangue, bedding planes and perpendicular microfissures; cobalt also shows in a complex, Cu-U-Pd-Au-V paragenesis. At Kambove, and Ruashi, copper-cobalt oxides accompany malachite. The basal shale carries black oxides in these deposits and at Luishia, but in the Lubumbashi district pockets and potholes of the upper dolomite (C.M.N.) have been filled in by them. Ferromagnesian spherocobaltite also forms in the zone of oxidation. Cobalt is associated with bedded copper ores and fissure filling uraninite, e.g., at Kalongwe; south of Kolwezi, it is associated with bedded nickel ores and epigenetic uranium, e.g., at Shinkolobwe-Kasolo and Mindigi in the southern branch of the Jadotville district. Nickel predominates over cobalt, both being generally restricted to the lower dolomite D.S.I. and dolomitic shale. Cobalt has also been found at Shamitumba, south of Shinkolobwe.

----- See literature copper 2.2.6 Molybdenum (De Kun, 1965) In eastern DRC, molybdenite is present in pegmatite at Mikengele, Kasanga, Jahusimba, Kalima. Similar association was found in Moto. This mineral impregnates shear and contact zones in or adjacent to granites, but pegmatite and vein occurences remain insignificant.

----- Anthoine, R. 1939. Présentation d’échantillons de pegmatite à molybdenite de la mine de

Moto (Congo belge). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique LXII, 5-6-7, 421

31

Capitant, M. Francotte, J. Picot, P, Troly, G. 1963. Hautes teneurs en rhénium dans une molybdénite de Kipushi. CR Acad Sc, 257, 22, 2, 3443-3444.

Easton, A.J., Moss, A.A., 1966. The analysis of molybdates and tungstates. Miner. Mag. 35 : 995-1002.

2.2.7 Vanadium (De Kun, 1965) Vanadium occurs in the Congo in the bedded copper-gold-platinurn-palladium paragenesis of Ruwe, Kolwezi. Vanadium occurs with the same metals in the hydrothermal Shinkolobwe uranium deposits. Cuprodescloizite accompanies the complex copper-zinc ores of Kipushi. The second, oxidized ore body of Broken Hill, central Zambia, contains 0.75%V. However, vanadium generally occurs at some distance from the zinc-lead shoots. Vanadinite and descloizite are believed to have been derived from shales and phyllites containing 0.012% V. Vanadium is, indeed, soluble in sulphates under acid conditions in the presence of carbonates. Vanadium also shows in the contemporary mineralization of the Lower Congo.

----- Jamotte, A. 1938. Sur la présence de sulvanite(sulfure de cuivre et de vanadium) au Katanga

Méridional. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. LXVIII, 500-504.

Jedwab, J. 1955. Méthode de prospection géochimique du vanadium. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, 1-1955-4, 766-767.

Guillemin, C. 1956. Contribution à la minéralogie des arséniates, phosphates et vanadates de cuivre :1. Arséniates de cuivre. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie. LXXIX, n°1-3, 7-98.

Guillemin, C. 1956. Contribution à la minéralogie des arséniates, phosphates et vanadates de cuivre :1I. Phosphates et vanadates de cuivre. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie. LXXIX, n°1-3, 219-275.

2.2.8 Tungsten (De Kun, 1965) Unlike other minerals of the tin group, tungsten is largely restricted to Rwanda and the eastern Congo. Indeed, Kifurwe and Mokama contain a majority of the continent's resources. In addition, minor deposits are located in Uganda in the extension of the Rwandese tungsten belt. We also find small occurrences in Botswana, Southwest Africa and South Africa. The restricted development of wolfram bearing stockworks and veins contrasts with the wide distribution of mineralized Precambrian pegmatites. We distinguish two types of deposits: (1) epigenetic deposits in the aureole of granitic stocks, and (2) polygenetic occurrences in schist belts. Tungsten is irregularly distributed in the tin provinces of Maniema-Kivu. West of Lake Albert there is a minor occurrence at Butsha, but the Ndesa, Ngawe, Etaetu and Lundjulu deposits are located nearer to the Albert-Edward Rift than to the Congo Lualaba. Scheelite is associated to Au-bearing quartz veins at Zambula, Kifuruwe and is present in alluviums of the Muta, Marigarudjapa, Nakoa and Keoli rivers. At Etaetu, wolframite occurs in quartz veins and eluvia. Again, in the mountains bordering the Western Rift but further south, a belt of minor occurrences extends from Gombo through Mudubwe and the Kadubu anticline to Kibu, southwest of Lake Kivu. If we return to the River we see abundant tungsten in the Kailo district, particularly at Mokama. However, in the adjacent Mususa greisens the tin/tungsten ratio is 20/1. Consequently columbite-tantalite is

32

rare. The Mutuvutuvu ferberite deposit is situated 12 miles east of Mokama. Anthoinite is also present in the Kalima area. The Kalulu occurrence 80 miles to the south probably belongs to the same belt, West of Kalima we find traces of wolframite, e.g., at Bunza, Bengobiri, Misobo, Kibongobongo and Yubuli. Nearby, in the Moga-Messaraba district, coarse wolframite occurs in quartz veins and lenses of Misoke in the vicinity of an irregular ramified granite body. Accompanying minerals inc1ude sericite and tourmaline here, but tin bearing kaolinised feldspars carry hard1y any columbite. In the eluvia of Misoke, Kabobo and Tundu the tin/tungsten ratio varies between 5/1 and 30/1. Reinite was found at Kamilanga (Kampene, south of Kalima). Containing wolframite but little cassiterite, the Kasowe eluvia cover a quartzite ridge traversed by veins. These deposits are located 1.5 miles from the northwestern contact of the Kasese batholith. In the Kasese district the principal eluvial and vein deposits ofwolframite inc1ude Sinsibi, Kisima and Bakwame.

----- Ahlfeld, F., 1958. Zinn und Wolfram. Die metallischen Rojstoffe, F. Enke Verlag, 212p. Bailly, R. 1941-1942. Propriétes optiques du wolframes. ASGB. 65, 2-3-4, 133-139 Beugnies, A., 1966-1967. Contribution à l’étude des wolframites. Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg. 90 :

B 173-184. Bourguignon, P., 1952-53, La tungstite de Nzombe (Congo belge), A.S.G.B., t. LXXXI, p. B.

189-191 Buttgenbach, H., 1958. Présentation du travail de M. N. Varlamoff, intitulé : « Matériaux

pour l’étude de la géologie et la classification des gisements de minerais de tungstène du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi ». Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc. Col., 721-722.

Coste, H., 1947, Le wolfram et le tantale au Congo belge, C.A.I.Lg., Section coloniale, p. 393-396

De Magnéé, I, Aderca, BM 1960. Contribution à la connaissance du «Tungsten-belt » Ruandais. Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc Nat et med, in 8°, tome XI, fasc 7.

Easton, A.J., Moss, A.A., 1966. The analysis of molybdates and tungstates. Miner. Mag. 35 : 995-1002.

Lancsweert, P. 1943. A propos de quelques gisements de wolfram au Congo belge. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, XIV, 2, 499-506.

Niggli, E., Jäger, E., 1957. Untersuchungen an Anthoinit. Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Abhandl., 91: 35-40.Toubeau, G., 1964. Propriétés optiques des wolframites en diascopie infra-rouge. Ann Soc géol. Nord 84 : 237-247.

Passau, G., 1949, La scheelite dans les concessions de la Compagnie Minière des Grands Lacs Africains, B.I.R.C.B., XX-2, p. 575-583

Vanden Herrewegen, F., 1954, Détermination rapide des proportions de wolframite, columbo-tantalite et cassitérite d’un concentré, B.I.R.C.B., XXII-2, p. 515-534

Van Tassel, R., 1961. Ferritungstite et meymacite de Meymac, France et d’Afrique centrale. Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. 3 : 376-399.

Varlamoff, N., 1946-47, Anthoinite, nouveau tungstate hydraté d’alumine, A.S.G.B., t. 70, p. B. 153-166

Varlamoff, N., 1957-58. Succession des minéralisations stannifères et wolframifères au Maniema. Ann.Soc.géol.Belg., 81, p.B 275-281.

Varlamoff, N., 1958. Les gisements de tungstène au Congo belge et au Ruanda-Urundi. Matériaux pour l’étude de leur géologie et de leur classification. Mém. Acad. Roy. Sc., in-8e, VIII, 2, 72p.

2.2.9 Tantalum (De Kun, 1965)

33

Carbonatitic pyrochlore containing 0.1-0.4 % Ta2O5 represents the principal, though still unrecoverable, resource of tantalum. On the other hand, ion exchange can facilitate the separation of tantalum from abundant Columbite-tantalite inc1uded in placers and pegmatites meanwhile remains the source of the metal. Because of the greater value of tantalum, concentrates averaging a Nb/Ta ratio of less than 2/1 will be discussed in this chapter. Placers of the Idiba and North-Lugu1u (Congo) districts represent a majority of the world's current resources of the metal. Moreover, important pegmatitic deposits are located in the Congo, Mozambique, Southern Rhodesia and the rest of southern Africa. Minor placers and pegmatites inc1ude: (a) Teturi, Gawe, Etembo, Enehe, Elota, Liha, northwest of Lake Edward; (b) Mabuka, Samuda and Bongo, further west; (c) Lundjulu, Mutiko, Tshamaka, Masingu, Kanzoro, Utu, Matemba and Idambo, north of the Kasese batholith; (d) Mumba, Numbi, Tshiganda, Kobokobo, Mwana and Makalapongo west of Lake Kivu; (e) the placers of the central tin belt in the Matelemona (Aissa stock), at Mususa (Kailo district), Lutshuruku1u (Kalima), Nyarria and Pene Koka (Kihembwe stock); (f) Luizi, Kibumba, Maiko, Lukasi and Mitwaba, in northern Katanga. Columbite-tantalite is associated with cassiterite in most of these occurrences. The Idiba and North Lugu1u districts are located 100 miles west of Lake Kivu. The Idibas cover a 2,000 square mile area of the roof pendants of the Kasese batholith which extends from Kampulu east to Kalukangala, Nkumua and Kashinda and north to Ito, Nyamilenge and Nkenge. Deposits extend southeast of Nkumua to the upper Lokalia and Kasilu. Mica schists, gneisses, migmatites and alternating schistose and porphyritic—pegmatitic layers have been invaded by two mica granites. Even in areas excluding roof pendants, dolerite dykes and sills cut the granite. Although pegmatites of the area are of no commercial importance, torrential valleys attain 3-10 ft. of width, depths of 1-3 ft., and lengths of 200 - 1500 ft. In these thin gravel beds, and on the bedrock below large boulders, columbite-tantalite, tourmaline and locally xenotime concentrate. Of course, greater rivers like the Kanzuzu, Kalukangala and Ona include larger placers, but grades are lower in them. Columbite-tantalite has been recognized in the alluvial deposits of the following rivers: Kadubu, Kalima, Kitotelo, Lemera, Lugogo, Luholo, Luilu, Luvua, Manono, Magurama, Tshoka, Nansila, Numbi, Punia and Nyakagesi. Columbite-tantalite grains of 2 mm - 1 inch average 30% Ta2O5 and 0.3% U3O8. The world's only major tapiolite deposit is located on the northwestern rim of the batholith at Mubilina. Here the diameter of the largest tapiolite grains attains an inch. In the North Lugulu placers the cassiterite/columbite-tantalite ratio averages 13/1. Although smaller valleys are also mineralized, larger rivers like the Makulumabili, Matumpa, Mulongondima, Tshonka and their tributaries include the principal resources. The deposits extend in a 100 mile long and 3 mile wide arc along the southern contact of the batholith. Furthermore, columbite-tantalite is also disseminated in altered pegmatites, mainly in their inner zone. The minerai contains 20--45% Ta2O5. As in the Idibas, its indicator mineral is pink garnet. In the Manono pegmatite the Sn/Nb-Ta ratio averages 20/1, increasing to 100 in micaceous zones. Columbite-tantalite disseminated in the quartz-microcline phase contains 45% Ta2O5. However, the later variety, which concentrates in albitic phases, averages only 30% Ta2O5 (Mn/Fe = 1.5). In fact both are fine intergrowths of various members of this isomorphic group. Finally, thoreaulite occurs in the quartz lenses of the northern wall zone.

34

2.2.10 Niobium (De Kun, 1965) Niobium occurs in the east African carbonatites. The Lueshe complex (Congo) contains two thirds of the continent's resources. Similarly, the granitic ring-complexes of the Nigerian Saharan arc contain niobium, as do late granites of Uganda and Katanga. The belt of the Great Lakes extends from Bingu west of Lake Albert, through Lueshe west of Lake Edward ta Kawezi and Ngualla, Mbulu, Musensi and Mbeya in the Rukwa Nyasa Rift. But among numerous carbonatites located south and east of Lake Nyasa only Chilwa is of interest. A double belt of a dozen complexes extends from the Ethiopian border to Ruri Bayon Lake Victoria. This belt includes Sukulu. While Nkumbwa lies near the intersection of the Luangwa and Rukwa Rifts (i.e., south of Mbeya), Kaluwa, Uma, Mwamboto, Nachombo and Chasweta rise at the intersection of the Zambezi and Rufunsa Grabens. The Lake Edward Rift is 250 miles wide, and has a thrust of 6,000 ft. Including the Lueshe complex, the Kasali horst rises between the Main and Ruindi Graben. This complex forms a 2 by 1.25 mile aval with a 600-2,000 ft. wide rim of acmite sôvite surrounding the core of cancrinite syenite. However, the southeastern part of the carbonatite is dolomitic. In the east rings of acmite-amphibole albitite, actinote and albitized quartz- garnet schists form a narrow fenite band with a larger ring of fenitized sheridanite schist surrounding the rest of the complex. Within the fenites, rheomorphic syenites appear in the south. Conversely, cancrinite veins traverse the core, andalvikites (calcite dykes) are particularly abundant in its rim. While veins of calcite, calcite-tourmaline and siderite also traverse the sövite, aplitic quartz dykes intersect the fenitized schists. From 24% at the contact, the magnesium content of the sheridanite schists decreases to 1%. Concomitantly, potash replaces magnesia. Pyrochlore is disseminated in sövite and alvikite, in the cancrinite syenite and even in andalusite schists of the outer fenite ring. However, rauhaugite (dolomite) contains only traces of columbium. Between the syenite core and the sôvite ring the deposits themselves are located in limonitic alteration products of calcitic aegyrinite or acmite sövite. Lower values connect a larger and smaller high grade (0.2% Nb2O5,) area. Oive- and grey-green pyrochlore is particularly coarse, averaging more than 2 mm in diameter and even attaining half an inch. Although zircon is the principal accompanying mineral, pyrrhotite, pyrite and strontium bearing barytes also occur. Finally, geologists have discovered in a biotitite black cubes of lueshite, the soda niobate. Columbite replaces pyrochlore.

------ Buttgenbach, H. 1933. Les minéraux à colombium et à tantale du Congo belge. Bulletin de

l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, t IV, n°1, 209-219. Buttgenbach, H. 1932-1933. La thoreaulite, nouvelle espèce minérale (note préliminaire).

Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t. LVI, 327-331. Coste, H., 1947, Le wolfram et le tantale au Congo belge, C.A.I.Lg., Section coloniale, p.

393-396 De Kun, N., 1961.0 Die Niobkarbonatite von Afrika. Neues Jahrb. Miner. 6 : 124-135. De Kun, N., 1962. The economic geology of Columbium (Niobium) and Tantalum. Econ.

Geol. LVII, 3, 377-404. Deans, T., 1966. Economic mineralogy of African carbonatites. In : Tuttle and Gittins (eds) :

carbonatite interscience publ., New-York: 385-413. Gouder de Beauregard, C., 1965. Contribution à l’étude minéralogique des columbotantalites.

Mémoire de licence. Université de Liège, Fac Sc, 42 p.

35

Herman, P., Gastellier, S., 1946, Détermination rapide de teneurs en Ta2O5 et Nb2O5, Bull. Serv. Géol. C.B. et R.U., n°2, fasc. I, p. 73-83

Kolotukhina, S.E., Pervukhina, A.E., Rozhanec, A.V., 1964. La géologie des gisements d’éléments rares en Afrique et leur importance évonomique. Izdat-Nauka, 304p.

Lancsweert, P., 1954, Note sur les columbo-tantalites du Maniema, B.I.R.C.B., XXV-1, p.464-475

Melon, J. 1935. Analyse et propriétés optiques de la thoreaulite. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5ième série, t. XXL, n°4, 473-475.

Melon, J., Toussaint, J., 1950, La thoreaulite de Kubitaka (Punia, Maniema, Congo belge) et la critallographie de la thoreaulite, A.S.G.B., t. 74, p. B. 25-32

Melon, J., Toussaint, J., 1951-52, La buttgenbachite de Likasi (Congo belge) et la cristallographie de la thoreaulite, A.S.G.B., t. 75, p. B. 293-296

Mozafari, Ch., 1967. Contribution à l’étude des propriétés des columbotantalites et des tapiolites. Fac. Polytech. Mons, 110p.

Safiannikoff, A. 1959. Un nouveau minéral de niobium. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, V, 6, 1251-1255.

Safiannikoff, A., Van Wambeke, L., 1961. Sur un terme plombifère du groupe pyrochlore-microlite. Bull. Soc. Franç. Minér. Et Cristall. LXXXIV, 4 : 382-384.

Thoreau, J., Gastellier, S., Herman, P., 1949-50, Sur une thoreaulite du Ruanda occidental, A.S.G.B., t. 73, p. B. 213-220

Van Aubel, R. 1935. Minérais tantalifères du Congo belge. Bulletin de l’Association des Diplômes de l’Ecole des Conducteurs Géologues Pâturages, V, 4ième fasc, 176.

Van Aubel, R. 1934-35. Sut quelques minérais tantalo-columbifères du Kivu. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, LVII, fasc 1, C38-41.

Van Aubel, R. 1934-1935. Sur quelques minérais tantalo-columbifères du Kivu. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LVIII, fasc. 1. C38-41.

Van der Cammen, A., 1947, Etude de la columbite de la Lukumbi (une analyse), Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer), ULB

Vanden Herrewegen, F., 1954, Détermination rapide des proportions de wolframite, columbo-tantalite et cassitérite d’un concentré, B.I.R.C.B., XXII-2, p. 515-534

Van Wambeke, L., 1965. A study of some niobium-bearing minerals of the Lueshe carbonatite deposit (Kivu, Republic of Congo). EURATOM, Bruxelles, Janvier 1965, 31p.

Von Knorring, O., 1965. Niobium-tantalum minerals. Univ. Leeds, Res Inst Afric Geol, 9th Ann Rep on Sci Results, session 1963-1964, 42-43.

