part oneGeneral Aspects of Propagation

CHAPTER 1 How Plant Propagation Evolved in Human SocietyCHAPTER 2 Biology of Plant PropagationCHAPTER 3 The Propagation Environment

This book about plant propagation not only describes procedures originating thousands

of years ago, but also the application of recent scientific advances. Plant propagation can

be described as the purposeful act of reproducing plants. It has been practiced for per-

haps the past 10,000 years, and its beginning probably marks the start of civilization. The

traditional concept of a propagator is a skilled technician who loves plants and who

acquired the art from traditional skills learned by experience, or whose knowledge was

handed down from one generation to another. Today, propagation may be carried out by

an array of general and specialized industries that produce plants to feed the world; to

provide fiber, building materials, and pharmaceuticals; and to enhance the world’s beauty.

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learning objectives• Describe the evolution of

plant propagation duringhuman history.

• Describe aspects of modernplant propagation activities.

1How Plant PropagationEvolved in Human Society

“And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind,and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and Godsaw that it was good.”

Genesis 1:12.

“Man has become so utterly dependent on the plants he grows for food that,in a sense, the plants have ‘domesticated him.’ A fully domesticated plantcannot survive without the aid of man, but only a minute fraction of thehuman population could survive without cultivated plants.”

from: J. R. Harlan, Crops and Man, 2nd edition. Madison, WI: Amer. Soc. of Agron. 1992.

INTRODUCTIONThe propagation of plants is a fundamental occupation of humankind.Its discovery began what we now refer to as civilization and initiatedhuman dominion over the earth. Agriculture began some 10,000 yearsago when ancient peoples, who lived by hunting and gathering, began tocultivate plants and domesticate animals. These activities led to stablecommunities where people began to select and propagate the kinds ofplants that provided a greater and more convenient food supply, as wellas other products for themselves and their animals (21, 35). Once thisprocess began, humans could remain at the same site for long periods oftime, thus creating centers of activity that eventually would becomecities and countries.

Agriculture is the deliberate cultivation of crops and animals foruse by humans and involves five fundamental activities:

1. Plant selection—selecting and (or) developing specific kinds ofplants.

2. Plant propagation—multiplying plants and preserving theirunique qualities.

3. Crop production—growing plants under more controlled condi-tions for maximum yield.

4. Crop handling and storage—preserving crop products forlong-term usage and transport to other areas.

5. Food technology—transforming and preserving cropproducts for food or other uses (e.g., making bread, press-ing oil, preparing wine, dehydration, etc.).

agriculture Thedeliberate practice ofpropagating andgrowing plants forhuman use.

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how plant propagation evolved in human society chapter one 3

STAGES OF AGRICULTURALDEVELOPMENTThe pivotal role of plant propagation in the evolutionof human society can be seen in terms of particularstages of agricultural development.

Hunting and GatheringMost of the millions of years of human existence ashunters and gatherers were related to the presence ofspecific food resources including seeds, fruits, roots,and tubers, as well as animals that fed on the plants.The distribution and the characteristics of plant specieswere determined by the environment; that is, both thephysical world (climate, soil, topography) and the bio-logical interactions of plant, animal, and human popu-lations (21, 32, 35). Humans have existed for millionsof years, spreading from their presumed place of originin western Africa into Asia, Europe, and, eventually,into North and South America. Food supplies wereabundant in the native vegetation, although quite vari-able in different parts of the world. Apparently, earlyhumans were quite effective in searching out those thatwere useful, as well as in developing processes to utilizeand preserve them.

What motivated humans to begin to propagateand grow specific kinds of plants near their homes hasbeen the subject of much scientific debate (21, 35). Itis clear that the development of agriculture foreverchanged the relationship between humans and theirsurrounding environment. This event occurred inseparate areas of the world, more or less simulta-neously within a relatively short period of a fewthousand years nearly 10,000 years ago. These areasincluded the Near East fertile crescent of SouthwestAsia and Northeast Africa, extending from the valleyof the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers along the coasts ofSyria, Turkey, and Israel to the Nile Valley of Egypt;China, including a northern and a tropical southernarea; and Central and South America, including areasin Mexico, and the coastal lowlands and highlands ofPeru (21, 23).

