Part 8: Effects on Species of Concern - U.S. Forest Service...252 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech....

250 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-114. 2003

Part 8: Effects on Species ofConcern _______________________Natasha B. Kotliar, Sara Simonson, GenevaChong, and Dave Theobald

Temporal and Spatial Scales forEvaluating Fire Effects

Conclusions about the effects of fire on species ofconcern will depend on the temporal and spatial scalesof analysis. Populations of some species may decline inabundance immediately postfire due to alteration ordestruction of habitat, but over larger spatial andtemporal scales, fire contributes to a shifting mosaic ofhabitat conditions across the landscape. Whether ornot a fire results in persistent and significant popula-tion changes depends on a number of factors includingfire size and severity, dispersal capabilities and otherlife history traits, availability of refugia within oroutside the burn, postfire successional pathways. Thus,fire effects should be considered across a range oftemporal and spatial scales.

Assessment of fire effects must be made within thecontext of the natural disturbance regime of a system.The historic fire regime for this area can be character-ized as mixed-severity (Brown and others 1999; Veblenand others 2000), which includes both understory andcrown fires. Local factors such as elevation, topography,and aspect affect the frequency to which the systemexperiences understory, mixed-severity, or large crownfire events (part 1, this chapter). Reference conditionsfor evaluating fire effects in montane forests of theColorado Front Range, therefore, are dynamic forestscomposed of patches that vary with time since distur-bance and severity. Yet, fire effects on wildlife aretypically evaluated by simply comparing recently burnedand unburned forests (Kotliar and others 2002).

To evaluate the effects of the Hayman Fire on spe-cies of concern, we consider both short- (less than 10years) and long-term (greater than 50 to 100 years)postfire time frames. Likewise, we consider spatialscales that range from habitat patches within the56,000-ha Hayman Fire perimeter to ponderosa pinelandscapes that encompass the Pike National Forest.We also evaluate fire effects within the framework ofa mixed-severity fire regime.

Although most fire experts agree that mixed-sever-ity fires (including small crown fires) characterize thesystem, the historical occurrence of large crown firesremains equivocal and controversial. At the Haymanburn, a severe fire burned approximately half of thearea (hereafter called the “severe fire”), whereas amixed-severity fire burned the remaining area (here-after called the “mixed-severity fire”). Within thesevere, tree mortality is high, although live trees

remain in isolated patches that escaped severe fire.These remnant patches are important seed sourcesand may serve as animal refugia. In addition, plantsare rapidly resprouting in many areas, whereas baremineral soil is all that remains elsewhere (Kotliar,personal observation). In the area burned by mixed-severity fire, there is variation among patches in treemortality, resulting in a heterogeneous mixture of liveand dead trees. Because of the differences in burnseverity, and consequently landscape structure (forexample, size of high-severity patches, distance tounburned forest), we consider the effects of these twofire “landscapes” (that is, severe versus mixed-serverity) on species of concern separately.

Effects on Species of Concern

Species of concern, for this discussion, are thoseFederally listed, or proposed, as endangered or threat-ened, and species designated as sensitive by Region 2of the USDA Forest Service (table 16). Evaluating theeffects of the Hayman Fire on species of concern is adifficult undertaking for several reasons. First, infor-mation on the effects of fire is quite limited for mostspecies. Second, a number of factors can alter howspecies respond to burns including burn severity, aswell as the spatial heterogeneity of burn-severitypatterns, time since fire, cover type, context, postfirerehabilitation, and prefire management (Kotliar andothers 2002). Other factors may compound or over-shadow the effects of fire, such as the severe droughtin 2002, disease outbreaks, or previous habitat lossescaused by human activities. Finally, the magnitude offire effects on species of concern will depend, in part,on the proportion of the species’ range and total popu-lation that occurs within the burned area.