2.2.11 Tellurium De Magnée, I., 1948, Présence de löllingite (FeAs2) dans la pegmatite stannifère de Manono,

B.S.B.G.P.H., t. 57, p. 75-76 Hubaux, A. 1959. Les gisements de tennantite de Yungu et de Sele (Lac Tanganika). Annales

de la Société Géologique de Belgique, LXXXII, 269-282. Mathieu, Ph., 1951, Mispickel de Kipushi, Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer),

ULB Sikorski, J., 1951, Etude de quelques sulfures et sulfoséléniures de Shinkolobwe (Katanga),

Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB

36

3. Non-Ferrous metals

3.1 Light Metals The light metals are so named because they have lower densities than most metals. In contrast to densities of 7.87 g/cm³ for iron, densities of light metals are only 1.74 for magnesium, 2.7 for aluminium and 4.51 for titanium.

3.1.1 Aluminium (De Kun, 1965)

From Isangila on the lower Congo, near the Inga Cataracts, 3 mile wide lenses of basic lava extend in a northwesterly direction towards Sumbi, and then along the border of the Congo Republic to Kai M'Baku and the Cabinda frontier (Grosemans, 1959). On a mean altitude of 1,800 ft., Sumbi is situated on latitude 5° South and has a rainfall averaging 300-325 inches per year. Since the area is bordered by higher quartzite ridges (Stas, 1959), the temperature is lower than in the vicinity. Microdolerites, basalts and andesites overlying tillites form the core of a north pitching anticline, with basait outcropping mainly along the anticlinal axis. The Ndongi, Lukula, Nicki and Tsamvi streams have cut their valleys into this elongated tableland. It forms an erosion surface of 1,800-2,000 ft. which is believed to be Mid-Tertiary. With numerous interruptions, the most favourable area extends from Kipunda, through Makwanzi to Kimongo-Vangui in the east, and from Buende-Sundi through Londelu-Kai and Kimbaku beyond Longo-Nbengo. The length of this zone attains 15 miles. These two topographic bands are separated by 3 miles of irregular terrain. Surrounded by bauxitic laterites, the best bauxites consist of gibbsite, kaolinite and goethite containing 42.6% Al2O3, 36.9% Fe2O3 and 0.5% SiO2. Gibbsite values appear to be greatest between 15 and 30 ft. of depth. Pisolitic aluminous clays are known to exist, for example in the area of Kisangani at Basoko and Lubumbashi.

----- Bardossy, G., 1964. Die entwicklung der bauxitgeologie seit 1950. In Karsuln, M. edit:

Symposium sur les bauxites, oxydes et hydroxydes d’aluminium, Zagreb 1963, Acad. Yougoslave Sci. 1: 31-50.

De Dorlodot, L., 1922-1923. Présentation d’un échantillon de bauxite pisolithique. ASGB, PRCB, XLVI, p.C 35-36.

De Dorlodot, L. 1927-1928. Au sujet des bauxite de l’Uélé. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LI, fasc 115-116.

De Keyser, WL 1959. Note concernant la composition et le traitement des bauxites du Bas-Congo. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, V, 4, 975-991.

De Magnée, I, 1959. Les bauxites du Mayumbe dans le cadre du Projet Inga. Cemubac, XXXII, Séance académique du 27janvier 1959. Editions de Ceemubac, 1959, 21-32.

Grosemans, P. 1959. La bauxite dans le Bas-Congo. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, V, 2, 457-469.

Sluys, M., 1945-46, Un gisement de latérite bauxitique pisolitique sur le substratum granitique (Région de Niapu, Congo belge), A.S.G.B., t. 69, p. 218-220

Stas, M. 1959. Contribution à l’étude géologique et minéralogiques des bauxites du nord-est du Mayumbe. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, V, 2, 470-493.

Vanderstappen, R, Cornil, J. 1955. Note sur les « bauxites » du Congo septentrional. Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, I-1955-4, 690-709.

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Waegemans, G., 1951, Latérites et bauxites, B.A.C.B., vol. XLII, 3, p. 567-574 Wollast, R., 1961. Aspect chimique du mode de formation des bauxites dans le Bas-Congo.

Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mer VII, 3: 469-489. Wollast, R. 1963. Aspect chimique du mode de formation des bauxites dans le Bas-Congo.

Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, 3, 392-412.

3.1.2 Magnesium De Keyzer, WL 1956. Possibilité de fabrication de magnésium au Katanga. Bulletin de

l’Académie royale des Sciences coloniales, II-1956-2, 313-326.

3.1.3 Titanium Melon, J., 1949-50, La brookite de Kalima (Maniema, Congo belge), A.S.G.B., t. 73, n°3-7,

p. B. 117-118 Schoep, A. 1943. Bijdrage tot de kennis van rutiel, brookiet en anataas uit de streek van

Busanga (KAtanga). Over de kleur van anataas. Mededeelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse van België. Klasse der Wetenschappen, V, n°14, 24

Sporcq, P., août-oct 1950, Le titane, Soc. Belge d’Et. et d’Exp., 49e année, n°142, p.565-568 Van Wambeke, L., 1949, Etude minéralogique d’un sable fin ilménitifère de Mitwaba,

Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer), ULB 3.1.4 Beryllium (De Kun, 1965) Beryllium is present in the pegmatite fields of central Africa. Beryl occurs in indistinctly zoned pegmatites affected by replacement processes. Because of the sympathetic relationship between tantalum and beryllium we find beryl in several Congolese pegmatite fields (e.g., North Lugulu). The Kobokobo swarm of pegmatites is located near Kamituga, 90 miles southwest of Lake Kivu. The 700 ft. wide Lusungu pod, the principal beryl deposit of the Congo, is included in this group. An albite-oligoclase-muscovite zone occupies two- thirds of its area. Since albitization has been particularly intense in the poorly mineralized east, more microcline has been preserved in the west. The 250 ft. long and 70-20 ft. wide core consists of perthite, but a somewhat shorter body of pale green lithia muscovite rises in the albite zone. A 90-130 ft. wide perthite zone follows in the east. This zone is bordered by an 8 ft.wide wall zone of albite, and a similarly thin border zone of muscovite and quartz (compare to other pegmatitic 'greisen'). Finally, late quartz bodies and veins traverse several zones. In the outer rim of otherwise normal perthite, beryl bodies are ditributed along a sinusoid band 250 ft. long and 20 ft. wide. An albite lens is intercalated between part of this 'critical zone' and the perthite. Non-oriented, rarely columnar bodies of beryl have a diameter of 1/2-2 ft., but at the northern end of the critical zone three bodies have expanded to a total length of 60 ft. Other nests have been spaced 20-50 ft. from each other. All but one of them occur approximately 20 ft. from the wall. Beryl includes columbite-tantalite, cyrtolite, loellingite and scorodite, but triphyllite has been altered to dufrénite, huréaulite and heterosite. Uraninite, autunite, apatite and fine grained columbite-tantalite overlap towards the centre, the 'critical zone'. On the other hand, amblygonite is mainly disseminated in the lens of lithic mica. In addition, some beryl and bismuth show in the eastern external zone. The muscovite is 900 million years old, while uraninite attains an age of 830 million years. However, cyrtolite ages range between 660 and 860 million years.

-----

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Seyer, P. 1960. Compte rendu d’un voyage d’étude au Congo belge. La mine de beryl pierreux de Kobokobo. Mines et Métallurgie, Paris, 1960, 3537, 91-92.

3.2 Base metals

3.2.1 Copper (De Kun, 1965) Bedded copper ores occur in latest Precambrian geosynclines in Northern Zambia-Katanga, the Lower Congo-Angola and in sediments of Southern Rhodesia. However, stratiform copper ores of the Algerian, Moroccan and Niger Sahara are Mesozoic. Copper sulphides are precipitated in a hot, arid climate, in lagoons or shallow seas during marine transgressions following long cycles of continental sedimentation. Psammites are impregnated, but layered dolomites are replaced by the sulphides. Vertical, mineral zoning is only locally distinct, lateral variations being more frequent. Since metals of generally hydrothermal origin, such as uranium and cobalt, are associated with copper, the deposits are considered to be polygenetic. Replacement deposits of copper, zinc and lead occur in the same sequence in the Congo and Southwest Africa, but small hydrothermal occurrences belong to other cycles. Copper occurs in Katangian sediments: (1) in the Copperbelt; (2) near Lake Mweru; (3) in a belt extending from Mwinilingwa in the northwestern corner of Zambia to Kansanshi to Kasempa, Chifumpa, beyond Broken Hill 300 miles east-southeast; (4) in the area of Sable Antelope, west of Lusaka; (5) around Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, in late Precambrian sediments; (6) near Kisangani; (7) in the Lower Congo, in earlier Precambrian rocks; (8) at Lubi, in the southern Congo; (9) at Mtuga, south of Bwana Mkubwa; (10) in a 200 mile long belt extending from Kansonso to north of Lusaka and Kalulu. The world's largest copper and cobalt deposits form a long, composite unit in Katanga-northern Zambia and in this description they will be treated as a unit. Copper has been disseminated along the whole belt; the greatest concentrations occur in the Kolwezi district, in the Katanga and at Nchanga, Nkana and Mufulira, in the northwestern part of the Zambian sector, where one quarter of the belt and 55% of the resources are located. Parageneses include: Fe (pyrite), Cu, Cu-Co, Cu-Co-U, U-Co-Ni-Cu-(Pd), (Cu)-Au-Pt-V, Cu-Zn-AgPb- Cd-Ge, Fe (hematite), Mn. Cobalt values are highly variable and unrelated to the distribution of copper; concentrations tend to decrease from the west towards the east. Disseminated uranium is part of the early paragenesis and accumulates in localized veins, lenses and impregnations at Shinkolobwe, Kambove, Kamoto, Luishia, Luiswishi, and Ruashi in Katanga and at Mindola (N'kana) in Zambia. Gold, platinum, palladium and vanadium are associated with copper at Musonoi only in the low-lying green (foliated) horizon. These metals occur at Ruwe out of the copper zone and at Shinkolobwe, with uranium, nickel and molybdenum. Several cycles can be distinguished in the Cu-Co-U suite. Some zinc has been disseminated in limestones lying 4,000 ft. above the Lower Roan, during which hydrothermal replacement minerals of the Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Cd cycle cyrstallized at Kipushi, Kengere and Lombe; germanium appears only at Kipushi. Most of the primary ore is concentrated in distinctly layered aluminous or sandy carbonates of the Mines Series. Arenaceous sediments are favourable host rocks in the Lower Roan of Zambia, but in Katanga neither they nor massive dolomites are. The same horizons have been mineralized over a stretch of several hundred miles. Pyrite started to precipitate in the deep seas and during the epicontinental phase; at the beginning of the lagoonal phase, pyrite was joined by copper, cobalt (and nickel) sulphides, with less of these precipitating during the

39

later stages of the lagoonal phase. Amorphous carbon ('graphite') is an indicator of pyrite and chalcopyrite, and its absence signals other sulphides. The most extensive mineralized horizon is the so-called black ore main zone (B.O.M.Z.), near the base of the dolomitic shales. The limit of the mineralized, altered and barren layers is distinct. Another extensive copper bed is the low-Iying green ore (M.V.), affecting in the Elisabethville district and the Fungurume fragment the base of the foliated, silicified dolomite (D.S.I.), and in the Kolwezi district the early dolomitic sandstone (R.A.T.). In this area a distance of 30 ft. measured from the barren silicified dolomite determines the accumulation of the ore, irrespective of the stratigraphy. Copper and iron grades have been found to vary in drill holes piercing the Mines Series. Both the host rocks and the sulphides have been affected by silicification. Chloritization is a late replacement process, tourmaline being secondary as weIl. One can distinguish live parageneses: (1) pyrite in several extensive horizons; (2) copper and cobalt in a few extensive horizons; (3) uranium, copper and cobalt in lenses of a horizon; (4) uranium, (copper), cobalt and nickel in lenses of a horizon; (5) copper, zinc and other metals in hydrothermal replacement. Pyrite and copper-iron sulphides generally replace the carbonates. Their precipitation has rarely been affected by the tectonic movements. While simple sulphides of copper are not structurally controlled, copper-cobalt, cobalt-nickel and nickel sulphides are. Although parageneses, including uranium, are restricted to one horizon of the Mines Series, they are strictly epigenetic. The composite paragenetic sequence is unique: (1) uranium, (2) iron, (3) nickel, (4) cobalt, (5) copper, (6) zinc, (7) lead. The grain size of the sulphides appears to be a function of the grain size of the host rock. Pyrite, carrollite and linnaeite crystals and aggregates are idiomorphous, but bornite, chalcopyrite and chalcocite are xenomorphous, The presence of bornite excludes pyrite and an abundance of chalcopyrite. Carrollite precedes bornite in its horizons, but linnaeite crystallizes sparingly in chalcopyrite zones. Pyrite precedes chalcopyrite; however, in ore bodies combining both of these sulphides, only chalcopyrite is found in the stringers. In the zone of cementation, chalcocites mainly affect bornite. In hydrothermal copper-uranium deposits, e.g., at Kalongwe in the Kolwezi district, ail sulphides may occur in the same horizon. In Katanga, a majority of the sulphides has undergone supergene alteration to carbonates, oxides and silicates. At the samc time, host dolomites have altered, resulting in a decarbonatized, siliceous-alurninous shale. General oxidation reaches a depth of 50-1000 ft. in Katanga, and of 150-200 ft. in Zambia, where oxides can be found as deep as 2,500 ft. Bornite and chalcocite, accompanied by covellite, are characteristic minerals of the zone of reconcentration. Under the present hydrostatic level oxidation is selective, and near the indistinct limit of each zone the various facies may be interlayered. While arenaceous sediments have been impregnated, carbonates have been replaced. The silicified dolomites originally were barren, but alteration products may percolate into them; indeed, at Ruwe, Kambove and Luishia, the mineralization of the basal mylonite appears to be secondary. Heterogenite appears along the contact of the upper dolomite and in the Lubumbashi district, the black oxides accumulating in pockets and podholes of the latest dolomitic limestone (C.M.N.). This layer, however, is barren in depth. Fissures, cavities and vugs have also been filled in fractured, mainly silicified rocks. However, sandstones can be completely imbibed by malachite, precipitate also in granules, and filling fissures of alteration. In shales, laminae of the host rock a1ternate with copper carbonates. Cavities of alteration and leaching are covered by re-arranged, spherulitic or fibroradiant malachite, exhibiting bands of various greens. A large concretion weighs almost 4 tons. Fine, nodular or acicular malachite also fans out, and stalactites of alternating, concentric malachite and chrysocolla reach lengths of up to 3 ft. Cuproferous solutions still continue to deposit malachite. Chrysocolla occurs in Impregnations and in laminae, dioptase crystallizing at Tantara. Azurite, aurichalcite, cuprite,

40

tenorite, trieuite, chalcotrycite, heterogenite, melanochalcite, mindigite and cornuite are rarer, as are the phosphates and arsenates shattuckite, plancheite, katangite, libethenite, pseudo-malachite; the sulphates connellite and chalcantite; and the vanadates calcio-volborthite and cuprodescloizite. Nitrates and uranates like buttgenbachite, gerhardite, kipushite, torbernite and psittacinite have been found occasionally. Native copper is also an alteration product, the greatest mass weighing almost 2 tons.

----- Association des services géologique africains, 1962. Symposium sur les gisements

stratiformes de Cuivre II – Résumés des communications – Conclusions générales. Chrn. Mines et Rech. Min. 313 : 308-316.

Atherton, T.W.T., 1907. Report on the copper deposits of the Katanga in the Congo free state. Tanganyika Concessions Limited, 83p.

Bain, H., 1917. The Katanga Copper deposits. MN 16: 145-149. Bannister, F.A., Hey, M.H., Claringbull, G.F., 1950, Connellite, buttgenbachite and tallingite,

Min. M., vol. XXIX, n°211, p. 280-286 Bartholowe, P., 1958. On the paragenesis of copper ores. Studia Universitatis “Lovanium”.

Fac des Sci, 4, Léopoldville, 32p. Bartholome, P., 1962. Les minerais cupro-cobaltifères de Kamoto (Katanga-Ouest) I-

Pétrographie. Studia Universitas « Lovanium », Fac. Sc. 14 : 1-40. Bartholome, P., 1962. Les minerais cupro-cobaltifères de Kamoto (Katanga-Ouest) II-

Paragenèse. Studia Universitas « Lovanium », Fac. Sc. 16 : 1-24. Bartholomé, P. 1962. Sur l’origine des gisements cuprifères de l’Afrique centrale, Alumni,

XXXI, 19-26. Bartholomé, P., 1963. Sur la zonalité dans les gisements de la Copperbelt de l’Afrique

centrale. Symposium – Problems of postmagmatic ore deposition, Prague, 1963, 1 :317-321.

Barzin, H., 1919. A description of the Katanga Copper prospects. MSP 19, p. 868. Bateman, AM, Jensen, ML 1956. Notes on the origin of the Rhodesian copper deposits ;

isotope composition of the sulfides. Economic Geology, 51, 6, 555-564. Berce, L., 1951, Le gisement de cuivre de Kapulo (Katanga), Ingénieur des mines,

Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB Berry, L.G. 1950. On pseudomalachite and cornetite. American Mineralogist, 35, 365-385 Bertrand, M., 1922. Parallélisme entre les gisements cuprifères du Katanga et du Niari. CR,

CGI, XIIIe sess., 2e fasc. : 771-795. Beyschlag, F., Krusch, P., Vogt, G.H.L.,. Die lagerstatten der nutzbaren mineralien und

gesteine. Band II s=====; 408, 1e ed., s. 382. Die Kupfererz lagerstatten von Katanga (Belgisch Kongo)

Bigotte, G. 1959. Contribution à la géologie du bassin du Niari. Etude sédimentologique et métallogénique de la région minière. Bulletin de la Direction des Mines et de la Géologie d’AEF, n°9, 188pp

Billiet, V. 1930. Malachiet en Schoepiet Kristallen uit Katanga. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, jg 12, 60-61.

Billiet, V. 1931. Cristaux de malachite du Katanga. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLI, fasc 1, 65-70.

Billiet, V. en Vandendriessche, A. 1939. Les oxydes hydratés de cobalt du Katanga. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, 49, 3, 63-77

Billiet, V. en Vandendriessche, A. 1940. De deshydratatie de natuurlijke waterhoudende koper en kobaltoxyden. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 21, 7, 311-322

Brandt, RT 1962-1963. Relationship of Mineralization to sedimentation at Mufulira, Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 72, 12, 869-

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871Brasseur, H., Toussaint, J. 1938. La structure cristalline de la malachite. BSRSL, Liège, 7ime année, 3-4, 213-219.

Brasseur, C., 1897. Les mines de cuivre du Katanga. MG 30 : 351-352. Briart, L., 1951, Contribution à l’étude de la minéralisation du gisement de Kipushi

(Katanga), ingénieur des mines, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB

Brien, V. 1928. Le problème de la mise en valeur des gisements de cuivre du Moero. Congo. Revue générale de la Colonie belge, 18, année n°68, 174-198.

Brotzen, O., 1957. Koppermineraliseringen i Norra Rhodesia och Katanga. Geol. Fören. Fôrh, 489, 79: 225-248.