The key activity bringing about this change musthave been the deliberate selection and propagation andcultivation of specific kinds of plants that were particu-larly useful to humans. As a result, a larger and morestable population could be supported, which evolvedinto cities and countries. Human organization changedfrom subsistence existence, where everyone partici-pated in the production of food and other items, to adivision of labor between agricultural and non-agriculturalsegments of the population, and even to specialization

within the agricultural segment. In this context, theplant propagator, who possessed specific knowledgeand skills, had to assume a key role.

DomesticationEarly civilization devel-oped with relativelyfew domesticated plantspecies, determinedboth by their usefulnessin the primitive econ-omy and the ease with which they could be propagated.The lists differed in the separate areas of the worldwhere human societies evolved (21, 32, 34, 35). In theNear East, the earliest domesticated food cropsincluded wheat, barley, peas, and lentil. In the Far East,millet appears to be the first domesticated crop,followed by rice. In Central and South America, thefirst food crops domesticated were apparently squashand avocado, followed by such important modern-dayfood crops as corn, bean, pepper, tomato, and potato.Many of the early food crops were seed plants (cereals,such as wheat, barley, rice), which provided carbohy-drates, and legumes (beans, peas), which provided pro-tein. These seed-propagated plants could be subjectedto genetic selection in consecutive propagation cyclesfor such agricultural characteristics as high yield, “non-shattering,” large seed size, and reduced seed dormancy.These species were maintained more or less “fixed”because of their genetic tolerance to inbreeding (seeChapter 5). Highly desirable single plants of certainspecies, such as grape, fig, olive, pomegranate, potato,yam, banana, and pineapple (39) could be selecteddirectly from wild populations and “fixed” throughvegetative propagation (see Chapters 2 and 9).Domestication of fruit plants, such as apple, pear,peach, apricot, citrus, and others occurred with the dis-covery of grafting methods (see Chapters 12, 13, and14). By the time of recorded history (or that which canbe reconstructed), most of the basic methods of propa-gation had been discovered. During domestication,crop plants had evolved beyond anything that existedin nature.

The establishment of specific crops and croppingsystems resulted in some side effects that have continuedto create problems (21). As the fields used to grow plantsnear human sites were disturbed and became depleted,certain aggressive plant species also were spontaneouslyestablished in these sites. These so-called weedy specieshave become a part of the agricultural system and moreor less evolved along with cultivated plants.

domestication Theprocess of selectingspecific kinds of wildplants and adaptingthem to human use.

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4 part one general aspects of propagation

ORGANIZATION OF HUMANSOCIETIESAncient (7000 BC)The initial phases of domestication probably involvedplant selection, plant propagation, and plant produc-tion. With an increase in food supply, a larger popula-tion could be supported and division of labor began tooccur. Classes of individuals may have included labor-ers, manufacturers, artisans, government bureaucratsassociated with irrigation systems, religious groups, andsoldiers, as well as farmers and herdsmen. Historicalrecords of early civilizations in Egypt and the MiddleEast (as well as archaeological investigations) haveshown that the agricultural sector was well organized toproduce food (cereals, vegetables, fruits, dates), fiber(flax, cotton), and other items for the non-agriculturalcomponents of society (25). Early Chinese writingsindicate the knowledge of grafting, layering, and othertechniques, although rice and millet were the principalfood sources. In the Americas, seed-propagated crops(maize, beans, cucurbits, squash), as well as vegetativelypropagated crops (potato, cassava, sweet potato,pineapple), were developed and grown.

Greek and Roman (500 BC to AD 1000)Early writings described the agricultural world in detailwith accounts of propagation techniques much as weknow them today. Control of land and agricultural sur-plus was the key to power and wealth (35). Small andlarge farms existed. Olive oil and wine were exported,and grains were imported. Vegetables were grown nearthe home as were many fruits (fig, apple, pear, cherry,plum). Not only were food plants essential, but Romansdeveloped ornamental gardening to a high level (21).