Here, we evaluate the effects of the Hayman Fire onspecies listed as sensitive by the Pike National Forest(Ryke and Madsen 2002). None of the Federally listedendangered species occurring on the Pike are known tooccur within the Hayman Fire perimeter, but sixFederally listed threatened species (Canada lynx, baldeagle, Mexican spotted owl, Preble’s meadow jumpingmouse, Pawnee montane skipper, Ute ladies’-tressesorchid) have occurrences or potential habitat withinthe burn (see table 16 for a list of scientific names). Inaddition, there are a number of amphibians, birds,fishes, invertebrates, mammals, and plants listed asForest Sensitive Species or Management IndicatorSpecies. Of the total 59 species of concern, we elimi-nated 26 species that are known not to occur in theburn area (table 17). We determined that severalspecies (Canada lynx, boreal owl, golden-crowned king-let, wolverine, marten, dwarf shrew), which are pri-marily associated with higher elevation lodgepole pineor spruce/fire forests, had minimal potential habitat(less than 2 percent of burn area) within the burn

251USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-114. 2003

Table 16—Species of Concern occurring or potentially occurring on the Hayman burn (Ryke and Madsen 2002).

A. Vertebrate Species associated with wetland habitats

Species Scientific name Occurrence category1 Status2 Habitat types3

Northern leopard frog Rana pipiens Occurs S RSS, WET, AQTiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum preblii Occurs S RSS, WET, AQOsprey Pandion haliaetus Occurs S RSS,Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Occurs T RSSCommon loon Gavia immer Occurs S RSS, AQFox sparrow Passerella iliaca Occurs S RIPPreble’s meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius preblei Occurs T, PCH MG, RSS, RIPLewis’ s woodpecker Melanerpes lewis Occurs S RIP

B. Vertebrate and Invertebrate Species Associated with montane forested habitats

Mexican spotted owl Strix occidentalis lucinda Occurs T, CH PJ, MC, RONorthern goshawk Accipiter gentilis Occurs S PP, MC, AS, LPP, SFFlammulated owl Otus flammeolus Occurs S PP, MC, ASThree-toed woodpecker Picoides tridactylus Occurs S MC, LPP, SFPygmy nuthatch Sitta pygmaea Occurs S PP, ASOlive-sided flycatcher Contopus cooperi Occurs S MC, SFPawnee montane skipper Hesperia leonardus montana Occurs T PP, MC, MGTownsend’s big-eared bat Corynorhinus townsendii Occurs S RO, PP, MC, MS, PJFringed-tailed bat Myotis thysanodes Occurs S RO, PP, MS, PJ, MC

C. Vertebrate Species associated with subalpine and alpine habitats

Boreal toad Bufo boreas No Known Populations S, C RSS, AQ, WET, SFBoreal owl Aegolius funereus No Known Populations S LPP, SFGolden crowned kinglet Regulus satrapa Subalpine S MC, SFMarten Martes americana Subalpine S MC, LPP, SF, ALLynx Lynx rufus Subalpine T LPP, SF, AL, ROWolverine Gulo gulo Subalpine S LPP, SF, ALDwarf shrew Sorex palustris Subalpine S SF, AL, MG, RO, MS,

WET, MCD. Plant species of concern

Ute ladies’-tresses orchid Spiranthes diluvialis Habitat occurs T RSS, RIPNarrow-leaved moonwort Botrychium lineare Habitat occurs S, C MG, RSSReflected moonwort Botrychium echo Habitat occurs S MG, ROPale moonwort Botrychium pallidum Habitat occurs S MGLivid sedge Carex livida Habitat occurs S WETSmith’s whitlow grass Draba smithii Habitat occurs S RO Altai cottongrass Eriophorum altaicum var. neogaeum Habitat occurs S WETColorado tansy-aster Machaeranthera coloradoensis Habitat occurs S AL, MG, ROWhite adder’s-mouth orchid Malaxis brachyopoda Habitat occurs S RSS, RIPWeber’s monkey-flower Mimulus gemmiparus Occurs S SF, AS, RIPGreenland primrose Primula egaliksensis Habitat occurs S RSS, WETRocky Mtn. Cinquefoil Potentilla rupincola Habitat occurs S PP, ROPorter feathergrass Ptilagrostis mongholica ssp. porteri Habitat occurs S WETNorthern blackberry Rubus arcticus ssp. acaulis Habitat occurs S RSS, WETRolland’s bulrush Scirpus rollandii Habitat occurs S WETGreat-spurred violet Viola selkirkii Habitat occurs S AS, MC, RIP

1For species potentially occurring within the Hayman burn, we determined whether it: Occurs = known to occur; Habitat Occurs = potential habitatoccurs; No Known Populations = no known current or historic populations; Subalpine = minimal area in this cover type occurred within the Haymanburn, consequently the species is expected to have limited occurrence.