Brummer, JJ 1955. The geology of the Roan Antelope Orebody. Bulletin of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, n°580. 257-318.

Buttgenbach, H., 1902. Au Katanga : les mines de Kambove (rapport du Comité Spécial du Katanga du 24 juillet 1902). MG 48, col. 577-588.

Buttgenbach, H., 1903-1904. Les gisements de cuivre du Katanga. ASGB XXXI : 515-564. Buttgenbach, H., 1903-1904. Description de la malachite et de quelques minéraux du

Katanga. ASGB XXXI, 565-572. Buttgenbach, H., 1908. Les gisements miniers du Katanga. AMBC, II, I, 17-74. Buttgenbach, H., 1908. Les mines du Katanga. Bruxelles, Lesigne 1908. Buttgenbach, H. 1926. Cristaux de connellite-buttgenbachite. Annales de la Société

Géologique de Belgique, t. L., 35-40. Buttgenbach, H. 1926. Description d’un minéral du Katanga. Bulletin de la Classe des

Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, tII, 905-913. Buttgenbach, H. 1926-1927. Minéraux du Katanga : 1. Cristaux de connellite-buttgenbachite ;

2. Cristaux d’iodargyrite. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t. L. 35-40. Buttgenbach, H. 1927. Description de minéraux provenant de nouveau gîtes congolais.

Mémoire de la Société Royale des Sciences de Liège, 3e série, t XVI Buttgenbach, H. 1930-1931. Sur un minérai de cuivre de Congo belge. Annales de la Société

Géologique de Belgique, t LIV, n°5, 190-192. Buttgenbach, H. 1932. Nouveau cristaux de Kipushite. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de

l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, tXVIII, n°1, 43-51. Buttgenbach, H. 1937. Echantillons du gîte de Kengere (Katanga). Annales de la Société

Géologique de Belgique, 61, 9-10, 322-324. Buttgenbach, H. 1941. La Kipushite et l’Arakawaite. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de

l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5ième série, 27, 448-451. Bykhover, N.A., 1961. Les bases essentielles de matières premières minérales des pays

capitalistes (cuivre, plomb, zinc). Prosp. Et Protect. Sous-sol 6 : 60-70. Carr, M.H., Turekian, K.K., 1961. The geochemistry of cobalt. Geochim. Et Cosmochim.

Acta XXIII : 9-60. Centre d’information du cobalt, 1962. Monographie du cobalt. Bruxelles, 515 p. Cesaro, G., 1904. Contribution à l’étude de quelques minéraux. BCScAcRB : 1198-1210. Cornet, J., 1894. La géologie de la partie sud-est du bassin du Congo et les gisements

métallifères du Katanga. RUM, 3e série, XXVIII : 217-290. Cornet, J., 1894. Les gisements métallifères du Katanga. MPSScH, Ve série, VIII : 3-56 et

BSBGPH, XVII : 3-47. Cornet, J., 1902. La region minière du Katanga II Descritpion générale des gisements

cuprifères. MG 49 : col. 592-594. Cornet, J., 1902. Les mines de Kambove au Katanga, à propos du rapport de M. l’ingénieur

Buttgenbach. BSBGPH, XVI : 651-656.

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Cornet, J., 1911. Mines. Chap. V du volume: Le Katanga, province belge. BTALUL, 5e année, n°4.

Cornet, J., 1911-12. Les gisements cuprifères du Katanga. MG, n°1, col. 14-16. Cuvelier, V. 1929. Analyse van enkele zuivere stoffen, technischie produkten en

kobalmineralen. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift jg 11, 170-179. Cuvelier, V. 1933. De chemische samenstelling van Julieniet, nieuw kobalmineraal.

Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift jg 15, 17-20. Cuvelier, V., De Sweemer, A. 1932. L’analyse et la synthèse chimique de la julienite.

Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t II, 67-71. Darnley, A.G., 1966. Sulfur isotopes of some Central Africa sulfide deposits. Econ Geol 61 :

409-414. Davidson, C.F., 1962. On the cobalt : nickel ratio in ore deposits. A discussion of evidence on

ore genesis. Mining Mag. 106, 2 : 78-85. Davidson, C.F., 1962. The origin of some stratabound sulfide ore deposits. Econ. Geol 57, 3:

265-274. Davidson, C.F., 1965. A possible mode of origin of stratabound copper ores. Econ Geol. 60 :

642-654. Dechow, E., Jensen, M.L., 1965. Sulfur isotopes of some Central Africa sulfide deposits.

Econ Geol 60: 894-941. De Jong, W.F., 1930. Over goethite, stainierit, diaspoor and heterogeniet. XII, p.69. De Leenheer, L., 1934. La mindigite, un nouvel hydroxyde de cobalt. CSK, V, p.3. De leenheer, L. 1934. Over Mindigiet, een nieuw kobalthydroxide. Natuurwetenschappelijk

Tijdschrift, XVI, n°7-8, 237-241. De Leenheer, L., 1935. Sur la stainiérite. CSK De Leenheer, L. 1935. Over stainieriet (1° en 2° nota). Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift,

17, n°s 2, 3, 6, 44-48. De Leenheer, L. 1935. Trieuiet, een nieux kobalt mineraal. Natuurwetenschappelijk

Tijdschrift, 17, n°s 4,5. 91-95. De Leenheer, L. 1936. Nieuwe kobalt-mineralen. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 18, 77-

78. De Leenheer, L. 1937. Over zwart-grijze chrysocolla. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, 19,

3, 86-90. De Leenheer, L. 1937. Sur l’hydroténorite, minéral nouveau: sur la ténorite et sur l’identité de

ce dernier minéral avec la mélanochalcite. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, 42, 2, 245-262.

De Leenheer, L. 1937. Sur la Trieuite et les minérais associés. Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, 8, 3-13.

De Leenheer, L. 1938. Examen chalcographique de l’hydroténorite et de la ténorite. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie 28, 2, 343-347.

De Leenheer, L. 1938. Neue Beobachtungen an stanieriten aus Katanga. Zentralblatt für Mineralogie, Abt A., 281-288.

De Leenheer, L. 1938. Neue Beobachtungen an stanieriten aus Katanga. Zentralblatt für Mineralogie, Abt A., 341-348.

De Leenheer, L. 1939. Ueber einem anisotropen Treuit. Zentralblatt für Mineralogie, Abt A., 6, 172-177.

De Leenheer, L., 1950, Les minéraux du groupe de l’hétérogénite, avec une contribution à leur genèse au Katanga, A.S.M.C.S.K., t. XV, p. 1-17

De Magnée, I., 1962. Minéralisations cuprifères stratiformes du Nord-Katanga. Gisements stratiformes de cuivre en Afrique – Symposium 1ère partie (Copenhague, 1960). Assoc. Serv. Géol. Afric., Paris: 67-69.

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Demay, A. 1930. Quelques remarques sur la métallogénie des gisements de cuivre du Katanga et de la Rhodésie septentrionale. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée; Liège, 87-94.

Demesmaeker, G., François, A., Oosterbosch, R., 1962. La tectonique des gisements cuprifères stratiformes du Katanga. Gisements stratiformes de cuivre en Afrique – Symposium 2ème partie (Lusaka, 1962). Assoc. Serv. Géol. Afric., Chron. Min. Et Rech. Min. 313: 309-311.

Demesmaecker, G., François, A., Oosterbosch, R. 1963. LA tectonique des gisements cuprifères stratiformes au Katanga. Gisements stratiformes de cuivre en Afrique. Symposium, 2ième partie, Tectonique (Lusaka, 1962). Association des Services géologiques africains, Paris, 47-115

Douglas, GV 1930. Observations on the Geology and Mines of the Belgian Congo. The Mining Magazine, vol 42, n°6, 337-348.

Douglas, GV 1955. Origin of the Roan Antelope copper deposit of Northern Rhodesia. Economic Geology, 50, 1, 82-83

Douglas, GV 1956. Origin of the Rhodesian copper deposits. Economic Geology, 51, 4, 391-392

Du Trieu de Terdonck, R. 1930. Notes sur les gîtes de cuivre de Katanga. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, Liège, 81-85.

du Trieu de Terdonck, R., 1947, La géologie appliquée aux gîtes de cuivre du Katanga, C.A.I.Lg, Section Coloniale, p.305-307

du Trieu de Terdonck, R., 1949, La localisation de la Série des Mines dans l’échelle stratigraphique du Katanga, A.S.M.C.S.K., t. XIV, p. 3-32

Du Trieu de Terdonck, R., 1957. Géologie et recherches minières. In : Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, 1906-1956. Evolution des techniques et des activités sociales. Bruxelles, 9-68.

Farrell, S.R., 1903. Reports. Publié dans Tanganyika Concessions Limited ; reports on the discoveries made by M. George Grey’s expedition in northern Rhodesia and Congo Free State and reports by M. J.R. Farrell, mining engineer. London, p. 89-124 et MG, 21, col. 253-254 et MG, 22, 278-280.

Farrell, S.R., 1908. The copper and tin deposits of Katanga. EMJ, LXXXV, n°15. Flament, G. 1931-1932. De la métallogénie des mines de cuivre du Katanga et de la Rhodésie

septentrionale. Bulletin de l’Association des Diplômes de l’Ecole des Conducteurs Géologues Pâturages, t. II, fasc 1, 27-36.

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Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, LXXII, fasc 3, 393-400 Frenay, J., 1965. Etude des gisements sulfurés dans les arkoses minéralisées du Bas-Congo.

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Gorzhevskij, D.I., Kozerenko, V.N., 1960. Quelques particularités de la métallogénie du socle plissé des plates-formes. Prosp. Et Protect. Sous-sol 9: 6-10.

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Gysin, M. 1935. Les minérais de cuivre de Kinsenda (Congo belge). Note n°2. Sur la présence de deux variétés de chalcosine. Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève, vol 52, n°1, 82-84.

Gysin, M. 1935. Les minérais de cuivre de Kinsenda (Congo belge). Note n°2. Sur la présence d’une covelline hypogène et d’une covelline supergène. Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève, vol 52, n°2, 116-119.

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Schoep, A., 1921. Présence de quelques minéraux du Katanga. BSBGPH, XXXI, P.41-42. Schoep, A., 1921. Sur la nature et la composition chimique d’un minéral de cobalt provenant

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Thoreau, J., 1924. Sur la découverte d’un chlorure de cuivre au Katana. BSBGPH, XXXIV : 89-92.

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Société Géologique de Belgique, t. XLVIII, p. B303, PRCB (in extenso), C37-38 Van Aubel, R. 1926-1927. Zones d’oxydation et de cémentation dans les gîtes cuprifères du

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Van Aubel, R. 1928. Sur quelques minéraux et roches du Katanga (3e note). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LI, fasc. 2, C69-77.

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Van Doorninck, N. 1928. Geologie, ertsvoorkomens en economisch mijnbouwkundige ontwikkeling van Boven-Katanga. Geologie en Mijnbouw, 11jg, n°1, 7-8.

Van Esbroeck, G., Van Weyenbergh, N. 1938. La Mine Prince Léopold à Kipushi. Annales des Mines de Belgique, XXXIX, 253-269.

Vermarien, E. 1956. Concentration par flottation du minérai de cuivre de Kapulo (Katanga). Ingénieur des Mines. Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée, Université de Bruxelles.

Von Durfeld, V., 1912. Malachit von Katanga. Deutch-Ost-Afrika. ZK 50 : 582-583. Walker, GL 1935. Ancient copper mining and smelting in Central Africa. Engineering and

Mining Journal, n°120, 811-816. Walker, GL 1927. What is the future for African Copper. Engineering and Mining Journal,

vol CXXIII, n°10, 401.. Wauters, A.J., 1902. Les opérations du “Comité Spécial du Katanga”. MG, 47 : 565-571. Whittingham, J.K., 1958. The geological environment of copper deposits in Tanganyika.

CCTA/CSA. Réunion conjoint Léopoldville. CCTA pub n°44: 199-208. Williams, G., 1913. Mining in Katanga (Congo belge). MJ, CII, p. 817 et 839. Youn, R.C., 1957. The geochemistry of cobalt. Geochim. Et Cosmochim. Acta, 13, 1: 28-41. 3.2.2 Lead-Zinc (De Kun, 1965) Zinc and lead are generally associated. The occurrence of zinc, however, is more restricted, namely to the 500 million year old Kipushi deposit in the Congolese Copperbelt. Kipushi is part of a discontinuous series of replacement deposits in the Kakontwe limestone overlying the Série des Mines, between the Copper and Iron belts of Katanga. The zinc-lead occurrence of Lombe and the lead-zinc-silver-copper paragenesis of Kengere, south of Kolwezi, belong to the same series. The asymmetric Kipushi anticline rises a few hundred yards from the Zambian border, pitching east and west. The northern limb dips 60°N, the southern flank lying fiat. The fold consists of (1) graphitic schists including sandstone inliers, ferruginous zones and oolith, chlorite schist layers of the Mwashya Series; (2) 300 ft. of the large, basal tillite; (3) the Lower Kundelungu Series, including the Kakontwe carbonates, interlayered schists, calcschists, and sandstones; (4) the Upper Kundelungu small conglomerate. The summit of the anticline is covered by a sub-vertical hood breccia, dipping northwest, thrust partly over the Kakontwe dolomite. A wedge of calcschists underlies most of the hood. The replacement body developed along the intersection of the head breccia with a secondary fault zone. The propagation of the mineralizing solutions has been stopped by the less permeable calcschists. The ore funnel strongly resembling the shape of Tsumeb, is located in the Kakontwe dolomite 0-150 ft. from the contact. The thickness of the main vein varies between 30 and 100 ft. An irregular body of copper sulphides is located in the dolomites and at their contact with the breccia. Furthermore, a body of zinc sulphides connects with the eastern part of the upper reaches of the main body. The funnel first dips 45° north, pitching stronger at lower levels. Dolomite relies are included in the chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite body, accompanied by some chalcocite. The upper funnel extends to a depth of 350 ft., connecting with a 120-150 ft. thick body, located in the dolomites. A smaller, independent, wedge-like sphalerite body follows the upper edge of the calcschist. The central copper funnel attains 500ft. in length, finally arching back to the contact. South and below this area, zinc predominates in the paragenesis. While sulphides have also been disseminated in the country rock, pyrite, galena and tennantite are important accompanying minerais. Kipushi is the continent's principal silver deposit, silver being contained in bornite and chalcocite. The paragenesis includes argentiferous galena, chalcopyrite, reniérite, cadmiferous sphalerite, quartz, mica and carbonates, plus accessory arsenopyrite, molybdenite, vanadinite

50

and cuprodesc1oizite. Bornite, covellite, stromeyerite (argentiferous chalcocite), chalcocite, native silver, cupriferous smithsonite and oxides have developed as secondary minerals. Cobalt is rare. Native silver inc1uded in cuprite acquires a rim of malachite, chrysocolla and chalcocite. If associated with chalcocite, a film of cuprite, malachite and chrysocolla develops. The crystallization of reniérite, 'orange bornite,' overlaps the range of early tennanite. Lead and zinc predominate in the mineralization of the Katangian geosyncline in the Lower Congo. Most of the mineralization in the Republic of the Congo, west of Kinshasa, is localized in the vicinity of faults as fissure fillings or impregnations. Galena has been described at Palabala, Mutashi, Bebe, Kisinga, Kitalla, Kikondja and Saramabila, and along the Niembo, Mia, Fungwe and Mulungwishi, Luiembe, Lubudi, Kalebo rivers. At Bamba-Kilenda, near Madimba, chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite prevail in the limestones of the schisto-calcaire system, below the contact of the shale-sandstone (schistogréseux) system. Sphalerite-galena and pyrite, including traces of silver and vanadium, concentrate in felspathic quartzite of the younger shale-sandstone system. The paragenesis also includes tennantite, argyrose and covellite.

----- Briart, L., 1951, Contribution à l’étude de la minéralisation du gisement de Kipushi

(Katanga), ingénieur des mines, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB

Brown, J.S., 1962. Ore leads and isotopes. Econ. Geol. 57, 5: 673-720. Bykhover, N.A., 1961. Les bases essentielles de matières premières minérales des pays

capitalistes (cuivre, plomb, zinc). Prosp. Et Protect. Sou-sol 6 : 60-70. Cahen, L., 1953-54, Précisions au sujet de l’âge conventionnel de quelques galènes du Congo,

A.S.G.B., t. LXXVII, p. B. 373 Cahen, L., 1954, Extension et âge d’une minéralisation Cu-Pb-Zn en Afrique centrale et

australe, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LXIII, p. 90-100 Chernysheva, L.V., 1962. Mine Prince Léopold (Congo belge), in “Geology of Rare-Element

deposits” n°5: 62-74. Dunham, K.C., 1948, Geology, paragenesis and reserves of the ores of lead and zinc.

Introduction of the Symposium, C.G.I., XVIII, London, Report, pt. VII, p. 11-39 Grimmer, A., 1962. Ueber Spurenelementgehalte and Schwefelisotopenverhältnisse in

Sphalerit aus der Erzprovinz von Nord-Rhodesien – Katanga. Bergakademie 14, 12 : 800-802.

Henry, J. 1928-1929. Communication sur un gisement de galène et de pyrite au Congo belge. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux

régions voisines, t. LII, 19. Jedwab, J., 1962. Tourmaline zincifère dans une pegmatite de Muika (Congo). Bull. Soc.

Belge Géol. LXXI, 132-135. Les minéralisations plombifères de la République démocratique du Congo. Note présentée à

la réunion de Tunis de l’Association des Services Géologiques africains. Avril, 1966. Ottenburgs, R., 1962. Contribution à l’étude métallogénique du gisement de Kipushi,

Katanga. Laboratoire de minéralogie et géologie appliquée, Louvain. Polinard, E. 1928-1929. Les gisements plombo-cuprifères de la Lubi et de la Lukula. Leur

génèse et leurs rapports avec la stratigraphie de la région. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LII, fasc 2, C31-73.

Ruscart, D.J.B., 1951. Les homas du Mont Hoyo, Ituri, Congo belge. Bruxelles, Ministère des Colonies, Publ de la direction de l’agriculture et de l’élevage, 66 p.

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Russell, R .D., Farquhar, R.M., 1960. Lead isotopes in Geology. Interscience publishers, New-york, London, 1960, 243 p.

Van Aubel, R.1927. Sur quelques gîtes plombifères du Haut-KAtanga. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LI, fasc. 1, C9-13.