Some of the earliest references to plant propaga-tion come from Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher(circa 300 BC) and disciple of Aristotle (Fig. 1–1). Hedescribed many aspects of plant propagation includingseeds, cuttings, layering, and grafting in his two booksHistoria de Plantis and De Causis Plantarum (36, 37).An example from the translation of De CausisPlantarum (37) illustrates his understanding of propa-gation: “while all the trees which are propagated bysome kind of slip seem to be alike in their fruits to theoriginal tree, those raised from the fruit . . . are nearlyall inferior, while some quite lose the character of theirkin, as vine, apple, fig, pomegranate, pear.”

Additional information on propagation can be seenin surviving works from Romans Pliny the Elder andColumella (circa 1 AD). For example, Pliny recommendsthat cabbage seeds be soaked in the juice of houseleekbefore being sown so that they will be “immune to allkinds of insects” (30), and Columella describes takingleafless, mallet stem cuttings in grape (12).

Medieval Period (AD 750 to 1500)Society was organized around large estates, manorhouses, and castles with landlords providing protec-tion. Large areas of forest were kept as game preserves.Equally important were the monasteries that acted asindependent agricultural and industrial organizationsand preserved a great deal of the written and unwrittenknowledge (Fig. 1–2). In both kinds of institutions, aseparation developed among those involved in the pro-duction of cereals, fibers, and forages grown extensivelyin large fields (agronomy); vegetables, fruits, herbs, andflowers grown in “kitchen gardens” and orchards nearthe home (horticulture); and woody plants grown forlumber, fuel, and game preserves (forestry) (25).

Figure 1–1Theophrastus (300 BC) was an important influenceon Renaissance agriculture, as indicated by hisbeing depicted and commemorated on the frontpage of John Gerard’s influential herbal, publishedin 1597. His image is in the left panel opposite hisGreek counterpart Dioscorides (1 AD), renowned asan authority on the medicinal use of plants.

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how plant propagation evolved in human society chapter one 5

The end of the medieval period and thebeginnings of modern Europe brought a shift from asubsistence existence to a market economy and the emer-gence of land ownership (35). In Western Europe, bothlarge landowners and owners of smaller individual plotsemerged. In Eastern Europe, the shift was toward largewealthy estates with the populace being largely serfs.

Through these periods, the specific skills andknowledge of the plant propagator were possessed by spe-cific individuals. These skills, considered “trade secrets,”were passed from father to son or to specific individuals.Often this knowledge was accompanied by superstitionand, sometimes, attained religious significance.

EXPLORATION, SCIENCE,AND LEARNINGPlant ExchangesThe plant material exchange from the area of origin toother countries of the world has been one of the majoraspects of human development. Not only did the range

of plants available forfood, medicine, indus-trial uses, and gardeningexpand, but plant prop-agation methods toreproduce them were

required. Early movement of useful plants often followedmilitary expansion into different countries when theinvading soldier brought plants from his home countryinto a new land. Conversely, returning soldiers intro-duced to their homelands new plants they found whileon a military campaign. There are numerous examples of

this type of exchange taking place during the Romanconquests of northern Europe. Similarly, Islamic expan-sion in the 9th Century introduced citrus and rice tosouthern Europe, along with new concepts of cultivationand the use of irrigation. The voyages of Columbusopened the world to exploration and the interchange ofplant materials from continent to continent. Such foodstaples as potatoes, tomatoes, beans, corn, squashand peppers all became available to Europe in the 16thand 17th Centuries after voyages to the new world.

In addition to edible food crops, new and exoticplants were being sought out for introduction. Centers oflearning in which scientific investigations began on allaspects of the biological and physical world were estab-lished in many countries. Linnaeus established thebinomial system of nomenclature, and botanists began tocatalog the plants of the world. Exploration trips were ini-tiated where the primary mission was plant introduction,such as the voyages of Captain Cook in 1768, whichincluded the plant explorers Sir Joseph Banks and FrancisMasson who brought large numbers of exotic plants toEngland for the Royal Botanic Garden, establishedat Kew, outside of London(23, 31). Nathanial Ward,a London physician andamateur horticulturist,invented the Wardian caseearly in the 1800s to helppreserve plant material onthese long expeditions (Fig.1–3). (38)

Plant-collecting trips continued throughout theworld: from Europe (David Douglas, Joseph D. Hooker,

Figure 1–2The monastic garden was an enclosed area of medicinal andedible plants. The Cloisters in New York has severalrepresentative enclosed period gardens.