2Conservation Status: E: Federally listed as Endangered; T: Federally listed as Threatened; P: Federally proposed for listing; C: Federal candidatefor listing; CH: Federally designated Critical Habitat; PCH: Federally proposed Critical Habitat; S: Forest Service Sensitive Species.

3Habitat classifications from Ryke and Marsden (2002): AL = alpine; AQ = riparian/aquatic; AS = aspen; LPP = lodgepole pine; PJ = pinyon/juniper;PP = ponderosa pine; RO = Rock, cliff, caves, canyon, mine; MC = mixed conifer; MG = mountain meadows; MS = shrublands; SF = spruce/fir; WET= riparian/wetlands.


perimeter (table 16c). We evaluated the potentialeffects of the Hayman Fire for remaining 17 vertebratespecies of concern (table 16a,b). We also briefly evalu-ate the effects on plant species of concern (table 16d).

For each species we assessed the expected numeri-cal response immediately postfire (that is, increase,decrease, remain the same, unable to determine) basedon potential postfire conditions that could result inpopulation changes. If data on fire effects were un-available, we used life history attributes and inter-viewed experts to assess potential fire effects. Specifi-cally, we asked the following questions:

1. Are the direct or indirect effects of the fire likelyto alter habitat quality or availability: (a) inshort or long time frames, and (b) in mixed-severity or crown fire?

2. How important is the population at Hayman tothe long-term health of the species?

Table 17—Species of Concern for the Pike National Forest which do not occur within the Hayman burn.

Species Scientific name Status1 Habitat2

Purple martin Progne subis S ASMountain plover Charadrius montanus P MGHarlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus S RSS, AQAmerican bittern Botaurus lentiginosus S RSS, WETWhite-faced ibis Plegadis chihi S RSS, WETBlack tern Chlidonias niger S RIP, WETWhooping crane Grus americana E RSSSandhill crane Grus canadensis S WET, RSS, RIPWestern snowy plover Charadrius alexandrinus S RSSBlack swift Cypseloides niger S AQ,ROGreenback cutthroat trout Salmo clarki macdonaldi T AQSouthern red-belly dace Phoxinus eos S AQPlain’s topminnow Fundulus sciadicus S AQArkansas darter Etheostoma cragini S AQUncompahgre fritillary butterfly Boloria acrocnema E ALRocky Mountain capshell snail Acroloxus coloradensis S AQHog-nose skunk Conepatus mesoleucus S MS, PJ, RORingtail cat Bassariscus astutus S MS, PJ, RO, RIPPenland alpine fen mustard Eutrema penlandii T AL, WET, RSSSea pink Armeria maritime var. siberica S ALLeadville milk-vetch Astragalus molybdenus S ALSmooth rockcress Braya glabella ssp. glabella S ALHall fescue Festuca hallii S AL, MGGlobe gilia Ipomopsis globularis S ALWoolly willow Salix lanata ssp. calcicola S AL, RSSMyrtle-leaf willow Salix myrtillifolia S WET

1Conservation Status: E: Federally listed as Endangered; T: Federally listed as Threatened; P: Federally proposed for listing; C:Federal candidate for listing; CH: Federally designated Critical Habitat; PCH: Federally proposed Critical Habitat; S: Forest ServiceSensitive Species.

2Habitat classifications from Ryke and Marsden (2002): AL = alpine; AQ = riparian/aquatic; AS = aspen; LPP = lodgepole pine; PJ= pinyon/juniper; PP = ponderosa pine; RO = Rock, cliff, caves, canyon, mine; MC = mixed conifer; MG = mountain meadows; MS =shrublands; SF = spruce/fir; WET = riparian/wetlands.

3. How severe are the threats to long-term viabil-ity of the species?

4. What other factors (for example, drought, habi-tat fragmentation) might influence the magni-tude of fire effects?

Preferred habitat types are listed for all species ofconcern (table 16). We grouped these into severallarger categories: wetlands (including riparian andadjacent aquatic habitats), shrublands (primarilymountain mahogany), and forested (primarily ponde-rosa pine, Douglas-fir, aspen). For each of these covertypes, we discuss the potential structural changesthat may occur postfire, and discuss the implicationsfor species inhabiting these areas. Because shrublandscomposed a relatively small proportion of the burn andwere not a primary habitat for any species of concern,we only briefly discuss this cover type. Aquatic speciesare addressed elsewhere in this chapter. In addition,we provide indepth assessments for several species ofconcern: Mexican spotted owl, Pawnee montane skip-


per, Preble’s meadow jumping mouse, three-toed wood-pecker, and blanket flower/Colorado fire moth. Thesespecies were selected because they are species of highconcern on the Pike National Forest and/or representa broad spectrum of expected responses to burns.