3.2.3 Tin (De Kun, 1965) From the equator the tin belts extend 750 miles west of Lake Edward as far as the Copperbelt. The principal deposits are located in two districts, Maniema and northern Katanga. The Maniema district covers a 200 mile long and 130 mile wide area between (a) the Congo-Lualaba and (b) Lake Kivu and the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. For 200 miles the North Katanga belt follows the Upper Lualaba River from Manono (located 300 miles north of Lubumbashi) south-southwest through Mwanza to the Busanga eluvia and greisens near Kolwezi. South of Manono the Mitwaba placers and pegmatites are the only significant deposits of another long and parallel belt. Intruded into Precambrian schists, the Kasese batholith occupies the northeastern quarter of Maniema and Central Kivu provinces. The Aïssa, Kalima and Kihembwe granitic stocks have been intruded along a north-south oriented alignment nearer to the Lualaba River. In addition, metabasites are interbedded with the schists, and dolerites occur along the periphery of many stocks. Low plateaus of unfolded latest Precambrian (Katangian) red sandstones outcrop on the edges of this orogeny. The lower Karroo transgression of the Congo basin has flooded the system of valleys of the Ulindi-Lugulu, Elila and other rivers penetrating eastwards to the mountain ranges of Kivu, bordering the Graben. The tin belts follow the contacts of the stocks, but the mineralization is generally asymmetric. The westernmost belt rises in the Kailo district, plunging below the Karroo. From Punia in the north, the Western Tin belt extends 200 miles to south of Kampene, This mineralized axis continues towards northern Katanga. The Eastern Tin belt forms an arc occupying the southwestern sector of a circle. It follows the western contour of the Kasese batholith from Tshamaka beyond Kasilu for 230 miles. The contact of granitic intrusives controls the mineralization which, west of Kasese, originally consisted of quartz veins, cassiterite stringers and greisens. Pegmatites acquire an important role at the contact of the batholith, and they predominate east of the Rift Valley in the Rwanda tin belts. Most of the deposits are related to the muscovite granite rim of the stocks, although the central core of biotite only shows traces. In the primary deposits economic concentrations are scarce. Altered greisenic or granitic bedrocks, including stringers and disseminated cassiterite, contain good grades, especially in the Kailo and Kalima districts. However, values tend to diminish with depth. The importance of eluvial and alluvial placers and terraces decreases eastwards, i.e., towards the higher mountain ranges distinguished by more intensive erosion. We distinguish several alluvial cycles. The major hydrographic systems acquired their primitive shapes in the Permian; the present placers, however, appear to be large1y Holocene. At Manono-Kitotolo the world's largest ore-pegmatite has been intruded into banded schists and quartzites of the Middle Precambrian Kibara system. Each lens is 3 miles long, averaging a width of 1,300 ft. Both the pegmatites and the country rock trend N 50°E, Both dykes are sub-vertical and sub-concordant, North of these pegmatites, several zoned lenses protrude. Attaining a width of 30 ft. or more, the eluvial and lateritic cover was mined first. Indeed, the pegmatite is weathered to an average depth of 200 ft. Grades are about 0.08% cassiterite and

52

0.006% columbite-tantalite. Below this the hard rock is also mineralized. Although the pegmatite is zoned the picture is complicated by a number of larger or smaller xenoliths. Parallel to their borders run concordant pegmatite zones, much in the same way as at the wall of the country rock.

----- Aderca, B., 1952, Contribution à la connaissance géologique des gisements stannifères

kibariens et à leur métallogénie, C.S.K. 50e Anni. Congrès Elisabethville 1950, vol. II, t. II, p.377-408

Aderca, B. 1955. La mine des Kibara (Katanga, Congo belge). Etude pétrographiquue et géologique. Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc nat et med, in 8°, III, fasc 2.

Agassiz, J.F., 1954. Géologie et pegmatites stannifères de la région Mumba-Numbi, Kivu (Congo belge). Comité National du Kivu, nouvelle série, 7.

Ahlfeld, F., 1958. Zinn und Wolfram. Die metallischen Rojstoffe, F. Enke Verlag, 212p. Bahezre, C., Capitant, M., Phan Kieu Duong, 1961. Analyse ponctuelle d’une cassitérite

zonée. Bull. Soc. Franç. Minér. Et Cristall., LXXXIV, 321-322. Barzin, H., 1952. Geomines- A major open-pit tin producer in the belgian Congo. Engin. And

Mine. Journ., 153, 11: 86-89. Behrend, F., 1919. Die zinnerzvorkommen des Kongostaates. ZPG, 27, 2: 19-22. Bernard, H., 1948, Etude pétrographique du gisement de cassitérite de Manono (Géomines),

ingénieur des mines, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB Bernard, H., 1954-55, Quelques observations sur des filons zonaires pegmatitiques à Manono,

A.S.G.B., t. 78, fasc. spécial, p.41-49 Bertossa, A., 1960. Quelques aperçus sur les pegmatites de la région de Katumba. Serv. Géol.

Ruanda-Urundi, Rapport annuel. I, 17-22. Bertossa, A., 1960. Le gîte minéralogique de Buranga. Serv. Géol. Ruanda-Urundi, Rapport

annuel. I, 23-27. Bertossa, A., 1960. Traversée de la crête Congo-Nil entre Kabaya et Nyundo (Mahoko). Serv.

Géol. Ruanda-Urundi, Rapport annuel. I, 28-30. Blaise, F. La tectonique des terrains situés au Nor-ouest du Lac Kivu et ses relations avec la

minéralisation. Revue Universelle des Mines, 77e année, 8e série, t X, n°17, 453-457 ; n° 18, pp 487-490.

Buttgenbach, H., 1905-1906. La cassitérite du Katanga. ASGB XXXIII, p.M49-52. Buttgenbach, H., 1950, Souxite et varlamoffite, B.I.R.C.B., vol. XXI-2, p. 409-411 Cahen, L., Delhal, J., Monteyne-Poulaert, G., 1966. Age determination on granites,

pegmatites and veins from the Kibaran Belt of Central and Northern Katanga (Congo). Nature 210, 5043, 1341-1344.

Corin, F. 1955. Les minéralisations stannifères du Congo belge. Comptes Rendus du Réunion des Directeurs des Services Géologiques de l’Ouest Africain, Dakar, 62-64.

Coste, H., 1952, L’étain, Encyclopédie du Congo belge, Bruxelles, éd. Bieleveld, t. II, ch. III, p. 597-622

Coste, H., Rollet, A., 1947, L’étain au Congo belge, C.A.I.Lg., Section coloniale, p. 381-391 D’Andrimont, J. 1939. L’exploitation de la cassitérite d’alluvions au Maniema (Congo belge).

Revue Universelle des Mines, 8ième série, 15, 9, 461-476. Dassonville, A., 1961. L’étain et les perspectives d’avenir au Katanga. Publ. Univ. Etat à

Elisabethville II, 283-295. Antun, P. 1960. Sur la génèse et les propriétés de stannines et de varlamoffites du Maniéma

(Congo belge). Bulletin du service géologique du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi, , n°9, fasc 2.

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de Bethune, P., Borgniez, G., Scheere, J., 1949-50, Le gisement stannifère de Mugumba (Kivu), A.S.G.B., Mém. t. 73, p. M. 263-266

de Coen, J., 1951, Contribution à l’étude des gisements stannifères du Katanga. La pegmatite de Shienzi, ingénieur géologue, Laboratoire de Minéralogie et de Géologie appliquée (Prof. J. Thoreau), Université de Louvain

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Kivu, Congo belge. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique 82, 81-196. De Magnée, I., 1952-2, Rapport sur le travail de M. N. Varlamoff : « Géologie des gisements

stannifères de Symétain (Maniema, Congo belge) », B.I.R.C.B., t. XXIII, p. 674-677 Denaeyer, M.E., 1950, Présentations d’échantillons, Bull. Soc. Fr. min. et Crist., t. LXXIII,

n°10-12, p. 483-484 Denaeyer, M.E., 1950, Cristaux de cassitérite du Ruanda, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LIX, fasc. 3, p.

259-261 Farrell, S.R., 1908. The copper and tin deposits of Katanga. EMJ, LXXXV, n°15. Fox, W., 1952, International Tin Study Group, 1952, Statistical Year Book, 268p.

International Tin Study Group, La Haye Guillemin, C., 1961. Présentation de photographies d’échantillons de cassitérite provenant des

greisens stannifères des pegmatites de Kirengo, région de Katumba, Ruanda. Bull. Soc. Franc. Minéral et Cristall. LXXXIV, 1 : p. XXXI.

Gurnet (…), 1948, Etude de la pegmatite stannifère de Manono, Ingénieur des mines, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB

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Hariga, Ch., 1950 ( ?), Etude de la minéralisation stannifère de Nzombe (Kivu), ingénieur géologue, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. M. Legraye), ULg

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Jedwab, J., 1952-53, La signification des traces d’étain dans certains minéraux communs des pegmatites, A.S.G.B., t. LXXVI, p. B. 101-105

Kazmitcheff, A. 1960. Observations sur la pegmatite de Tshonka (Nord-Lugulu, Kivu). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique LXXXIII, 227-243.

Kerckhove, P., 1949, Etude minéralogique de cristaux de cassitérite de la mine des Kibara (Concession Sermikat), Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer), ULB

Lancsweert, P. 1939. Notes sur quelques nouveux gîtes minéraux découverts au Maniema. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 2, 351-356.

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Varlamoff, N., 1960-1961. Relations spatiales entre les granites et les pegmatites en Afrique centrale. Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg. LXXXIV: 154-162.

Varlamoff, N., 1961. Pegmatites à amblygonite et à spodumène et pegmatites fortement albitisées à spodumène et à cassitérite de la région de Katumba (Ruanda). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique 84, 257-278.

Varlamoff, N., 1963. Les phénomènes de greisenification, d’albitisation et de lépidolitisation et leurs relations spatiales avec les granites et les pegmatites granitiques d’Afrique. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique 86, 285-322.

Varlamoff, N., 1969. Transitions entre les filons de quartz et les pegmatites stannifères de la région de Musha-Ntunga (Ruanda). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique 92, 193-213.

57

Varlamoff, N., 1975. Classification des gisements d’étain. Académie Royale des sciences d’outre mer. Classe des Sciences Naturelles et Médicales 19.

Van Wambeke, L. 1960. Etude comparative de l’ampangabéite et de la Samarskite. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie. LXXXIII, 295-309.

Vasseur, L.V., 1961. L’étain dans le monde. Cahier d’Outre-Mer 54 : 121-156. 3.3 Chemical and Industrial metals These metals are largely used in chemical and industrial applications and are not as widely known as the more abundant metals 3.3.1 REE (De Kun, 1965) Xenotime is abundant in parts of the Idiba and North Lugulu fields of the eastern Congo. In these concentrates xenotime accompanies almandite. Monazite is present in numerous areas and rivers, among other rivers: Kadubu, Tokolela, Lindi, Ona, Numbi, Ulindi, Zalya, Makenga, Luizi, Lukulu, Kalumengongo, Luombwa, Luilu, Muyumu, Kalasangashi, Luisa, Luashi, Ningi-Ninge, Katepiti and Lulua.

----- Bruet, E., 1952, Minéraux radioactifs et terres rares, éd. Bibliothèque scientifique Payot,

250p. Cahen, L., Jacobs, T., 1951, Mesure de l’âge absolu de l’ « Yttrocrasite » de Mitwaba (Monts

Kibara, Congo belge), B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LX, fasc. 1, p. 97 De Béthune, P. 1956-1957. Caractères pétrographiques des carbonatites de la Lueshe (Kivu,

Congo Belge). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, 80, bull 1-2, 63-66. De Béthune, P., Meyer, A. 1956. Les carbonatites de la Lueshe (Kivu, Congo Belge).

Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 243, 1132-1134. De Béthune, P. 1958. Notes pétrographiques relatives à la carbonatite Lueshe. Bulletin du

Service Géologique du Congo Belge et Ruanda-Urundi, n°8, fasc 5 De Béthune, P., Meyer, A. 1963. The Lueshe carbonatite (Kivu, Belgian Congo). Congrès

géologique International, XXIe Sess, Norden. Contributions to discussion, Copenhagque, Rept XXVII, 120-121.

Jedwab, J., Etude des oligo-éléments dans les minéraux des pegmatites, Doctorat, Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB

Jedwab, J., 1954-55, Les oligo-éléments dans la recherche des pegmatites minéralisées, A.S.G.B., t. 78, fasc. spécial, p. 71-79

Meyer, A. 1959.La carbonatite Lueshe (Kivu). Bull Serv Géol CB et RU, 1958 (1959), 8. Meyer, A., De Béthune, P., 1960. La carbonatite Lueshe (Kivu, Congo belge). Congrès

géologique International, XXIe Sess Norden, 1960, Copenhaguqe, 1960, rept part XIII, 304-309.

Sahama, ThG 1961. Afrikan Manteeren karbonatiiteista. Geology, 13, 9-10, 65-68. Vaes, J.F., 1946-47, Description d’un nouveau minéral « la schuilingite », A.S.G.B., t. 70, p.

B. 233-236 Van der Veen, AH 1963. A study of pyrochlore. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk

Nederlands Geologisch en Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap, Geologische serie, 22, 188 Vaes, A. 1960. Une découverte minière intéressante dans l’est du Congo. Belgique d’Outre-

Mer, 1960, 300, 155. Van Wambeke, L. 1959. Contribution à l’étude de la minéralogie, de la géochimie et des

méthodes de prospection des carbonatites à pyrochlores au moyen des rayons X. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, LXVIII, 178-225.

58

Van Wambeke, L. 1960. Geochemical prospecting and appraisal of Niobium-bearing carbonatites with X-ray methods. Economic Geology LV, 4, 732-758.

3.3.2 Cadmium (De Kun, 1965) Traces of cadmium show in a majority of sphalerites. Avoiding veins, cadmium concentrates in zinc deposits of the replacement type in Africa. Greenockite, the cadmium sulphide, occurs at Kipushi in the Congo. The cadmium content of zinc ores, however, is higher at Tsumeb, in Southwest Africa. Both deposits are late Precambrian. The former Prince Leopold Mine is situated near Kipushi; 20 miles south of Lubumbashi, on the Zambian border. In this funnel of hydrothermal replacement in carbonates, sphalerite is second in abundance after chalcopyrite, and is rather coarse grained and dark coloured. The mineral has crystallized after pyrite, with the copper sulphides. Greenockite precipitates on sphalerite crystals and in concentrates the zinc/cadmium ratio averages 77/1. 3.3.3 Antimony Tetraedrite has been described at Kipushi (Katanga). 3.3.4 Germanium (De Kun, 1965) Germanium, a rare metal, occurs at Kipushi (Congo) and Tsumeb (Namibia) in reniérite and germanite. Traces of germanium generally show in zinc minerals, and in coal as well. Reniérite is included in chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena at Kipushi. Reniérite also occurs in independent idio- or hypidiomorphic grains or spindles. Its period of crystallization overlaps that of early tennantite. The mineral (Cu, Fe, Ge, Zn, As) S, contains 6.4-7.8 % Ge, but no gallium. Iron is more abundant than in germanite. Germanite, the minerai showing the highest germanium and gallium concentrations in the world (10 %, 2 %), is only known to occur at Tsumeb. Reniérite, first discovered at Kipushi, Katanga, crystallizes as a replacement product of germanite and of the host rock. 'Orange bornite' is probably identical to reniérite (Sclar and Geier, 1957). Both enargite and tennantite contain germanium. In the calcic environment of the zone of oxidization germanium is released and reprecipitated in a basic lead sulphate, containing 8% GeO, the arsenate bayldonite (500-5,000 ppm Ge), mimetite, olivenite, and anglesite and cerussite (50-500 ppm Ge). Most of the germanium is in the quadrivalent state. Finally, the oxidized germanium is releached by supergene solutions in alkali germanates.

----- Steygers, L. 1960. Rare germanium mineral, renierite, recovered by magnetic upgrading.

World mining, San Francisco, XIII, 1, 24-25. De Cleene, P.B., 1961. Entretien dur le germanium. Mém. Soc. Ing. Civils de France II : 29-

43. Deutzmann, W., 1961. Etude des minéralisations du gisement « Prince Léopold » Kipushi,

Katanga (note préliminaire). Bull Acad. Roy. Sc. Outre-Mer VII, 3 : 4751-452. Fleischer, M., 1950. Discredited minerals. Renierite. Amer. Miner., 35: p. 136. Francotte,J., Moreau, J., Ottenburgs, R., Levy, C., 1965. La briarite, Cu2(Fe,Zn)GeS4, une

nouvelle espèce minérale. Bull. Soc. Franç. Minér. Cristall. 88: 432-437. Lambot, H., 1949-50, Sur la reniérite, A.S.G.B., t. 73, n°3-7, p. B. 183-186 Levy, C., Prouvost, J., 1957. Rapport entre la chalcopyrite, la stannite et la reniérite. Bull.

Soc. Franç. Minér. Cristall., 80 : 59-66. Loginova, L.A., 1960. Essai de mesure des constantes optiques de la germanite et de la

reniérite. Vopr. Mineral. Geokhim. Genezisa Mestororhd. Ved. Elem. SSSR 4: 224-334.

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Murdoch, J., s.d., X-Ray Study of Renierite, Germanite and Colusite, Résumé dans Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 63, n°12, pt.2, p. 1284

Murdoch, J., 1953. X-ray investigation of colusite, germanite and renierite. Amer. Miner., 38: 794-801.

Sclar, C.B., Geier, B.H., 1957. The paragenetic relationships of germanite and renierite from Tsumeb, South West Africa. Econ.Geol., 52, 6: 612-631.

Strunz, H., Geier, B.H., Seeliger, E., 1958. Gallit, CuGaS2, das erste selbstandige Galliummineral, und seins verbreitung in der erzen der Tsumeb- und Kipushi-Mine. Neues Jahrb. Fur Miner., 11-12: 241-264.

Vaes, J.F., 1948-49, La reniérite (anciennement appelée « bornite orange »). Un sulfure germanifère provenant de la mine Prince Léopold, Kipushi (Congo belge), A.S.G.B., t. 72, p. B. 19-32

3.3.5 Arsenic (De Kun, 1965) Arsenopyrite shows in the tinfields of Maniema, where it occurs separately from the acid paragenesis. Arsenopyrite is found in the Manono pegmatite. Loellingite impregnates schists at Namoya, averages 7 dwt. gold/ton. Arsenic is included in the hydrothermal and uranium paragenesis of the Copperbelt. Arsenic is present as mispickel in the Kipushi and Ruashi ore deposits, at Jahusimba and in the Kibara area (Katanga). This mineral is also common in association with Au-bearing quartz at Kikubara Mount, Zalya, Kilo, Kalumengongo and in the Urega area. It is also known in the quartzite of Kikondja. Arsenic is also present as symplesite, annabergite, scorodite, pharmacosiderite; these minerals being found at Urega, Shinkolobwe, Jahusimba, Busanga and Jatanda. Tennantite showings would be present to the western shore of the Tanganyika lake.