Figure 1–3The Wardian case was invented by N. B. Ward in the early19th Century to use when transporting plants over longocean voyages.

Wardian case Aglazed woodencabinet designed tokeep high humidityinside and salt waterspray outside thecase on long seavoyages.

plant exchange Themovement of plantsfrom their place oforigin to their placeof use.

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6 part one general aspects of propagation

Robert Fortune, George Forrest, Frank Kingdon Ward)and from the United States (David Fairchild, FrankMeyer, Joseph Rock, Charles Sargent, Ernest Wilson)(13, 18, 23, 31). Significant ornamental species that aremainstays of modern gardens were collected: from theOrient (rhododendron, primula, lily, rose, chrysanthe-mum), Middle East (tulips, many bulb crops), andNorth America (evergreen and deciduous trees andshrubs). “Orangeries” and glasshouses (greenhouses)were expanded to grow the exotic species being col-lected from India, Africa, and South and CentralAmerica.

Scientific and Horticultural LiteratureThe first important written works on agriculture, plantmedicinal uses, and propagation that shaped westernsociety came from the early Greek, Roman, and Arabwriters between 300 BC and AD 2. Although manyworks were undoubtedly lost, many survive todaybecause they were preserved in Arab libraries and passedon though medieval monasteries. Following the inven-tion of the printing press in 1436, there was resurgencein the production of books called herbals (Fig. 1–4)describing and illustrating plants with medicinal prop-erties. Much of the information came from olderfirst century Greek literature, especially Dioscorides (Fig. 1–2). These early works were written in Latin, buteventually works began to appear in local languages (2),making plant information available to a wider audience.

The Renaissance heralded the appearance of sci-entific enquiry that relied heavily on meticulousobservation of plant morphology and behavior. Thisis wonderfully shown in the illustrations fromMarcello Malpighi (29) on plant anatomy in 1675(Fig. 1–5).

In the late 1800s, the concepts of natural selec-tion and genetics made a big impact on scientificadvancement. Charles Darwin and his Origin of Species(14) as well as its important contemporary TheVariation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication(15) introduced the concept of evolution and set thestage for the genetic discoveries following the rediscov-ery of Mendel’s papers in 1900. The subsequentexplosion in knowledge and application provided theframework on which present-day plant propagationis based, as did the increase in knowledge of plantgrowth, anatomy, physiology, and other basics ofbiological science (31).

Books and articles on gardening and propagationbegan to appear (16). The first book on nurseries,Seminarium, was written by Charles Estienne in 1530.Later, Charles Baltet, a practical nurseryman, publisheda famous book, The Art of Grafting and Budding, in1821, describing 180 methods of grafting (see Figs.1–6 and 1–7) (11). A book by Andrew J. Fuller—Propagation of Plants—was published in 1885 (19).

The Morrill ActThe passage of theMorrill Act by the UnitedStates Congress in 1862was a landmark event thatestablished land-grantcolleges and fostered thescientific investigation ofagriculture and mechani-cal arts. Departments of agronomy, horticulture,pomology, and related fields were established, whichbecame centers of scientific investigation, teaching, andextension. Liberty Hyde Bailey (33), a product of this

Figure 1–4Herbals were produced soon after the inventionof the printing press to describe the utility of localand introduced plants. Plants such as this pea inMatthioli’s herbal (Commentarii, 1564) weredepicted from woodcuts on blocks.

Morrill Act An act ofCongress in 1862 thatestablished land-grantuniversities forscientific study andteaching of agricultureand mechanical arts.

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how plant propagation evolved in human society chapter one 7

system, published his first edition of The Nursery Book(3) later revised as the Nursery Manual in 1920 (6),which cataloged what was known about plant propaga-tion and the production of plants in the nursery (Fig.1–8). His Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (4)in 1900–1902, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (5)in 1914–1917, Hortus (7) in 1930, Hortus Second (8) in

Figure 1–5With the Renaissance, there was a resurgence in scientificinquiry. Malpighi was a keen observer of plants, as seenin his depiction of this germinating cucumber in hiswonderfully illustrated Anatome Plantarum, 1675.

Figure 1–6Bark grafting as illustrated in The Art of Grafting andBudding (1910) by Baltet.