Potential habitat maps are available for the skipper,jumping mouse, and Mexican spotted owl. We usedtwo burn severity maps to analyze the burn severitypatterns of potential habitat maps of these species: theNormalized Burn Severity (NBR) technique (Millerand Yool 2002) and the Burned Area EmergencyRehabilitation (BAER) map (fig. 30-32). We use theNBR map because it detects greater heterogeneity andwas not limited to the four burn-severity classes asdefined in the BAER maps. We include BAER maps forcomparison because of the pervasive use elsewhere inthis document.

Wetlands:

Amphibians – Three amphibian species of concernare associated with wetland habitats (table 16a). Bo-real toads have no known recent or historical occur-rences within the burn perimeter and are typicallyfound at higher elevations (table 16c; Loeffler 2001).Thus, we will restrict our discussion to northern leop-ard frogs and tiger salamanders. No published infor-mation on the effects of fire on these amphibians in theRocky Mountains is available, although limited infor-mation is available for other regions. Direct mortalityof amphibians was probably limited because droughtconditions prevalent at the time of the Hayman Firehad likely caused the amphibians to seek water orunderground refuges (for example, in rodent burrows;Pilliod and others 2003). In general, such refugia arepresumed to afford protection from direct moralityfrom fire (Russell and others 1999).

Indirect effects on amphibians, such as postfireerosion and flooding, may create, alter suitability, ordestroy breeding sites (Pilliod and others 2003; seepart 6 of this chapter). Fire can alter temperatureprofiles and hydroperiods, sedimentation and nutri-ent loads, and availability of duff, litter, and woodydebris used for refugia (Pilliod and others 2003). Theeffects will vary with fire conditions, such as burnseverity and seasonality of fire (Russell and others1999; Pilliod and others 2003). It has been suggestedthat the negative effects of fire on amphibian popula-tions may be lower in ponds, the primary breedingsites for northern leopard frogs and tiger salamanders(Hammerson 1999), compared to streams (Pilliod andothers 2003). There is limited evidence that tigersalamanders may tolerate or prefer frequent fire; in astudy in Florida, tiger salamanders were capturedmore frequently in stands of longleaf and shortleafpine forests that burned annually compared to un-

burned stands (Russell and others 1999). Becausemany negative effects of fire are short-term, initialpostfire mortality could be offset by the creation ormaintenance of required habitat conditions by fire(Russell and others 1999).

Breeding sites in the drought-prone climate of Colo-rado are naturally dynamic as are amphibian popula-tions (Hammerson 1999). Indeed, the 2002 droughtmay have diminished breeding opportunities and mayhave had greater effects on amphibian populationsthan did the Hayman Fire. Because of the naturaldynamics of amphibian populations and habitats, thepotential for both positive and negative effects onthese amphibians, and the limited importance of theHayman area to the survival of these species overall,we expect that neither northern leopard frog or tigersalamander will suffer significant population declinesin a result of the Hayman Fire.

Birds – Three species of concern (bald eagle, osprey,common loon) are found in association with CheesmanReservoir. Direct effects of the fire on bald eagles arelimited to the potential loss of a winter roost site,which was located in the area burned by severity. Thisroost has been used by approximately 20 to 40 baldeagles, a relatively small proportion of its overallpopulation. Most of the trees in the roost were scorchedbut many trees retained their needles during thewinter 2002 to 2003; at least 24 eagles were observedroosting in scorched trees the first winter postfire (E.Odell, personal communication). The degree to whichthe winter roosts offer thermal protection is unclear,and whether the eagles will continue to use the roost,switch to nearby live trees at Cheesman Reservoir, orabandon the site once the needles drop from the roosttrees remains to be seen. Prior to the Hayman Fire,eagles had not been observed foraging at CheesmanReservoir and instead appear to rely on nearby reser-voirs outside the burn perimeter for fishing sites (E.Odell, personal observation). Indirect effects of fire onthe other two piscivorous bird species include poten-tial fish die-offs due to postfire erosion and degrada-tion of water quality. In the short-term, the reductionof the prey base may cause the osprey and migratingloons to abandon the site. Whether the local popula-tions decline or shift to another area cannot be pre-dicted. However, this artificial lake is not critical toany of these avian species, and any local changesassociated with the fire are expected to have limitedeffect on the overall populations, although local popu-lation changes may be observed in the short term.