----- De Magnée, I., 1948, Présence de löllingite (FeAs2) dans la pegmatite stannifère de Manono,

B.S.B.G.P.H., t. 57, p. 75-76 Hubaux, A. 1959. Les gisements de tennantite de Yungu et de Sele (Lac Tanganika). Annales

de la Société Géologique de Belgique, LXXXII, 269-282. Mathieu, Ph., 1951, Mispickel de Kipushi, Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer),

ULB Sikorski, J., 1951, Etude de quelques sulfures et sulfoséléniures de Shinkolobwe (Katanga),

Laboratoire de Géologie appliquée (Prof. I. de Magnée), ULB 3.3.6 Rhenium The molybdenum/rhenium ratio average 15,000/1. Molybdenum being scarce in Africa, rhenium can be found in copper, titanium, niobium and rare earth ores.

----- See Mo 3.3.7 Mercury Vanderstappen, R., Verbeek, Th. 1959. Pésence d’analcime d’origine sédimentaire dans le

Mésozoiqu du bassin du Congo. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, LXVII, 417-421.

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3.3.8 Zirconium-Hafnium (De Kun, 1965) Zircon is a common accessory mineral of granites, carbonatites, alkaline and syenitic rocks, including Lueshe. Zircon is abundant in the alluvial deposits of the following rivers: Yebu (Uele), Longele and Nebulu (Ituri), Numbi and Movu (Lowa), Kalasangashi, Musele, Mayama and Lulua, Luilu (Lubilash). Colored zircons have been described in Belaheli, Kirando, Bakwanga and Shilonga. Baddeleyite was found in the Nedi alluvial deposits. Hafnium, the hidden element, is only found in zirconium minerals. Although pegmatitic zircon may contain 10% hafnium or more, this type of concentrate is limited.

----- Buttgenbach, H. 1936. Sur un crystal de zircon. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 7,

2, 365. 3.3.9 Indium Sphalerite contains 0.0024% In, which also shows in chalcopyrite, galena, cassiterite and coal.

----- See Zn-Pb 3.3.10 Selenium In Africa, especially in the Zambian Copperbelt, selenium is associated with copper ores, but this metal also shows in pyrites and uranium minerals of Katanga and northern Zambia (De Kun, 1965).

----- See Zn-Pb 3.3.11 Bismuth (De Kun, 1965) In the eastern Congo native bismuth crystallizes at Ngussa and Mayamoto with gold, cassiterite and pyrite. It occurs in the shear and crush zones of the long fault dividing the younger Precambrian Itombwe syncline from the surrounding Middle Precambrian folds. Weighing up to 10 pounds, sub-angular lumps of native bismuth occur in the placers covering the pegmatite fields of the North Lugulu tin-columbium district, especially at the upper Lubilu River, and also in the Nietubu and Lubilokwa drainages. Frequently a yellow patina, which shares the diffraction pattern of synthetic bismutite or more rarely a black patina of bismuthinite, covers the bismuth. Moreover, fine grained bismuth occurs frequently as a trace element in other parts of the Kivu-Maniema tin province. In the complex tin and gold bearing eluvia of Pizon, east of Kalima, white altered grains and pebbles of bismuthinite are abundant.

----- Buttgenbach, H., 1945, Bismuth de la Messaraba (Maniema), B.I.R.C.B., vol. XVI-2, p. 382-

383 3.3.12 Thallium See Zn-Pb

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4. Precious metals and gems

4.1 Gold (De Kun, 1965) The Congo belts extend for 700 miles from the Sudanese border into northern Katanga. The belts trend west-southwest in the northeastern Congo, bend south-southwest at Lake Albert, and then continue in the more extensive Kivu-Maniema belt. The principal deposits are located in the Kilo and Moto districts, precisely at this bend. There have been distinguished two major cycles: 2,200 million years in the northeast and 950 million years in Kivu-Maniema. Minor deposits, located 300 miles west of Moto, are 3,300 million years old, but gold also occurs in the Katangian. NORTHEASTERN CONGO Amphibolites, albitites, banded ironstones, diorite and schists containing variable amounts of carbonates, albite, talc, chlorite and mica float on the batholith which occupies the northeastern corner of the Congo. The mineralization is related to these Middle Precambrian (Kibalian) roof pendants or screens. Basic dyke rocks, mainly of the Rift cycle, cut the complex, but most of the deposits follow the orientation of the schists. Two gold fields can be distinguished: Kilo, near Lake Albert, and Moto or Watsa further northwest. In the Kilo area three west-southwest trending alignments have been distinguished (Duhoux, 1949-1950): (1) Tsi-Nizi-Montjeri-Luma-Tsele-Labo; (2) Sindani-Old Kilo-Dindo -Alosi; (3) Pokwo - Yemoliani- Agoye - Galaya- Yedi. The orientation of low dipping reefs and sills of Kangaand Mongbwalu (Senzere, Creek, Issuru, Kopatele, Guellay), which is related to shear zones in the batholith, is more variable. The structural control of the northern Moto, or Watsa, district is less apparent, however. Locally, the floating sub-horizontal schists have been thrust over the amphibolites, with carbonate-talc and actinolite schists marking the glicing plane. The complex has been further affected by two or three cycles of young, post-Karroo faulting (Woodtli, 1961). The Andissa veins occur in a silicified hornblende-chlorite albitite (previously considered as granite), surrounded by metasediments, near the contact of sericite schists. The country rock has been foliated near the reef contacts, either following planes of lamination or a sub-perpendicular orientation. Contacts are distinct, but xenoliths of both rocks are also immersed beyond these, along planes of anisotropy. Quartz also follows the foliation of albitite, intersected by joints, although it overlaps into the schists, On Mount Tsi, a stockwork of quartz lenses (typical thickness three-quarters of an inch) and stringers of less than one-tenth of an inch mineralized the upper reaches of a sericitized albitite, previously considered as a granite. The albitite exhibits an apparently intrusive relationship to the surrounding amphibolites and chlorite schists. On Mount Nzi sub-parallel veins form a dense, 213 mile long lode system of elongated lenses, exhibiting pinch and swell structures, of up to 3 ft. in thickness. The veins are related to a sericitized-chloritizcd quartz albitite, similar in composition ta quartz diorite, emplaced in amphibolites and metalavas. The Yedi veins partly follow an en échelon pattern, defined by the plane of anisotropy of quartz-biotite amphibolite, and by sub-perpendicular fractures. At Nzebi, gold bearing, concordant mylonitic ankerites lie in partly mineralized albitites interlayered in diorites; amphibolites caver the outcrop. Here, a first cycle of albitization and silicification of the ankerites and schists was followed by shearing and lamination, and later by the impregnation of gold.

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The Senzere deposit near Mongbwalu is confined to the axis and secondary anticline of a synclinorium of talc-chlorite-carbonate schists, derived from dolomite and interbedded with microalbitite, Finally, this complex was thrust over amphibolite. In the large but dissected lens quartz covers bedding planes, planes of two successive foliations, microfissures and microfolds. There are also impregnations, and quartz sometimes embays fragments of biotite schists. Gold values, however, are independent of pyrite and pyrrhotite concentrations. The substratum of the Moto area consists of ankerite-albite-quartz schists of variable composition, foliated by chlorite and sericite. This complex has largely been derived from carbonate rocks by sodic metasomatism. Elongated inliers of itabirite, graphitic and pyrite bearing schists also outcrop. Most of the ore bodies are parallel to the strike (south-southwest), although their dip varies; a common pitch is 25° northeast. The impregnated funnels occur more frequently in areas of inliers, but their composition and structure cannot be distinguished from the barren halo. The Agbarabo deposit is identical in composition to the albitized and sericitized ankerites in which it developed; it is bordered, however, by a barrier of itabirite, siderite and quartzite. The ore body, an ellipsoidal, 60 ft. wide funnel, exhibits concentric zones of impregnation which decrease in intensity outwards. However, quartz, sulphide and magnetite values bear no relationship to the grade of gold, which attains 400 dwt./ton. There have been clistinguished two generations of quartz. The Gorumbwa ore sheet, measuring 200-400 ft. by 10-100 ft., also merges into the country rock. The sheet of values (maximum 200 dwt./ton) pitches 25° north-northeast, but the sulphides rarely contain more gold than the gangue. Gold containing 20-25% Ag (and 3% Cu) is, indeed, the penultimate product of crystallization, followed by galena. Perhaps half of the gold of the Kilo-Moto district has been eroded into eluvial and alluvial placers. Although concentrations are in the area of primary deposits, gold has also been transported 100 miles down the Aruwimi-Ituri, towards the Congo River. In contrast to the mineralization of the Kilo and Moto roof pendants, the Uéle gold belt, east of Kisangani, follows the southern (east-west trending) contact of the Kibali batholith and the surrounding schists. In the past, veins and stockworks constituted the principal deposits like Durba, Yindi and Babeyru. Placers and minor vein deposits are largely aligned along north-south trending axes west of the Lake Albert and Edward Rift Valley (Biakatu, Mobissio, Tabili, Bela, Lubena, Mununzi, Luhule, Bilati, Lutunguru and others), but minor placers follow a hoof or a fold shaped arc southeast of Stanleyville. One of these branches is sub-parallel to the Uele belt and the other already follows the southerly trend. KIVU-MANIEMA A belt of minor deposits follows the tightly folded ranges bordering Lake Kivu and the northern basin of Lake Tanganyika. They extend west of the Lake to both sides of the Middle Precambrian (Urundian) Itombwe syncline, wedged in older strata. Minor deposits occur on Idjwi Island in Lake Kivu and in the Twere and Shampumu belt west of the Lake. At Lubongola, 70 miles west of Bukavu, hydrothermal gold and silver are related to the differentiation of uralitized gabbro. Further south at Kabilombo, Mayamoto, Tshikunga, Kiandjo and Miki, gold, cassiterite and occasionally bismuth and arsenopyrite are associated. Further south, at the sources of the Luiko, auriferous quartz lenses which contain hematite outcrop in narrow folds of chlorite schists, floating in granite. The deposits of 'parallel 5°' in the Kiyimbi area, dissected by radial rift faulting, extend this trend. Finally the belt terminates in the Mutotolwa deposit, near BaudouinviIle, in the uplifted chain bordering Lake Tanganyika.

63

The position of the major gold belts of Maniema, between the Congo-Lualaba and the Great Lakes, is controlled by the Kasese batholith and by a series of relatively smaller stocks further west. Gold belts follow the synclinoria dividing them. The principal gold zone starts with the Kima-Binga-Katshungu vein, stockwork and placer districts, extending for 150 miles to Shabunda, and branching there towards Kamituga in the east and Namoya in the south. While minor deposits of the 120 mile long Kamituga branch include Nyawaza, Tshakindo and Muta, Wampongo, Dunga, Imonga, Kama and Mukukutshi are aligned along the longer Namoya branch. West of this belt and of a series of granitie stocks, but east of the Lualaba, another belt extends from Songwe to Baseme and Kabotshome. At Kamituga, 80 road miles southwest of Bukavu on Lake Kivu, an auriferous aureole surrounds the tourmalinized dome of Mount Kibukira. The worlds' sixth largest mass of gold, weighing 50 lb., was found south of this mountain downstream from basalt flows. Nevertheless, the neighbouring quartz veins are barren. Lava (related to the rift cycle) filled valleys protecting them from erosion, and gravels of the narrow, unconsolidated placers, emerging now on crests, contain gold, as does the present inverted hydrographic system. However, the principal deposits are located in the biotite schists and biotitic quartzites of the Smaller (Petite) Mobale. There schists are impregnated by pyrite, arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite adjacent to auriferous quartz veins, but sulphides contain only moderate values of gold. The flat lying A and B lodes traverse the schists and extend for 1 mile, attaining a thickness of 2-4 ft. Apophyses, veins and stringers related to them are abundant in a 1 square mile area. Furthermore a large shattered amphibolite lens was impregnated by gold, as were the schists; spodumene pegmatites subsequently developed. The extensive placers of Lugushwa, with subsidiary quartz veins, occur 50 miles southwest of Kamituga. The Namoya (Saramabila) district is situated on the raised rim of the Kama graben, 100 miles west of the Bay of Burton in Lake Tanganyika. Tightly folded sericite-chlorite schists and quartzites trend west-northwest, as does the gold zone. The last folds drop abruptly along an intraformational conglomerate, downfaulted by the paraIlel Kama graben, one of the radial outliers of the Rift Valley. Karroo sediments have invaded this structure. In the Namoya (Saramabila) area proper the local trend veers towards the north; the deposits of Mounts Mwendamboko, Kakula and Namoya are arranged there in an échelon structure. A faulted quartz vein of Mount Namoya contains galena and coarse gold. Auriferous quartz veins are also abundant on the two other parallel bills. The Mwendamboko deposit is located at the intersection of a-shear zone, forming an acute angle with the foliation; the position of the shorter Kakula deposit is similar. Albite and chlorite schists are prominent rocks of the thightly layered mineral area. Arsenopyrite and pyrite impregnate several beds as far as 300 ft. from the undulating elliptica1 deposit. Immediately below the zone of alteration, the mineralization extends for almost 1,000 ft. with the widest axis attaining 250 ft.; the central depth of the funnel reaches 1,000 ft. or more. In this chimney three major and several minor vein zones have been distinguished, their direction oscillating between the planes of schistosity and shear. However, the orientation of stringers varies considerably in each of these elongated lenticular zones. At different levels and locations various lenses gain importance, but the major lenses continue to great depth, pitching from each other. Furthermore, minor concentrations tend to be spread over a larger section. The bottom of the deposit has a keel-like shape. Alteration to talc, and silicification, are more intensive at the surface, and tourmalinisation continues where the quartz bodies coalesce to a 500 by 15 ft. capping. The outcrop covers only a few square ft.

64

At Musefu, in Kasai province (southern Congo) near the Angola border, quartz feldspar lenses of the quartz-diorite (plagioclasite) phase of the Luisa norite body contain gold. In the Lower Congo gold shows with galena and baryte at the Isanghila waterfalls, and in the Sansikwa veins. In the supergene alteration zone of the Katangian, Ruwe copper-cobalt deposit (near Kolwezi) gold, palladium, platinum and copper vanadates are associated. While the mineralization of Kambove is similar, gold is part of the copper-uranium-nickel paragenesis of Shinkolobwe.

4.2 Silver (De Kun, 1965) In Africa two-thirds of the silver found occurs in sulphides, the other third occurring as a gold alloy, mainly in South Africa. Although silver is frequently inc1uded in galena, lead is not the dominant metal of large deposits. Galena is, indeed, a relatively rare mineral at Kipushi (Katanga), the copper-zinc deposit that supplied 40% of the continent's silver. The lead/silver ratio equals one there. Silver is associated with gold in the deposits of Kilo-Moto and Kivu-Maniema (e.g., Kamituga and Namoya). The principal silver deposit, however, is Kipushi, 20 miles south of Lubumbashi. Dolomite has been replaced in a ramifying funnel, not far from the sub-vertical contact of ca1cschists. While impregnated calcschists carry copper sulphides almost exclusively, lenses of sphalerite lie in the upper levels farther from the contact. Argentiferous galena crystallizes as the last primary sulphide, replacing sphalerite and overlapping the second stage of copper-zinc mineralization, characterized by bornite. Chalcocite is largely a secondary mineral, containing an increasing quantity of inclusions in depth. Chalcocite stringers frequently penetrate into bornite. Interestingly enough, minute films of silver have been identified in chalcocite. Stromeyerite and covellite belong to the same paragenesis. Silver has been found in association with copper at Bamanga, Tshiniama, Tendu, Tshikolula.

4.3 PGE (De Kun, 1965)

Platinum has been recovered from the gold placers of the Lenda, west of Lake Edward. Palladium is an accompanying metal of the Shinkolobwe U-Ni ores, occurring with platinum in the copper-cobalt-gold paragenesis of the Kolwezi district. In the Katanga Province, platinum and palladium are also present at Shinkolobwe. Platinum has been described in the Kivu Province, in the alluvial deposits of the Lubero river.

----- Aderca, B., 1952, Contribution à la connaissance pétrographique et géologique de la partie

occidentale du Bas-Uélé (Congo belge) et à la métallogénie des gisements aurifères de cette région, Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, Sc. Nat. et méd., t. XX, fasc.. 5, 1952, p.1-28

Ansseau, J. 1932-1933. La prospection systématique initiale aurifère. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, t. III, fasc 1, 18-24.

Anthoine, R., 1921-1922. Sur la composition de l’or non affine des mines de Kilo-Moto. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, PRCB XLV, C39-41.

Anthoine, R., 1922. La mise en valeur des champs aurifères de Kilo-Moto par la Régie industrielle des Mines : 39p.

Anthoine, R., 1922. Les mines de Kilo-Moto. Leur évolution. Leur avenir. RUM, Mém. 6e série XIII, A.5.1922, 165-179.

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Anthoine, R., Gomree, M., de Lannoy, R., 1924. Etude pratique du lavage des graviers aurifères dans le territoire de la régie industrielle des mines de Kilo-Moto (Congo Belge). RUM 7e série I, 1 : 19-27, et CRCSIAILg : 145-164.

Anthoine, R. 1933. Traitement des minérais aurifères d’origine filonienne aux mines d’or de Kilo-Moto. Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, Sect Sc Techn, 163pp.

Anthoine, R. 1935. L’amalgamation des minérais à or libre à basse teneur de la mine du Mont Tsi. Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, in 4°, t II, f 1, 30

Anthoine, R. 1941. Les méthodes pratiques dévaluation de gîtes secondaires aurifères appliquées dans les régions de Kilo-Moto (Congo belge). Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, in 4°, t IV

Berthelot, Ch. 1934. Procédés de prospection, d’”extraction et de traitement des minerais aurifères. Chimie et Industrie, vol. XXXI, n°1, 2, janv-Févr. 1934, pp 3-31, 262-279.