Figure 1–7Approach grafting was a more important propagationtechnique before the introduction of mist propagation (11).

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8 part one general aspects of propagation

1941, and Manual of Cultivated Plants (9) in 1940 and1949 described the known plants in cultivation. Anupdate, Hortus Third (10), is a classic in the field.

M. G. Kains of Pennsylvania State College and,later, Columbia University in New York, publishedPlant Propagation (26), later revised by Kains andMcQuesten (27), which remained a standard text formany years (Fig. 1–9). Several other books were writ-ten during this period including titles by Adrianceand Brison (1), Duruz (17), Hottes (24), andMahlstede and Haber (28). The first edition of PlantPropagation: Principles and Practices (22) waspublished in 1959 and has continued through eighteditions.

THE DEVELOPMENTOF NURSERIESThe concept of the nursery, where plants are propagatedto be transplanted to their permanent site either as partof the agricultural unit or to be sold to others, has likelybeen a part of agriculture since its beginning.Nevertheless, the development of commercial nurseriesis probably something that has developed largely withinthe recent era (16). Most agronomic crops (wheat, corn,etc.) and many vegetables were grown by seed. A por-tion of the seed was retained each year to supply theseed for the next cycle. In regions with cold winters,starting vegetables and flowers in protected structures

Figure 1–8Liberty Hyde Bailey is consideredthe Father of AmericanHorticulture (Seeley, 1990). Heprovides an interesting versionof bottom heat for germinationand cutting propagation in theNursery Book (3), one of his 63published books on horticulture.

Figure 1–9Early books for students andnursery professionals includePropagation of Plants byKains and McQuesten (1938)and the first edition of PlantPropagation: Principles andPractices by Hartmann andKester (1959).

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(cold frames, hotbeds) and later transplanting them tothe open was an important part of production, becausedoing so extended the length of the growing season.

A number of important nurseries existed inFrance during the 16th and 17th centuries and, eventu-ally, throughout Europe (17). Ghent, Belgium, had agardener’s guild as early as 1366. The first glass house(greenhouse) was built in 1598. The Vilmorin familyestablished a seed house and nursery business in 1815,which was maintained through seven generations.

Early plant breeding was often combined with anursery, as exemplified by Victor Lemoine (1850) whospecialized in tuberous begonias, lilies, gladiolus, andother garden flowers. Nickolas Hardenpont and JeanBaptiste van Mons specialized in fruits, particularly pears.The Veitch family started a major nursery in England in1832. Thomas Andrew Knight, a famous hybridizer offruits, established the Royal Horticultural Society in 1804.

Early colonists brought seeds, scion, and plants tothe United States from Europe, and Spanish priestsbrought material to the West Coast. John Bartram iscredited with providing a major impetus with hisBotanical Garden in Philadelphia in 1728. The firstnursery, however, was credited to William Prince andSon in 1730 on Long Island (Fig. 1–10). These werefollowed by the expansion of nurseries throughout theeastern United States during the 19th Century. To alarge extent, the early nurseries specialized in selectingand grafting fruit trees, although ornamentals andforest trees also began to be produced.

David Landreth established a seed company, andthe seed industry in the Philadelphia area, in 1784. Heoffered seeds internationally and later distributed seedscollected during the Lewis and Clark expedition. In1906, Berhard McMahon produced the AmericanGardener’s Calendar, which was reprinted through

how plant propagation evolved in human society chapter one 9

Figure 1–10The first established nursery in the United States was begun in New York in 1730 by William Prince.

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eleven editions. His Philadelphia seed house sold over1,000 species of plants (Fig. 1–11a). The Shakers inMount Lebanon, New York, began packaging seeds inindividual envelopes for local retail sales in the early

1800s (Fig. 1–11b). The first seed catalog in color wasproduced in 1853 by B. K. Bliss. At the turn of the 20thCentury, these mail order catalogs became wonderfullithographic works of art (Fig. 1–12).

10 part one general aspects of propagation

(a)

(b)

Figure 1–11Seeds were offered through the mail by placing orders through seedcatalogs. (a) Liberty Hyde Bailey’s copy of Bernard McMahon’s Catalogue of American Seeds. (b) The Shakers from Mount Lebanon, New York,pioneered the use of retain seed packets.