Several avian species of concern are associated withriparian areas (fox sparrow, and Lewis’s woodpecker,which is also associated with older burns). Often,riparian areas escape burning or have lower burnseverity than adjacent uplands. Indeed, burn severitywas lower in many riparian corridors within the crown


Figure 30—Burn severity patterns in Mexican Spotted Owl Protected Activity Centers (PAC) and Critical Habitat (CH).Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) is an index of burn severity; low delta NBR scores indicate lower severity than high deltaNBR scores.


Figure 31—Burn severity patterns in Pawnee Montane Skipper Potential Critical Habitat. Normalized Burn Ratio(NBR) is an index of burn severity; low delta NBR scores indicate lower severity than high delta NBR scores.


Figure 32—Burn severity patterns in Preble’s Meadow Jumping Mouse Potential Critical Habitat. Normalized Burn Ratio(NBR) is an index of burn severity; low delta NBR scores indicate lower severity than high delta NBR scores.


compared to adjacent uplands. Although during se-vere drought, wetlands may burn (often severely) ifmoisture levels are reduced, riparian vegetation (forexample, willows, aspen) resprouts readily after fire orfollowing siltation from postfire erosion. Fire can alsohave positive effects on these species of concern. Bydecreasing canopy closure, severe fires may have in-creased habitat suitability for fox sparrows, whichprefer open shrublands. Lewis’s woodpeckers are as-sociated with forested riparian areas but also use olderburns (Kotliar and others 2002); fire may have dimin-ished habitat availability in the short term, but assnags fall and the forest opens up, and as riparianforests resprout, potential habitat availability willincrease. Because fox sparrows and Lewis’s woodpeck-ers are fairly common and widespread, populations ofboth species should be able to withstand, and willlikely benefit, from such habitat dynamics.

Mammals – Only one mammalian species of con-cern, the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse, is associ-ated with wetland (riparian) systems. This species isdiscussed below.

Plants – The majority of plant species of concernthat are present or potentially occuring within theHayman and Schoonover Fires, occur in conjunctionwith wet or riparian areas (table 16d). Because nonna-tive plant species are likely to respond favorably to thepostfire environment (Grace and others 2001), espe-cially in more mesic habitats (Stohlgren and others1998, 1999, 2002), nonnative plant species over theshort and long term may be expected to have negativeeffects on the native plant species of concern. Initialinventory and subsequent monitoring of vegetation inareas at high risk for nonnative plant species invasionand resulting negative impacts on species of concern,are needed to provide information for control of nonna-tives.

Shrublands:

The primary shrublands that burned in the HaymanFire were generally small pockets of mountain shrubcommunities that frequently occur in small forestopenings or on south-facing slopes. The dominantspecies is typically mountain mahogany, but waxcurrent and gambel oak are also present. Most of theseshrub species are expected to resprout following fire.In addition, aspen sprouts (when small) are often usedby many vertebrate species common to shrub systems.Because mule deer use shrublands for forage, thereare some concerns about how the decrease in forageavailability may affect the local populations, and howchanges in forage may interact with wildlife diseases(for example, chronic wasting disease). However,resprouting shrubs and aspen, which are not pro-tected by older woody growth (burned by fire), may

potentially increase forage availability. Although themule deer is a game species and is not listed as aspecies of concern, biologists on the Pike NationalForest expressed concern about their status (D. Bohon,personal communication). Even in high-severity burns,we expect that the shrubland community will recoverto prefire conditions relatively rapidly and may evenbe enhanced in some areas due to removal of theoverstory.

Forests:

The dominant tree species burned in the HaymanFire are ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. Aspen andsmall areas of subalpine forests (lodgepole pine, spruce/fir) also burned. Two of the threatened species we areconsidering as part of this review, Mexican spotted owland Pawnee montane skipper (see below), occur inforested habitats.