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4.4 Gems

4.4.1 Diamonds (De Kun, 1965) ANGOLA-CONGO The Dundu (Lunda, Angola)-Tshikapa (Kasai, Congo) district occupies the hydrographic basin of a north-south oriented, 200 mile long and 60 mile wide, area. Placers of the Kasai basin include the lower and middle sections of the left hand tributaries of Tshikapa, Longatshimo and Tshiumbe-Lubembe. In addition, they include discontinuous parts of the Kasai River, which extends for 130 miles, minor right hand affluents, and, further northeast, the lower Luebo and Lulua. The southern, Angolan, quarter of the district contains most of the remaining reserves. At the western end of the Rift the largest kimberlite body, of 1/2 by 1/2 miles, is sub-intrusive into lowest Karroo strata at the confluence of the Camazambo and the Tshikapa between N27°W trending faults. As at Bakwanga the kimberlite is partly intrusive in and partly concordant with the sediments. A well developed breccia contains 50% kimberlite proper, plus xenoliths of granite, gneiss, amphibolite, quartzite and vein quartz, as well as inclusions of lower and middle Karroo tillite, sandstones and argillites. However, on the Camafuca kimberlite is more basaltic. This part is believed to be nearer the centre of the body. In addition, kimberlite, almost devoid of xenoliths, outcrops in the north along the Cassapa. Nodules attaining a length of 4 inches consist of hornblende-garnet pyroxenites carrying some ilmenite. Rarer nodules consist of pyroxene hornblendite. Representing 34% of the harder rock, both of these varieties have been carbonatized. The kimberlites have been altered to 'blue ground'. 'Yellow ground', which extends to a depth of 25-30 ft., even contains lateritic fragments. Olivine has been completely replaced by antigorite and chrysotile. The surface of kimberlite has a characteristic chestnut 'escuro' colour. Ilmenite and diopside (2 %) are abundant, but zoned pyrops, chromiferous almandite spessartite, magnetite and titano-magnetite are rarer. Garnet represents 27% of the unaltered mineraIs. Enstatite, kyanite, andalusite, phlogopite, calcite (2 %), octahedra and dodecahedra of industrial and gem diamonds are scarcer. The Camuzenze phlogopite-kimberlite breccia and tuff, 4 miles south, is intersected by numerous calcite veins. The sub-stratified kimberlite breccia of Caindjamba and the tuff of Caquele outcrop 1,500 and 2,500 ft. south of the Camazambo body. Between the lower and middle Karroo the diamond bearing breccia of Cangoa has been emplaced 4 miles north-northwest of Camazambo. This mixed rock contains abundant calcite, enclaves of kaolinized feldspar, and heavy mineraIs of the acid suit, Furthermore, kimberlite tuff outcrops 2 miles northeast on the Caxixima. About 10 miles south of Camazambo the 500 by 1,200 ft. oval of carbonatized serpentine of the Camuanzana kimberlite contains 1y" inch granules of ilmenite, chrome pyrope, diopside and magnetite. On the other bank of the Chicapa tuffs outcrop on the Camaumbo. In the midst of a rich alluvial diamond zone the Canzololo tuff, which extends 90 ft., is situated 5 miles southeast of the Camazambo, Although this tuff grades into sediments, its contacts with the surrounding gneisses are sharp. Near the southern rim of the graben and the Luachimo River the Carivé body is situated 20 miles east-northeast of the main kimberlite area. Strongly resembling Camazambo, at 50 ft. of depth the kimberlite contains a great deal ofilmenite and magnetite as well, However, another facies has been intensely serpentinized. The diamonds are not fractured. Although 40% ofthe stones are coloured, they are rarely opaque.

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The diamond carrying lower Kwango conglomerate of desert origin consists of pebbles of gneiss, quartzite, quartz, agate and argillite. It attains a thickness of 3-6 ft. At Nachitango and Cachimbungo the formation contains 6 ft. boulders, but the composition of the pebbles infrequently depends upon the Basement. Along the Cononda River the formation directly overlies the Basement, and in the Mussolégi district the conglomerates cover large basins. Sandstones of the Kalahari erosion surface rise at 2,500-2,700 ft. of altitude and coyer large areas of central and southern Africa. CONGO Diamonds are disseminated in gravels along a vast but discontinuous arc surrounding the Congo basin. It starts in the north in the Central African Republic and turns southeast of Kisangani through Kivu and Katanga. The arc then bends west towards the world's principal deposits at Bakwanga and continues to the Dundu (Angola)-Tshikapa field and the Lovua-Kwango district south of Léopoldville. Gem diamonds of the Uéle gold belt occur along the contact of Middle Precambrian schists and granite 150 miles northeast of Stanleyville. Diamonds have been recovered in numerous gold and tin placers of Kivu-Maniema, e.g., in the Omate in the Kima district, at Kaseka in the Kilo district, at Messaraba near Kalima, at Kibila near Moga, in the Kanyama and Aruwimi rivers, in the Lubero, Nepoko and Uele basins and at many other places. Near Shabunda diamonds are even more abundant in the Mutandulwe placers, as there are dykes of amphibolite and dolerite in most of these diamond areas. West of the Congo-Lualaba the middle Lomami carries rare diamonds of the Bakwanga type. East of Bakwanga a group of pipes which contains several diamonds pierces the Katangian sediments of the Kundelungu plateau. However, their altered kimberlite differs from the Bakwanga breccia. Diamonds are also disseminated in areas of Kasai-Lunda other than the Bakwanga and Dundu districts. However, between the Kwango and Lovua the hydrographical system is only poorly mineralized, for these rivers eroded less of the Kwango Series. Bakwanga is situated 130 miles northeast of the northeastern corner of Angola. Here 35 miles of the Bushimaie River are mineralized, including a concentration at Bakwanga and another upstream too. With the Luilu River flowing northward, we find the placers of the Lubi and Lukula 30 miles to the northwest. Rocks of the Basement outcrop only in the valleys. Gneissose granites, including amphibolites and gabbros, are overlain by 700 ft. of earliest Precambrian (?, cf. Katangian) strata consisting of (a) 120 ft. of shaly sandstone, (b) 100 ft. of shales, ca1cschists and black silicified limestones, and ( c) 450 ft. of ca1careous breccia, shales and dolomite. In the Karroo we can distinguish three series of sandstones and argillites resting on basal conglomerates. While in the west the latest of these, the Kwango Series, covers a considerable area, only the middle or Lualaba Series outcrops in the east. Following them, Kalahari sands are underlain by their silicified basal breccias and limestone. Finally, the Plio-Pleistoccne cycle of erosion developed the present peneplain and its red limonitie sands. The Bakwanga breccia At Bakwanga proper, early Precambrian (?) dolomitic limestones, Karroo sandstones, gravels and sands outcrop. The dull, warped, undulating limestones, dipping north, are tightly or broadly bedded. An upper horizon of silicification includes chert and neogene quartz. Karstic alteration, circulating solutions and streams have eut dolinas, caves and deep valleys into the red surface.

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In a mile wide band the limestones are covered by typical lower Karroo sandstones, including fiat lenses of dark shales. They follow the axis of the Kanshi-Bushimaie spur and start a mile west of Bakwanga. The thickness of these strata is in excess of 150 ft. Attaining a maximum of 10 ft. of thickness, the old limonitic gravel horizon is mainly ccnserved along the sides of the hills. Diamonds are disseminated in the ill-sorted, angular to rounded gravel. This gravel contains boulders particularly on the hillsides downslope from the kimberlite breccia. Several miles from the pipes the old gravel also serves as a source of secondary concentration. The sequence is covered by 70 ft. of brown Kalahari sand. South of Bakwanga kimberlitic breccia, while also piercing the lower Karroo Lualaba sandstones, has filled in the Katsha pipe. Between the Bushimaie and the lower Kanshi we can distinguish at least five similar centres in and west of Bakwanga. They extend along a zone ofweakness for 1.5 miles in an east-west trending arc. Measuring 2,000 by 1,000 ft., the Bakwanga oval is oriented north-south. Further west the bodies of the Disele spur are arranged in the Karroo in the direction of the presurned zone of weakness, with their dimensions attaining respectively 1,000 by 700 ft., 1,800 by 1,000ft., 400 by 200ft., and 1,800 by 700 ft. These breccias appear to be interlayered or mingled with fragments of Karroo sandstones to a depth of 300 ft., and partly cemented by dolomitic relies. The breccia proper consists of (1) moreor less silicified angular boulders of the pierced limestones and dolomites, attaining a diameter of 3-10 ft., (2) smaller sub-angular xenoliths of red schists, originally accompanied by sandstones, underlying the early Precambrian limestones, and (3) numerous rounded inclusions of granites and, less frequently, biotitic plagioclasite and eclogite. Rounded magnesian ilmenite grains occasionally measure ½ - ¾ inch in diameter, with industrial diamonds reaching a record of 460 carats. Chrome diopside, gamet and zircon also belong to the paragenesis. The blnish colour of the groundmass changes to green-gray and finally to red at the surface and in lateral digitations. Carbonatization has progressed along veinlets and in granules of 1-4 mm. Because of largely supergene silicification, late stringer calcite disappears at the periphery ofthe bodies. Chlorite is scarce. The Placers of Bakwanga Detrital deposits may be found in the (late Karroo) Kwango sandstones and in the late Cretaceous-mid Tertiary sediments. Near the Bushimaie River downstream of Bakwanga, sandstones overlain by sandstone boulders of the Kalahari (Tertiary) durcicrust contain diamonds. Diamonds and other eroded particles of the breccia have been rearranged on the late Tertiary surface (1) in the gravel sheet, (2) in the overlying red sand layer of 1 ft. or so and (3) in the fragments of soft sandstone embedded in sand which follows in the Sequence. They were later redeposited in (4) dry karstic valleys filled in by gravel of chert, silicified limestone and breccia fragments, (5) alluvial and slope accumulations, (6) eluvia proper and (7) various alluvial placers north (i.e., downstream) of Bakwanga. The blue clayey bedrock of the river beds, which is partly derived from the pipes, also carries diamonds, with great concentrations accumulating in the valley of the Bushimaie and Kanshi. We distinguish three groups of deposits: Bakwanga, Lukelenge and Tshimanga. The Bakwanga placers extend downstream in the Kanshi-Bushimaie basin, from the station 3 miles upstream. The Lukelenge placers, 7 miles north, represent a partial reconcentration of the Bakwanga diamonds and continue sporadically downstream in the Sankuru (the Bushimaie's collector) beyond Pania Mutombo. South of Bakwanga the Tshimanga placers, located on both sides of the Bushimaie at the confluence of the Katsha, have been carried 20 miles down the Tshimanga River. This area is underlain by the contact of the Basement and early Precambrian (?) strata. Opaque diamonds tend to crystallize in cubes, octahedra,dodecahedra and their double or triple combinations, with transparent stones developing hexatetrahedra,

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octotrihedra and dodecatetrahedra (but not cubes). While the low temperature variety exhibits both twins, transparent stones favour only the spinel twin. Large opaque diamonds have an euhedral transparent core suggesting that the latter crystallized first. Frequently both varieties are joined together.

----- Ball, S.H., 1912. Diamonds in Belgian Congo. Eng. Min. Journ. 93, 5: 268-269. Ball, SH 1925. The Congo-Angola Diamond fields. Jewelers Circular (New York), vol 33,

n°2, 118-120. Ball, SH 1925. Diamond mining in the African jungle. South African Mining and Engineerign

Journal, 1ste April 1925, p 623, 15 August 1925, 677-678. Ball, SH 1926. Diamond mining in 1925. Engineering and Mining Journal, 5 juin 1926. Beetz, 1930. Process of concentration in alluvial and allied diamond placers of South-west,

South Central and East Africa. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, Liège, 49-69.

Behrend, F., 1913. Diamant vom Kongostaat und Angola. ZPG, 31, 10 p.106. Bruet, E., 1952, Le diamant, éd. Payot, 256p. Brugger, AE 1932. Diamonds in the Belgian Congo. The Mining Magazine, t 47, n°2, 187-

188. Brugger, AE 1932. The Kasai Diamond Fields in the Belgian Congo. MAM, vol 13, 357-358. Buttgenbach, H., 1908-9. Sur une roche diamantifère trouvée au Congo belge. ASGB

XXXVI, p.B77-79. Buttgenbach, H. 1928-1929. Diamants, lazulite et atacamite du Congo belge. Annales de la

Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LII, fasc 3, 65-68.

Cahen, L., 1950-51, Données nouvelles concernant la géologie et la géomorphologie du Kasaï oriental et l’origine du diamant, A.S.G.B., t. XXIV, p. B. 105-122

Cayen, A., 1923. Les gisements diamantifères du bassin du Kasai. BSRBG, 47 : 94-103. Cayen, A ., 1923. The diamond fields of the Kasai, Belgian Congo. MM XXVIII, 6, 336-338. Cayen, Major. 1930. Le diamant au Congo et à Anvers. IC, 56p Cornet, J., 1911. A propos des diamants du bassin du Kasai. ASGB, PRBC, WWWIX,

fasc.II : 73-79. D’Andrimont, R., 1912-1913. Note sur une visite aux pipes diamantifères des Monts

Kundelungu. ASGB, PRBC, XL, 8-19. Delany, F. 1959. Etudes des grès de Mouka-Ouadda et des gisements diamantifères de

l’Oubangui oriental. Bulletin de la Direction des Mines et de la Géologie d’AEF, 12, 41-45.

De Magnée, I., 1947, Présence de kimberlite dans la zone diamantaire de Bakwanga (Kasai, Congo belge). (Note préliminaire), B.S.B.G.P.H., t. 56, p. 97-107

De Magnée, I., 1949, Kimberlite discovery in the diamond fields of Bakwanga, Gems and Gemology (Los Angeles), vol. 6, p. 131-135

De Magnée, I., 1948 (1951), Délimitation géo-électrique du premier pipe de kimberlite découvert dans les champs diamantifères du Kasai (congo belge), C.G.I., t. XVIII, Report pt V., p. 52-58

De Rauw, H., 1923. Les gisements diamantifères du Kasai. Mém. Congrès Ingén. AILg, p.39-86.

De Rauw, H., 1924. La constitution et l’exploitation des gisements diamantifères du Kasai. BSAEESL, 21e année, 7, 419-439.

Edwards, G., 1917. Diamond bearing gravel from Belgian Congo. AM, II: 88-89. Fieremans, C., 1953, Geologie en Geochimie der Diamantvelden van Belgisch Congo,

Technish-Wetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, Jg 22, n°4-5, 16p.

73

Fieremans, C. 1955. Etude géologique préliminaire des conglomérats diamantifères d’âge mésozoique au Kasai (Congo Belge). Mémoire de l’Institut de Géologie de l’Université de Louvain, XIX, fasc II, 223-294.

Fieremans, C. 1960. Etude critique des classifications des formations diamantifères au Kasai (Congo belge) et dans la Lunda (Angola). Mémoire de l’Institut de Géologie de l’Université de Louvain, XXI, 249-279.

Fieremans, C., 1961. Géologie du diamant. Rev. Quest. Scient., 20 avril : 219-233. Fieremans, C., 1961. Origine et répartition de la minéralisation diamantifère au Kasai

occidental (Congo) et dans le Nord-est de Lunda (Angola). Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. LXX : 89-95.

Fieremans, C., 1966. Contribution à l’étude pétrographique de la brèche kimberlitique de Bakwanga. Mém. Inst. Géol. Univ. Louvain XXIV, 1, 92p.

Fontainas, P. 1934. La formation des alluvions diamantifères du Kasai. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, V, 573-585.

Hecq, G. 1937. Les champs diamantifères du Congo. Bulletin de l’Association des Diplômes de l’Ecole des Conducteurs Géologues Pâturages, t.7, fasc.4, 153-161.

Jedwab, J. 1958. Prospection géochimique de kimberlite diamantifère au Congo belge. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie l, LXVII, 404-418

Lancsweert, P., 1922. Les exploitations diamantifères du Kasai. Echo de la bourse1914 : Extraits dans MG, 30, col. 416-417.

Lancsweert, P., 1923. Les exploitations diamantifères du Kasai. RUM, 6e série, XI : 367-398 et CRCSIAILg : 137-140.

Lancsweert, P., 1923. Le diamant. RIULv, 1er bulletin technique. Lancsweert, P., 1946, Les diamants du Congo, B.I.R.C.B., XVII-2, p. 732-739 Legraye, M. 1932. Production et marché du diamant. Bulletin du Cercle des Géographes

Liégeois, IV année, fasc 2. Meyer de Stadelhofen, C., 1961. Les kimberlites de Bakwanga (Congo ex-belge). Chron.

Mines Outre-Mer et Rech. Min. XXIX, 297 : p. 17. Nicolini, P., 1961. Les terrasses diamantifères du Congo à Brazzaville. Chron. Mines et Rech.

Min. XXIX, 303 : 3-10. Parmentier, A., 1947, Le diamant au Congo, C.A.I.Lg., Section coloniale, p.345-350 Parmentier, A., 1957. Le diamant au Congo belge. Rev. Soc. Roy belge des Ingénieurs et

Industriels, N°7-8 : 308-312. Passau, G., 1945, Le diamant dans le Nord-Est du Congo, B.I.R.C.B., XVI-2, p. 390-395 Polinard, E. 1928-1929. Les diamants translucides et opaques des gisements de Bushimae.

Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LII, fasc 4, C179-218.

Polinard, E. 1929-1930. Les diamants transparents des gisements de Bushimae. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LIII, fasc 4, C1-33.

Polinard, E. 1930. Le diamant dans les roches génétiques et dans les gisements secondaires. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, Liège, 5-12.

Polinard, E. 1930. Les gisements diamantifères dans collines de Bakwanga-Dinvigji sur al Bushimae. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, Liège, 25-42.

Polinard, E. 1930-1931. Les diamants en agglomérations de cristaux et les diamants à cristallisation confuse des gisements de la Bushimae. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. LIV, C1-22.

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Polinard, E. 1931. Les déformations extérieurs, les propriétés internes et les modalités de la cristallisation des diamants de la Bushimae. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, t XVII, 137-161.

Polinard, E. 1934. Les champs diamantifères du Congo belge. Bulletin de l’Association pour le Perfectionnement du Matériel Colonial, 24e année, n°4, 65-94.

Polinard, E. 1939. Het diamant uit Centraal Africa. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, jg 21, n°2, 46-55.

Polinard, E., 1948. De classificatie der diamanthoudende grintlagen in het Kasaibekken (Belgisch Congo en Noord-Angola). MKVAKlW: 1-20.

Polinard, E., 1950, Sur une forme tétraédrique du diamant, A.S.G.B., t. 74, p. B.59-64 Polinard, E., 1951, Les gisements de diamant du bassin du Kasai au Congo belge et en

Angola, M.I.R.C.B., Sc. Nat. et méd., t. VII, fasc.6, p. 1-27 Ray, H.C. 1943. The Kasai diamond fields (belgian Congo) and their minerals. Rocks and

Minerals (Peekskill, NY), 18 (11)n 340-341. Reumont, L., Parmentier, A., 1930. Les champs diamantifères du Kasai dans leur rapport avec

la géologie de la région. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et de la Géologie Appliquée, Liège, 17-24.

Seal, M., 1965. Structure in diamonds as revealed by etching. Amer Min 50 : 105-123. Meyer de Stadelhofen, C. 1963. Les bréches kimberlitiques du territoire de Bakwanga

(Congo). Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles, 16, 1, 87-143. Stutzer, O., 1915. Neuere arbeiten uber diamantlagerstatten (1911 bis abfang 1914). GR, VI:

23-25. Varlamoff, N. 1962. Présence d’un minéral du groupe Goyazite-Gorceixite dans les

concentrés des alluvions de certains affluents de la rivière Lowa (Maniema, Congo). Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’Outre-Mer, VIII, 6, 1074.

Varlamoff, N. 1964. Présence d’un minéral du groupe Goyazite-Gorceixite dans les concentrés des alluvions de certains affluents de la rivière Lowa (Maniema, Congo). Bulletin de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’Outre-Mer, 4, 904-912.

Verhoogern, J., 1938. Les pipes des kimberlites du Katanga. CSK, p.1. Wagner, T.L., 1921. Note on kimberlite from the Belgian Congo. SAJSc: 179-181. Webster, R., 1962. Gems : their sources, descriptions and identification. London,

Butterworths, 2 vol., 792 p.