Figure 1–12The seed business wascompetitive, so companiesproduced colorful mail orderseed catalogs to attractpotential customers.

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The establishment of the nursery industry in thePacific Northwest was a unique accomplishment (17).In the summer of 1847, Henderson Lewelling of Salem,Iowa, established a traveling nursery of grafted nurserystock growing in a mixture of soil and charcoal in boxes

on heavy wagons pulled by oxen, which crossedthe Great Plains, covering 2,000 miles to Portland,Oregon. The 350 surviving trees were used to establisha nursery at Milwaukee, Oregon.

how plant propagation evolved in human society chapter one 11

BOX 1.1 GETTING MORE IN DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT

PLANT PROPAGATION ORGANIZATIONS

American Seed Trade Association (ASTA) This organiza-tion of seed companies has been serving the industrysince 1883. ASTA holds a general meeting each year andsponsors conferences on specific crops. It publishes anewsletter, an annual yearbook, and proceedings of indi-vidual conferences. It participates in regulatory activitiesthat affect the seed industry. (http://amseed.com)

American Society for Horticultural Science (ASHS) Thisorganization has a membership of public and private scien-tists, educators, extension personnel, and industry mem-bers with an interest in horticulture. The organization holdsannual national and regional meetings and publishes scien-tific reports in the Journal of American Society forHorticultural Science, HortScience, and HortTechnology. Itincludes working groups in all propagation areas. (http://www.ashs.org)

Association of Official Seed Analysts, Inc. (AOSA)Membership is seed laboratories, both private and gov-ernmental, mostly in the continental United States. Theassociation holds an annual meeting and publishes theJournal of Seed Technology. They provide numeroushandbooks on the rules for seed testing, seed sampling,purity analysis, etc. They also provide a seed technolo-gist’s training manual. (http://www.aosaseed.com/)

Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA)Originally organized in 1919 as the International CropImprovement Association, membership includes UnitedStates and Canadian agencies responsible for seed certifi-cation in their respective areas. These agencies maintain aclose working relationship with the seed industry, seedregulatory agencies, governmental agencies involved ininternational seed market development and movement,and agricultural research and extension services. (http://aosca.org/)

International Fruit Tree Association This organization isfor members interested in fruit tree rootstocks and propa-gation but also includes cultural aspects. An annual meet-ing is held, and the proceedings are published in CompactFruit Tree. (http://www.ifruittree.org/)

International Plant Propagators Society (IPPS) The societywas organized in 1951 to recognize the special skills of theplant propagator and to foster the exchange of informa-tion among propagators. The organization has expandedto include Eastern, Western, and Southern Regions of theUnited States; Great Britain and Ireland; Australia; NewZealand; Japan; and a Southern African Region. Each

region holds an annual meeting, and their papers are pub-lished in a Combined Proceedings. (http://www.ipps.org)

International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) This is anintergovernmental association with worldwide member-ship accredited by the governments of 59 countries andinvolving 137 official seed-testing associations. The pri-mary purpose is to develop, adopt, and publish standardprocedures for sampling and testing seeds and to pro-mote uniform application of these procedures for evalua-tion of seeds moving in international trade. Secondarypurposes are to promote research in all areas of seedscience and technology, to encourage cultivar certifica-tion, and to participate in conferences and trainingcourses promoting these activities. They hold an annualconference and publish the Seed Science and Technologyjournal, as well as a newsletter, bulletins, and technicalhandbooks on seed testing. (http://www.seedtest.org/en/home.html)

International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) Thisorganization is an international society for horticulturalscientists, educators, extension, and industry personnel.It sponsors an International Horticultural Congress everyfour years as well as numerous workshops and symposia.Proceedings are published in Acta Horticulture. A newslet-ter, Chronica Horticulturae, is published four times peryear. (http://www.ishs.org)

American Nursery and Landscape Association (ANLA)Organized in 1875 as the American Association ofNurserymen, this association is a national trade organiza-tion of the United States nursery and landscape industry. Itserves member firms involved in the nursery business—wholesale growers, garden center retailers, landscapefirms, mail-order nurseries, and allied suppliers to the hor-ticultural community. (http://www.anla.org/)

Society for In Vitro Biology (SIVB) This organization iscomposed of biologists, both plant and animal, who doresearch on plant cellular and developmental biology,including the use of plant tissue culture techniques. Theorganization publishes the journal In Vitro Cellular andDevelopmental Biology—Plant and holds an annual meeting.(http://www.sivb.org/)

Southern Nursery Association (SNA) An organization ofnurseries in the southeastern United States, this tradeorganization has annual conferences and publishesnewsletters and conference proceedings. (http://www.sna.org)

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REFERENCES

1. Adriance, G. W., and F. R. Brison. 1955.Propagation of horticultural plants. New York: McGrawHill.

2. Agricola, G. A. 1716. A philosophical treatiseof husbandry and gardening.

3. Bailey, L. H. 1891 (revised, 1896). The nurs-ery book. Harrisburg, PA: Mount Pleasant Press, J. Horace McFarland.

4. Bailey, L. H. 1900–1902. 4th ed. 1906.Cyclopedia of American horticulture. New York:Macmillan.

5. Bailey, L. H. 1914–1917. Standard cyclopediaof horticulture. 3 vols. New York: Macmillan.

6. Bailey, L. H. 1920 (revised). The nursery man-ual. New York: Macmillan.

7. Bailey, L. H. 1930. Hortus. New York: Macmillan.

8. Bailey, L. H., and E. Z. Bailey. 1941. Hortussecond. New York: Macmillan.

9. Bailey, L. H., E. Z. Bailey, and staff of BaileyHortorium. 1940, 1949. Manual of cultivated plants.New York: Macmillan.

10. Bailey, L. H., E. Z. Bailey, and staff of BaileyHortorium. 1976. Hortus third. New York: Macmillan.

11. Baltet, C. 1910. The art of grafting and bud-ding. 6th ed. London: Crosby Lockwood (quoted byHottes, 1922).

12. Columella, L. J. M. 1948. De re rustica. Loebclassical library. William Heinemann Ltd. London andHarvard University Press. Boston.

13. Cunningham, I. S. 1984. Frank N. Meyer:Plant hunter in Asia. Ames, IA: Iowa State UniversityPress.

14. Darwin, C. 1859. The origin of species bymeans of natural selection, or the preservation of favouredraces in the struggle for life. London: J. Murray.

15. Darwin, C. 1868. The variation of animalsand plants under domestication. London: J. Murray.

16. Davidson, H., R. Mecklenburg, and C.Peterson. 2000. Nursery management. 4th ed. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

17. Duruz, W. P. 1st ed. 1949, 2nd ed. 1953.The principles of nursery management. New York: A. T.de la Mare Co.

DISCUSSION ITEMS

Modern day plant propagation is a complex, manyfaceted industry that represents a synthesis of differentskills. Underlying these skills is a love and appreciationfor the rich history and importance plant propagationhas played in agriculture development.

1. Discuss how the relationship between the domes-tication of plants has been symbiotic with humandevelopment.

2. Discuss the relationship between plant selectionand domestication with methods of plantpropagation.

3. The number of plant species used for food is rela-tively small. Speculate on some of the reasons why.

4. The terms “agriculture,” “forestry,” and “horticul-ture” became distinct disciplines during themedieval period of human history. What do yousee as the differences in these disciplines that led totheir separation in medieval times, and does thisrelate to our modern views of these disciplines?

5. Why do you think the “modern” nursery devel-oped and how did the period of plant explorationrelate to nurseries?

6. Visit the web site of a professional organizationand discuss why you think membership would beimportant to a person working in plant propaga-tion or horticulture.

THE MODERN PLANTPROPAGATION INDUSTRYThe present-day plant propagation industry is large andcomplex, and involves not only the group that multi-plies plants for sale and distribution, but also a largegroup of industries that provides services, sells the prod-uct, is involved in regulation, provides consultation,

carries on research, or is involved in teaching. The keyperson within this complex is the plant propagator whopossesses the knowledge and skills either to perform orto supervise the essential propagation task for specificplants. In 1951, the Plant Propagator’s Society wasestablished to provide the nursery profession withknowledge and research support.

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18. Fairchild, D. 1938. The world was my garden.New York: Scribner’s.

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