4.4.2 Beryl group (De Kun, 1965) Beryl has been described in association with pegmatites at Sangu, Muika, Kimandu, Busoro, Kalima, Numbi, Panga, Kiambi, Buranga and Mt Kibara.

4.4.3 Corundum group (De Kun, 1965) Corundum is a typical metamorphic mineral of schists, gneisses, ironstones and basic rocks, invaded by pegmatites, granite or syenite. Feldspar pegmatite lenses may contain up to 90% corundum, accompanied by sillimanite, in which case they become corundite or corundum rock. Since corundum is hard and resistant, the mineral remains on the weathered surface of the rocks (and in gravels) from where it is recovered. Pockets of corundum occur in the Kasese tin district of the eastern Congo. Corindon has been found as small grains (alluviums) in the following rivers: Nebulu, Longele, Belaheli, Zalya, Luizi, Lukulu, Luembe, Luilu (at Muala-Bikonga), Bushimaie (at

75

Tshibaka), Ulindi, Belaheli, Nyamasheke and near Mt Nyamunene. Corindon in rocks have been described at the confluence of the Lualaba and Mukwishi rivers and at Kalumengongo.

----- Bellière, M. 1925. La scaploite du Haut-Lualaba ; Annales de la Société Géologique de

Belgique, t XLIX, 57-62 Buttgenbach, H. 1941. Tourmaline et vivianite de la Numbi. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal

Colonial Belge, 12, 2, 312-317. Gysin, M. 1934. Sur la présence de dipyre dans les formations métamorphiques du

Kundelungu de la Haute Lufira (Congo belge). Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève, vol 51, n°3, 187-189.

Gysin, M. 1934. Les roches éruptives basiques de la Haute Lufira (Congo belge). Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève, vol 51, n°3, 210-213.

Jamotte, A. 1934. Notes sur des roches éruptives tourmalinifères de la région stannifère du Katanga. Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga, t. V. 58-63

Melon, J. 1930. Sur deux minéraux du Congo belge : 1. Tourmaline non pryoélectrique à facies spécial, 2° Chrysoberym ioncoloré et non maclé. Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, t XVI, 996-1000.

Pynaert, L. Le copal et son exploitation au Congo belge. BACB, IX, 2 : 88-95. Schoep, A. 1927. VAriscite incolore de Mura-Panda. Bulletin de la Société belge de

Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XXXVII, 89-90. Schoep, A. 1931. Sur la présence d’achroite (tourmaline incoloré) dans l’hématite de la série

de Moashia (Katanga). Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, t. XLI, fasc 1, 3-9.

Thoreau, J. 1925. Observattions minéralogiques dans le Haut-Uélé. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t XLIV, 518-522.

Buttgenbach, H. 1936. Sur un crystal de zircon. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 7, 2, 365.

4.4.4 Other semi-precious stones

Semi-precious and ornamental stones are of varied origin. Mainly albitized pegmatites contain beryl, feldspar, garnets, amethyst, rose quartz, spodumene, topaz and tourmaline; ultrabasics include garnet, serpentine and peridot; the latter, and agate-chalcedony, also occur in basic lavas. Corundum and cordierite stones are metamorphic, while jasper and crocidolite distinguish metasediments. Opal is sedimentary, but malachite is diagenetic. Stones are frequently recovered from weathered surfaces and gravels. * Calcite, chrysoberyl, cordierite and corundum Peculiar calcite crystals have been found in shilonga, Kisantu, Kipushi (Katanga), Bushimaie (Kasai), Kisuala, Sangula, Mindigi, Kakontwe, Tantara and Lukulu. Chrysoberyl accompanies diamonds in the Congo. It was found at Kabambaie, in Kasai, as alluviums in the Kamwe, Sasatshie, Luizi, Lukulu, Bondo-Lebo, Nebule and Longele rivers. Chrysoberyl has also been recognized in the Katanga and at Mitambala. A few sapphires have also been collected in Kivu Province in the Congo. Cordierite has been described in the Nyamulagira area and at Mitwaba. *Diopside, epidote, feldspar, fluorspar and other pyroxenes and amphiboles

76

Enstatite has been described in Luanza. Hyperstene has been found in Loatsha, Musungu and Kitega. Diopside-augite is present in M’Bo, Gondolo, Luanza, Lubanda, Mutandwe, Kalule, Bakwanga, Bombe, Kibdi, Lulua, Kikosa. Sabinio, Bufumbira and Lulunzula. Amphibole is described in Kanoki, Lufonzo, Elila, Kigogo, Iwindza, Pombeli, Lukumbi, Mabanzi, Lubudi, Ramera, Banduru, Tshimabwite and Kasika. * Garnet to serpentine Ornamental malachite and other hydroxides and silicates of copper are obtained from the Katanga Copperbelt, and especially from Kolwezi. * Silica Agate and chalcedony occur in the placers of Kwango, Kasai and the Kinshasa district of the Congo. Chalcedony is associated with agate in the Congo. Agates have also been found in the amygdales of a volcanic rock at Tshala. Amethyst veins are frequent in the Lower Congo, Kasaï, and in the pegmatite fields of Maniema and Kivu. Opaline quartz has been located on the Cataracte Plateau, west of Kinshasa, and in southern Katanga, Congo. Opale has been recognized at Due and Bamanga. * Spinel to tourmaline Topaz of poor quality is abundant in the greisens of the Maniema tin fields, the largest crystals occurring at Kibila in the Moga district. Other deposits include adjacent Kisubili, and topasolites occur at Mokama in the Kailo district. Large alluvial concentrations of topaz are located north of Albertville. Spinel is present in alluviums of the Luizi, Zalya and Lugogo rivers. Tourmalines of various colours are abundant in the pegmatite districts of Maniema and Kivu in the Congo. Colored tourmalines are present in the alluvial deposits of the Numbi river, at Kikondja, Mukwishi, Kasamva and Kipokwe. Black tourmaline has also been recognized in Katanga, Kivu, Maniema and Bas-Congo. 5. Fertilizer and Chemical Industrial Minerals

5.1 Limestone, dolomite and lime (De Kun, 1965)

Limestone is a rock made up of calcite and aragonite, which have the same composition (CaCO3), and dolomite ((CaMg(CO3)2), with lesser amounts of chert, apatite, pyrite, hematite and clastic sand, silt or clay. Most limestones are the direct or indirect product of organic activity, although small amounts of calcite will precipitate from seawater as it evaporates. Lime is made by calcining, the process in which CO2 is driven off by heating limestone to temperatures of 700 to 1100°C. Since a majority is occupied by Precambrian rocks, high grade limestone is rare. Precambrian limestones are heterogeneous and often magnesian. The principal carbonate rich rocks are of Neoproterozoic age. Quaternary limestones are found on the coast and calcretes and travertine are found inland. Only few deposits are worked. Limestone is relatively scarce in the DRC. The principal deposits belong to the Katangan, to the contemporaneous Lindi System of the north, and to the Shale-Limestone System of the Lower Congo. Between Leopoldville and the Congo estuary, several carbonatic horizons have been distinguished in the overlying Shale-Sandstone System: dolomites, 1,100 ft. of plaquette

77

limestones (Bulu), 1,000 ft. of oolithic crystalline limestone (Luanza), 1,000 ft. of siliceous and sandy limestone (Lukunga), and 1,000 ft. of oolithic limestone. In northeastern and eastern Congo limestones are included at the base of the probably contemporaneous Lindi System; they outcrop, e.g., (1) at the confluence of the Lindi River, (2) at Wenya Rukula and Kewe, between Kisangani and Ubundu, and (3) in a long belt extending in the north halfway between the frontier and the Lindi River. Carbonatic sediments are abundant in Katanga; the purest ones are generally the pink Kakontwe limestones. The cement works of Lubudi use Katangian limestones. The crystalline limestone of Lukela, Lower Congo, and the Collenia limestones of Katanga can be used as building stones. Limestone horizons are included in the Kwango sediments which overlie the Karroo. Younger limestones and travertines are related to the Rift faulting, but Middle Precambrian, carbonatic sediments are relatively scarce in Kivu.

5.2 Phosphate (De Kun, 1965) In the Congo, Upper Cretaceous, Senonian, yellowish phosphatic limestones form a 7-15 mile wide north-northwest striking band. It extends from Zambi on the Congo estuary to Luali near the confluence of the Lukula and Shiloango Rivers, and then penetrates into the Cabinda enclave and south into the Lucunga VaIley of northwest Angola. The phosphates are radioactive. (G1auconite sandstones of Inhoca near Lourenço Marques, Mozambique contain 2.7% phosphoric acid.) In addition, southwest of Lake Edward apatite occurs in the Lueshe carbonatite.

----- Altmann, J., 1961. L’occurrence de brazilianite, augélite, frondélite et lithiophilite dans la

pegmatite de Buranga. Bull. suisse Minér. Et Pétrolog. 41, 2 : 407-431. Brasseur, H., Herman, P., Hubaux, A., 1961-1962. Apatite de l’Est du Congo et du Ruanda.

Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg. 85 : 61-85. Buttgenbach, H. 1927-1928. Présentation d’échantillons. Annales de la Société Géologique de

Belgique, t LI, 329-330. Buttgenbach, H. 1927-1928. Note sur la Bialite, nouveau minéral et sur quelques autres

minéraux du Katanga. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LI, fasc 3, 117-123.

De Magnée, I., 1951, Présence d’amblygonite (montébrasite) dans les pegmatites de Muiba (Luvua), B.S.B.G.P.H., t. LX, p.201-205

Fischer, D.G. 1955. Alluaudite. American Mineralogist. 40, 11-12, 1100-1109. Fischer, D.J., 1957. Alluaudites and Varulites. Amer. Miner., 42, 9-10 : 661-664.Schoep, A.

1942. Pyromorphiet uit Kenger (Katanga). Mededeelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse van België. Klasse der Wetenschappen, V, n°3, 17-19.

Mélon, J., Toussaint, J., 1956-1957. Evansite et apatite du Kivu. Ann. Soc. Belge Géol., 80, p.B 497-501 .

O’Brien, P.L.A., 1958. An investigation into the source of the Irumi monazite. Rec. Geol. Surv.N.Rhodesia, for 1956: 26-28.

Passau, G. 1942. Sur la présence de vivianite dans la région de Lubéro (Province orientale, Congo belge). Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, XIII, 3, 468-470.

Polinard, E., 1950, La montébrasite de Buranga (Ruanda), C.N.Sc., III, vol. 8, Congo belge, p. 18-19

78

Thoreau, J., Breckpot, R. , Vaes, JF. 1936. La monazite de Shinkolobwe (Katanga). Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 5ième série, XXII, 1111-1122.

Thoreau, J., Delhal, J., 1950, Les phosphates ferro-magnésifères de la pegmatite de Buranga (Ruanda occidental), C.N.Sc., III, vol.8, Congo belge, p. 30-34

Thoreau, J., 1953, Minéraux lithiques de pegmatites du Congo belge et du Ruanda, B.C.Sc.Ac.R.B., 5e série, t. XXXIX, 8-9, p. 684-687

Thoreau, J., 1954, L’alluaudite de la pegmatite de Buranga (Ruanda), Bull.Cl.Sc.Ac.R.B., 5e série, t. XL, p.230-237

Thoreau, J., Bastien, G., 1954, Les phosphates des pegmatites du Ruanda occidental, B.Ac.R.Sc.C. (anc. BIRCB), XXV-5, p. 1595-1603

Thoreau, J., Bastien, G., 1954, Lazulite et Scorzalite du Congo belge et du Ruanda, Bull. Cl.Sc.Ac.R.B., 5e série, t. XL, p. 600-607

Thoreau, J., 1957. L’huréaulite de Kobokobo (Maniema, Congo belge). Bull.Aca.roy.Belgique, 5e série, 73, 6 : 364-368.

Thoreau, J., 1957. Sur un minéral de la famille des « dufrénites » dans la pegmatite de Kobokobo (Congo belge). Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 43 : 705-710.

Thoreau, J., 1957. Variscites et strengites de la pegmatite de Kobokobo (Congo belge). Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, XLIV : 813-817.

Thoreau, J., Safiannikoff, A., 1957. Triphylite, lithiophilite et phosphates associés du Congo belge et du Ruanda. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 43 : 324-327.

Van Itterbeek, A., Van Paemel, O., 1950, Measurements on the Helium content of monazite of Belgian Congo, M.K.V.A.B.K.W., XII, n°10, p. 7-9

Van Wambeke, L., 1957. Etude préliminaire de la zone d’altération radioactive de la pegmatite de Kobokobo (Kivu). Bull.Soc.belge Géol., 66 : 268-275.

Van Wambeke, L., 1958. Une nouvelle espèce minérale : la lusungite, en provenance de la pegmatite de Kobokobo (Kivu, Congo belge). Bull.Soc.belge Géol., LXVII : 162-169.

5.3 Salt (De Kun, 1965)

In the DRC, salt is recovered at Kalamoto, Mwashia and N’Ganza in Katanga. The salt of Nguba is of excellent grade. Springs and brines deposit salt along the recent fractures of Kivu and Northern Katanga.

----- Adriaens, L., Waegemans, G. 1940. Over inheems zout uit Belgisch Kongo.

Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift XXII, 21-26.

5.4 Potash (De Kun, 1965) The leucite lavas of the Virunga chain north of Lake Kivu contain 8% K2O.

----- Adriaens, L., Waegemans, G. 1940. Over inheems zout uit Belgisch Kongo.

Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift XXII, 21-26.

5.5 Sulfur (De Kun, 1965) Sulphur occurs in the limestone of the coastal belt of the DRC and in the volcanoes of the Virunga chain. It occurs as fissure infillings in the Idjwi Island, in the Kivu Province (most probably as the result of sulfide oxidation) and as massive deposits in the fumarolic zone of the Nyamulagira volcano. Sulphuric acids accumulates in Lac Kivu. S and associated sulfates are also found on the Nyamulagira volcano.

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Sulphides are the principal source of sulphur in Africa. Pyrite has been recognized in numerous area/deposits and metallogenic context: at Mia and Kwilu (Bas Congo), at Kambove, Lulua, Kipushi, Luana (in tha Katanga Province), at Bakwanga (Kasai), in the Mayumbe, at Kikosa, Musumbi, Kasonso, Kimwanga, Kikondja, Bamanga, Nyamakula. Marcasite is present at Kalule and Kinganyambo. Pyrrhotite was described in Mia (Bas Congo), Sangula, Bamanga , Kamituba and Kilo-Moto. In the column of Katangian sediments, pyrite is widespread. Lower Roan ore beds average 2% pyrite. Less pyrite has been disseminated in the various horizons of the Zambian Upper Roan. In the Katangian Upper Roan, pyrite is followed by chalcopyrite, maxima being reached in one horizon of the early silicified, zoned dolomites and in four horizons of the late micaceous dolomitic shales of the Mines Series. Half of them are also distinguished by the abundance of carbon, which may have acted as a reducing catalyst. Along the axis of the Kolwezi écaille, pyrite grades are particularly high since an inlier of sandstone is missing there. Pyrite is rare in the copper-cobalt parageneses, but it is fairly abundant in the uranium parageneses. Above the Mines Series proper, pyrite reappears in a 230 ft. thick layer of impure dolomites belonging to the Dipeta Stage. The basal tillite of the upper Katangian commonly carries fine grained pyrite and pyrrhotite, as does the small conglomerate of the Middle Kundelungu.

----- Melon, J. 1933-1934. Soufre et minéraux sulfatés du Kivu. Annales de la Société Géologique

de Belgique, t. LVII, B65-68. Raucq, P., 1953-54, La dépression de la Pande et ses gisements de gypse (Haut-Katanga),

A.S.G.B., t. LXXVII, p. B. 315-334

5.6 Nitrogen compounds and nitrate No information

5.7 Fluorite In the DRC, two generations of violet and green veins, traversing granite, have been distinguished in the Mokama tungsten-tin deposit. Fluorite also occurs in limestones of Wanie Rukula in the northeast, and in the Upper Katangan Kakontwe stage. This mineral has been recognized at Mulungwishi, Fungwe and Kakontwe (Katanga).

5.8 Iodine No information

5.9 Sodium sulphate No information

5.10 Bromine No information

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6. Construction and Manufacturing Industrial Minerals

6.1 Construction minerals

6.1.1 Cement

See 5.1 Limestone, dolomite and lime (De Kun, 1965) -----

Baeyens, J. 1934. Note sur la composition physico-chimique et le besoin en chaux des terres

de Kisantu. Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge, vol XXV, 271-275. Belgique coloniale, 1896. La pierre à chaux. B.C., 2e année, 46, p.557. Dimitrieff, M. 1937. La chaux en agronomie et dans de développements des races au Congo.

Annales d’hygiène, 10, 488-509. Henry, J. 1937. Aperçu géologique sur les gisements calcarifères du Congo, particulièrement

dans la Province Orientale. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, VIII, 2, 483-490. Snel, MJ 1956. Etude des formations de travertins calcaires dans la province du Kivu.

Bulletin du Service Géologique du Congo Belge et Ruanda-Urundi, n°7, fasc 1, 1-32. Van Aubel, R. 1926-1927. Présentation de tuf calcareux des environs de Mulungwishi

(Katanga). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t L, B213.

Verhaeghe, M. 1963. Inventaire des gisements de calcaire, dolomies et travertins du Kivu, du Rwanda et du Burundi. Services Géologique de la République Congo, Mémoire, 3, XII, 95pp

6.1.2 Construction Aggregate – crushed stone and sand and gravel See geology

6.1.3 Dimension stone (De Kun, 1965) Quarries of building and road building stone are of value when they are located near communication centres. As Precambrian rocks are valuable but hard, softer sandstone and carbonatic rocks are widely used. The level of development of each country determines the utilization of these materials. Limestones, sandstones and granites are most frequently used. In the western Congo, granite is quarried near Boma, quartzite at Matadi, limestone between Songololo and Inkisi, and red sandstone between Inkisi and Kinshasa. Polymorphous (impure) sandstones are exploited in the same area and near Lisala in the north. Limestones, sandstones, metamorphic schists and granites are quarried in the eastern provinces, as is red sand stone near Kindu. Unfortunately the volcanic rocks of Kivu weather rapidly.

----- Becquaert, M. 1937. Pierres taillées de l’Ubanghi. Bulletin du cercle Zoologiques Congolais,

vol XIV, fasc. 2 De Dorlodot, L. 1931-1932. Présentation d’échantillons de marbre au Congo. Annales de la

Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LV, 1.

81

Polinard, E. 1935. Description de pierres taillées provenant de la région du Kasai. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, VI, 668-679.

Van Ganse, R. 1963. Essais mécaniques de pierres au Congo. Bulletin de l’Académie royale de Sciences d’outre-mer, 6, 1194-1208.

Van Moorsel, H. 1956. Nouveau gîtes de pierres taillées. Folia scientifica Africae centralis, n°1, 14-15.

6.1.4 Lightweight aggregate and slag

See geology

6.1.5 Gypsum Stalactites of gypsum occur in the Lovo caves near Bango, in the Lower Congo, and anhydrite characterizes the lagoonal, Katangian sediments of the coppebelt. Gypsum has also been described in the Bas-Congo and in the Mayumbe (De Kun, 1965).

----- See geology

6.2 Fillers, extenders, pigments and filters

6.2.1 Clays (De Kun, 1965) The following genetic categories can be distinguished: residual and river clays, sedimentary layers, alteration products, mainly of shales and basalts. Argillites are abundant in the Karroo and in later sediments, and lavas alter to clay. Fluviatile clays are widespread, but only a few examples, mainly industrially exploited deposits. Various clays are frequently used for the building of houses in the DRC. In the granitic and pegmatitic areas of Maniema, Kivu and North Katanga provinces, kaolin is abundant and used locally (pembe). Kaolinite masses have also been found at Nedi and Kisenge. Kaolin has also precipitated in river beds of the western provinces, and from carbonaceous shales of the Lower and Middle Congo. Bentonite alter in lagoonal-volcanic environment from ash and lavas, and from the argillaceous sediments that are interbedded with or from magnesian rocks.

----- De Dorlodot, L. 1929-1930. L’argile blanche de Thysville. Annales de la Société Géologique

de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t III, fasc 2, 47-48.

Vanderstappen, R., Verbeek, T., 1964. Analcime et minéraux argileux des formations géologiques de la Cuvette congolaise (République du Congo). Ann. Mus. Roy. Afr. Centrale, in-8e, Sc Géol., vol 47, 88p.

Van Wambeke, L., 1949, Analyse de l’halloysite de Mitwaba, Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E. Denaeyer), ULB

82

6.2.2 Asbestos Thoreau, J., 1961. La holmquisite de Manono (Katanga). Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. XLVII : 8-

15.

6.2.3 Diatomite (De Kun, 1965) The diatoms living on shallow shelves an in lakes extracted their silica from late Tertiary lavas. Spongiolite has been found on the shores of Lake Kivu, in the DRC.

----- De Magnée, I. 1936. Découverte à Moliro (Katanga) de roches à diatomées des dépôts de

terrasse du Lac Tanganyika. Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 7, 261-265. Reinhold, Th. 1937-1938. La flore fossile à diatomées de Moliro (Lac Tanganyila, Katanga).

ASGB, t.61, fasc 1, 39-47. Verhoogen, J. 1938. Le pipes de kimberlite du Katanga. Annales du Services des Mines du

Comité Spécial du Katanga, IX, 3-49.

6.2.4 Talc and pyrophyllite No information available

6.2.5 Barite (De Kun, 1965) In the lower Congo, veins of barite outcrop at Madimba and on the banks of the Bangu river. Barite also occurs in the Lueshe carbonatite and in the Copperbelt (at Shanguluwe).

----- Amelinckx, S., 1951, Bariet cristallen van Belgisch Congo, N.T., 33, p. 137-140 De Dorlodot, L. 1930-1931. Enduits de barytine sur un grès de Bakwa-tshikala (Bushimae).

Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines. T LIV, fasc 2, 93-94.

Hubaux, A. 1959. Les gisements de tennantite de Yungu et de Sele (Lac TAnganika). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, LXXXII, 269-282.

Schoep, A., Eeckhout, J. 1938. Spectrographisch onderzoek van aragoniet en van bariet uit Katanga. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift, XX, 134-137.

6.2.6 Mica (De Kun, 1965)

In potash pegmatites, muscovite mica occurs in one or both sides of the wall zone or at the border of the core. Unlike pegmatites containing metallic minerals, mica deposits are scarcely affected by replacement processes. Conversely, mica pegmatites are frequently controlled by the wall rocks, but metamorphism and shearing affects them unfavourably. Muscovite is quite large and abundant at Katoro, Punia, Mts Bia, Tambwe, Bwanakina, Niemba-Kunda, Kiambi , Kibuye, M’Bo and Zefu. Other occurrences exist in Katanga, Uele and Kivu.

----- Dumont, P., 1948, La muscovite de Mitwaba, Laboratoire de Minéralogie (Prof. M.E.

Denaeyer), ULB Gysin, M. 1934. Les roches chloriteuses de la Haute Lufira (Congo belge). Comptes Rendus

des Séances de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Genève, vol 51, n°3, 201-224.

83

Polinard, E., 1947. Over het bruine biotiet des dieptegesteenten van Kasaigebied (Belgisch Congo). MKVAKlW: 1-18.

Servaye, Ph. Contribution à l’étude des micas du Congo et du Ruanda-Urundi. Licence, Laboratoire de Minéralogie et de Géologie appliquée, Université de Louvain.

Thoreau, J. 1926. Observations lithologiques sur une brèche chloriteuse de la région des gisements de cuivre du Haut-Katanga. Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles, t.45, fasc 3-4, 301-304.

6.2.7 Zeolite

Perlite or vitreous rock distinguished by an expansive effect is found among rapidly solidified lavas.

6.3 Glass raw materials Glass is an amorphous solid without a well-defined crystal structure. Most glass is made by melting quartz and other minerals and rocks and then cooling the melt in a way that prevents it from crystallizing.

6.3.1 Quartz sand (De Kun, 1965) While low grade sand for building and road building is widely available, the distribution of glass sand is frequently restricted to lacustrine deposits. Abrasive quartz is also won from sandstones and quartzite. Some of the sands of the Kinshasa-Mbanza Ngungu area, in the Congo, are pure.

----- See Geology

6.3.2 Soda ash (De Kun, 1965) Soda ash is the industry term for sodium carbonate. Natural soda ash comes from extensive deposits of complex sodium carbonate minerals such as trona, which are found in lacustrine evaporate deposits. It is also recovered from playa brines and from playas and springs along the east African rift system.

6.3.3 Boron (De Kun, 1965) Boron comes almost entirely from lacustrine evaporates. The largest of these deposits consist of hydrous sodium borate minerals. Kernite, which contains only four water molecules in its structure, is stable at higher temperature than borax, which has ten. The boron in these deposits is thought to have come from hot springs that flowed into the lakes during evaporation.

6.3.4 Feldspar, Nepheline syenite and aplite (De Kun, 1965)

Used in the enamel, ceramic, detergent and electrode industries, fusible feldspar is widespread in the acid pegmatites of most African fields. Its workability is conditioned by (1) a high potash content and less than 10% soda, (2) the presence of less than 0.5% iron oxide, (3) the occurrence of valuable accompanying minerals, (4) transport facilities, and (5) the degree of development of the country of origin.

84

In the Lower Congo geologists have identified high grade feldspar at Cul-de-Boma, Monolithe, Kungu, Busin and other localities. Similarly, the mineraI occurs in the pegmatite districts of the eastern Congo (e.g., the Idiba field) and in the Katumba field of Rwanda. Feldspar has also been described in the pegmatite at Kahaya, Kalebo, Lubi, Mafufa and Bia Mounts. Feldpar is also present in Kivu, Bafwasendi, Ruwenzori, Mokambo, Mt Speke, Muiambi, Kalalailunga and Mukoshi, Mt Stanley and Lulua. Nepheline syenite is present in the Rutshuru area. Nepheline has been recognized in the Nyamulagira lava flows and leucite near the Singa volcano. Fusible nepheline is relatively rare in Africa, although it occurs in the alkaline-carbonatite areas.

----- De Dorlodot, L. 1927-1928. Bibliographie : Sur l’existence de syénites néphélinitiques dans

la région de Rutshuru (graben central Africain). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t LI, fasc 1, 53-54.

Denaeyer, ME 1959. Les syénites métasomatiques du massif du Kirumba. Contribution à la lithogenèse des volcans du Kivu (Congo belge). Mémoires de l’Académie royale des Sciences d’outre-mer, Cl Sc techn., in 8°, nouvelle série, tome IX, fasc 2.

Denaeyer, ME 1958. Les syénites feldspathoidiques du Kivu et leur rôle dans la genèse des lavas des Virunga. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, LXVII, 3,459-481.

Lacroix, A, Delhaye, F. 1927. Sur l’existence de syénites néphélinitiques dans la région de Rutshuru (graben central Africain). Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, t. 183, 589.

Sahama, Th.G., Hytönen, K. 1959. Delhayelite, a new silicate from the Belgian Congo. Mineralogical Magazine, XXXII, 6-9.

Sahama, Th.G. 1960. Identity of calcium rinkite and götzenite. American Mineralogist, XLV, 221-224.

Sahama, Th.G. 1960. Kalsilite in the lavas of Mt Nyiragongo (Belgian Congo). Journal of Petrology, I, 2, 146-171.

6.3.5 Lithium (De Kun, 1965)

In the Congo the Manono-Kitotolo pegmatite represents the world's largest accumulation of lithium. Lepidolite represents two-thirds ofthe output with petalite, spodumene and amblygonite contributing 20, 5 and 5 %, respectively. Li-micas have been recognized at Lukulu, Kalima, Kakande, Mukwishi. Spodumene tends to develop during the later phases of unzoned pegmatites, characterized by albitization. At the same time, the other lithium minerals begin to crystallize and reach maxima at the end of the replacement process. Reaching to unknown depths, the Manono-Kitotolo pegmatite occupies almost 1.5 square miles. Spodumene is a component of two of the four zones or repeated bands, accompanied by albite and quartz (3) and kaolinized microcline and albite (4). With numerous plates that extend for more than 3ft., spodumene of band (3) is megacrystalline. After microcline, spodumene which contains 6% LiO2, has crystallized with the first albite. Typical samples of pegmatite rock contain more than 1.5% LiO2. At the surface lithia has been leached from two alteration products of spodumene, killinite containing 2-4% LiO2 and a kaolinic end-product containing only 1% LiO2.

85

Amblygonite occurs in the albitized pegmatites of Kivu Province in the Congo, in Rwanda-Uganda, and on the Congo-Nile divide in Burundi: e.g., at Kobokobo (Kivu), Gatumba (central Rwanda), in the Ankole beryl district (Uganda), and with petalite at Ruhuma, Kigezi district (Uganda). Furthermore, the quartz-mica formations of Mwirasandu and Lwamuire contain sorne amblygonite. The principal deposit of the Kampala pegmatite belt is the Mbale Estate.

----- See Sn, Nb, Ta, phosphates

6.3.6 Strontium (De Kun, 1965)

In the Lueshe carbonatite and its vicinity in the eastern Congo, the Ba/Sr ratio reaches 4/1.

----- Hubaux, A. 1959. Les gisements de tennantite de Yungu et de Sele (Lac Tanganika). Annales

de la Société Géologique de Belgique, LXXXII, 269-282.

6.4 Abrasive and refractory Minerals The most valuable natural abrasive material is industrial diamond, the hardest substance known, with silica sand a distant second and other products such as silica stone, garnet, Tripoli, emery, feldspar and diatomite bringing up the rear. The abrasive market is considerably larger, since so many synthetic abrasives are available. The most important are synthetic industrial diamonds. The other major synthetic abrasives are fused aluminium oxide, which is prepared from bauxite, and silicon carbide, which is prepared from quartz and coke. Refractory materials provide heat resistant bricks and blocks that are used in a wide range of industrial applications.

6.4.1 Industrial and synthethic diamond See diamond

6.4.2 Other natural Abrasives (De Kun, 1965) Pozzuolanas are volcanic rocks, ashes and sediments, affected by volcanics that expand when mixed in cement. Pozzuolanic materials occur in the East African Rift. Garnets are polygenetic. Almandite-spessartite occurs in granitic cupolas, gneisses and pegmatites, while pyrope favours kimberlite, melanite carbonatites and andradite skarns. Garnet is particularly abundant in the crystalline schists of Panga, Kidjwi Island, Namemba (for almandine), Mulongo, Kabeska, Uele and Kisenge (for grossular).Since garnets are resistant and equidimensional they tend to concentrate in placers and, less frequently, in beach sands: Although gamet is a typomorphic mineral of granitic-pegmatitic districts. In the eastern Congo fine-grained garnet is abundant in the columbite concentrates of the granitic areas such as the Idiba district (see 'Tantalum' chapter). Garnet occurs in schists at Boma, and Ituri in Katanga.

----- Combe, AD, Simmons, WC 1928. Augite cristals from Lulinzalwe Hill, Belgian Congo;

Uganda Protectorate Geological Survey Department, Annual Report 1928, 41-42.

86

6.4.3 Graphite (De Kun, 1965)

Graphite occurs in gneisses, limestones and charnockites of the Ruwenzori belt. Carbonaceous schists belong to the stratigraphic column of the Precambrian rocks of eastern DRC. Graphitic shales are mainly localized in the Katanga Province (Muenza, Busanga, Kikole and Muika). Graphite is also present in shales of the Ituri Province.

----- Van Aubel, R. 1927. Sur le graphite du Haut Katanga (Congo belge). Bulletin de Scoiété

Géologique de France, t. XXVII, 4e série, 453-458. Van Aubel, R. 1936. Sur l’origine du graphite inclus dans les filons d’or du Kivu (Province

Orientale, Congo belge). Comptes Rendus Sommaires de la Société Géographique de France, 236-237.

Van de Steen, J., 1957-1958. La paragenèse du graphite au Katanga. Comités régionaux Centre-Est et Sud, CCTA, CR vol II : 425-433 et Ann.Soc.géol.Belg., 81, p.B 179-193.

6.4.4 Kyanite and related Minerals (De Kun, 1965)

Kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite, occasionally accompanied by corundum, typically crystallize in metamorphic schists and gneisses. Kyanite is recovered from weathered rock or from adjacent eluvia and alluvia. Disthene is abundantly present in the Uele, at Mt Bazinge, Mt Bandupoi and Mt Bandugura. It has also been recognized in other places of the Uele Province and in the Katanga. Sillimanite, accompanied by corundum and less frequently by kyanite, occurs in schists and quartzites, in which it also forms lenses. In the DRC sillimanite is found, e.g., in the quartzites of Albertville. Accumulations of andalusite are the least abundant in the kyanite group because andalusite is more distinctly restricted to the metamorphic aureole of granitic intrusives and placers, rather than to boulder deposits on weathered rock.

----- Buttgenbach, H. 1925. Association de disthène et de minerais de cuivre au Katanga. Annales

de la Société Géologique de Belgique, t XLVIII, 117-119. Cesaro, G., 1922. Sur des cristaux de disthène bleu provenant du Katanga – Facilité de

clivage g1 Angle d’extinction sur g1 et sur les autres faces de la zone verticale. Faces correspondantes. BCScAcRB, 5e série, VIII : 552-559.

De Dorlodot, L. 1924-1925. Un schiste talqueux à andalousite du camp Rubi. Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, Publications Relatives au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines, t. XLVIII, 27-29.

De Magnée, I. 1941. Origine du disthène associé au minérai de cuivre de Luishia (Katanga). Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique, 64, 272-283.

Grosemans, P., 1948, Le gisement de disthène de la Haute Kabompo (borne 36/VIII), frontière Katanga-Rhodésie, B.S.B.G.P.H., t. 57, p. 150-155

Thonnart, P., 1954, Découverte de manganandalousite ou viridine dans le massif du Ruwenzori (Congo belge), Bull. Serv. Géol. C.B. et R.U., n°5, p. 53-54 et C.R.Ac.Sc., t. 238, n°10, p. 1140-1141

87

Abbreviations A.F.A.S(c). Association française pour l’Avancement des Sciences A.M. American Mineralogist A.M.B. Annales des Mines de Belgique A.M.C.B. Annales du Musée royal du Congo belge, Tervuren A.S.G.B.(-P.R.C.B.) : Annales de la Société Géologique de Belgique (Publications Relatives

au Congo Belge et aux régions voisines) A.S.M.C.S.K Annales du Services des Mines du Comité Spécial du Katanga B.A.A.P.G: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists B.A.C.B. Bulletin agricole du Congo belge B.A.I.Lg. Bulletin de l’Association des Ingénieurs de Liège B.C. La Belgique coloniale B. Cl. S(c). A(c). R.B., Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences de l’Académie royale de Belgique B.I.R.C.B Bulletin de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge B.M.R.H.N.B. Bulle tin du Musée d’Histoire naturelle de Belgique B.S.A.E.E.S.L. Bulletin scientifique de l’Association des Elèves des Ecoles spéciales de

l’Université de Liège B.S.B.G. Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie B.S.B.G.P.H Bulletin de la Société belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie B.S.F.M. Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie et Cristallographie B.S.R.B.G Bulletin de la Société royale Belge de Géographie B.S.R.S.L. Bulletin de la Société royale des Sciences de Liège B.T.A.L.U.L. Bulletin trimestriel de l’Association des Licenciés sortis de l’Université de

Liège C.A.I.Lg. Centenaire de l’Association des Ingénieurs sortis de l’Ecole de Liège C.C.T.A., C.R. Commission e coopération technique en Afrique au Sud du Sahara, Comités

régionaux C.G.I Congrès géologique international C. N. Sc. Comptes rendus du Congrès national des Sciences, Bruxelles C.P. M.C. Congrès pour le perfectionnement du matériel colonial, Bruxelles C.R.A(c).S(c).(P). Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences de Paris C.R.C.S.A.I.L(g). Comptes rendus du Congrès scientifique international de l’Association des

Ingénieurs sortis de Liège C.R.C.G.I. Comptes rendus Congrès géologique international C.R.C.I.M.M.G.A. Comptes Rendus du Congrès international des mines, de la Métallurgie et

de la Géologie Appliquée C.S.K. Comité special du Katanga D.K.Z. Deutsche Kolonial Zeitung E.G. Economic Geology E.M.J. Engineering and Mining Journal E.P.S.L. Earth and Planetary Science Letters G.E.I.C. Guide de la section de l’Etat independent du Congo à l’Exposition de Bruxelles J.C.M.M.S.S.A. Journal of the Chemical, Metallurgical and Mineralogical Society of South Africa L.J.S.G.B. Livre jubilaire de la Société géologique de Belgique M.A.M. Mining and Metallurgy M.G. Le Mouvement Géographique M.I.G.U.Lv Mémoire de l’Institut de Géologie de l’Université de Louvain M.I.R.C.B. Mémoire de l’Institut Royal Colonial Belge

88

M.K.V.A.(B).K(l).W. Mededeelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse van België. Klasse der Wetenschappen

M.M. The Mining Magazine M.P.Sc.H. Mémoires et Publications de la Société scientifique du Hainaut M.S.P. Mining and Scientific Press N.M.S.B.G.P.H. Nouveaux mémoires de la Société belge de Géologie, Paléontologie et

d’Hydrologie N.T. Natuurwetenschappelijk Tijdschrift P.C.A. Publications du Cercle Africain P.M. Petermans’Mitteilungen, Gotha R.U.M. Revue Universelle des Mines Z.P.G. Zeitschrift für pratische Geologie

89

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Murray-Richard-W; Perez-Maria-Elena;

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