Birds – Several avian species of concern (northerngoshawk, flammulated owl, and pygmy nuthatch) pre-fer mature or old-growth forests. Large crown firesmay reduce habitat quality and availability for thesespecies in the short term but enhance habitat qualityin the long term by increasing landscape heterogene-ity in the Pike. Goshawks have been observed insevere burns, and their prey includes woodpeckers,which are common in early postfire forests (N. Kotliar,P. Kennedy, personal observation). However, it isunclear how readily goshawks will use severely burnedforest compared to old-growth forests (Kennedy, per-sonal communication). Goshawk habitat quality maybe enhanced, both short-term and long-term, by mixed-severity burns that can increase forest heterogeneity(Reynolds and others 1992). Flammulated owls preferopen montane forests, often with a dense understory,and require snags or dead limbs for nesting (McCallum1994). Mixed-severity burns may enhance flammulatedowl habitat by creating forest openings and snags,whereas large severe fires may diminish habitat qual-ity in the short term, except, perhaps, along burnedges. Pygmy nuthatches are largely restricted toponderosa pine forests across much of their range(Andrews and Righter 1992). They usually avoid se-verely burned forests but are common in understoryburns (Kotliar and others 2002). Thus, habitat avail-ability and quality may decrease locally for thenuthatches in severely burned areas, but such dynam-ics are not expected to have long-term negative effectsgiven this species’ dependency on forest types thatburn regularly. Because all three species are fairlycommon and widespread, we do not expect any short-term declines in populations that may occur as a resultof the Hayman Fire to negatively impact these speciesin the long term.


Three-toed woodpeckers (see expanded discussionbelow), olive-sided flycatchers, and Lewis’s woodpeck-ers all readily use postfire forests (Kotliar and others2002). Olive-sided flycatchers are common in burnedforests, particularly at the interface between live treesand snags (Kotliar and others 2002). Thus, we expecttheir greatest use will be in the mixed-severity burnsand along burn edges and unburned remnants oflarge severely burned areas. Lewis’s woodpecker isan aerial forager, and appears to prefer older (forexample, 10 years postfire) burns that still have highdensities of snags but also include forest openingsused for foraging (Kotliar and others 2002). Thus, wepredict short-term local increases in habitat availabil-ity for these species as a result of the Hayman Fire.

Mammals – Two sensitive bat species may havebeen affected by fire. Maternal colonies of Townsend’sbig-eared bat are located in caves and abandonedmines, which may also function as a refuge during thefire. The fringed-tailed bat uses snags for maternalcolonies, and thus, there may have been direct mortal-ity to young if the mothers were unable to move theiryoung (T. O’Shea, personal communication). Otherthan direct mortality, it is unclear whether the firewill enhance or degrade habitat quality and likely willdepend primarily on the response of aerial insects topostfire changes. In addition, the availability of nu-merous snags for maternal colonies may benefit thefringed-tailed bat.

Focal Species of ConcernMexican Spotted Owl – One known nest location

for the Mexican spotted owl was located within themixed-severity portion of the Hayman burn (fig. 30).Mexican spotted owls have been detected at approxi-mately 20 sites in Colorado, including one other knownnesting pair on the Pike National Forest. This repre-sents a small proportion of the estimated 1,000 to3,000 birds occurring in the United States (S. Hedwall,personal communication). However, spotted owl sur-veys in Colorado have been limited, and both theColorado and U.S. population of Mexican spotted owlsare deemed unreliable (S. Hedwall, personal commu-nication). The short-term effects of fire on Mexicanspotted owls are unclear (Jenness 2002), but mixed-severity fire is expected to enhance habitat quality bycreating forest openings, snags for roost sites, andcoarse woody debris that can enhance prey habitat(Bond and others 2002; Jenness 2002). Furthermore,low- or moderate-severity fires can decrease the threatof subsequent crown fires (Jenness 2002), which couldpotentially have negative effects on spotted owls.

Because of the minimal number of owls known tooccur on the Pike and the potential for positive effects

of mixed-severity burns on habitat quality, we do notexpect the Hayman burn to have significant negativeeffects on this species. However, the cumulative ef-fects of recent large crown fires across the range of theMexican spotted owl need to be evaluated.

Pawnee Montane Skipper – A member of theHesperidae butterfly family, the Pawnee montaneskipper is Federally listed as a threatened species. Theskipper is restricted to approximately 9,000 ha withina 38 mi2 portion of the South Platte River Drainage onthe Pike (Keenan and others 1986; Earth ResourcesTechnology 1986). Mixed-severity fires from theHayman and Schoonover Fires covered approximately4,000 ha of skipper habitat, which constitutes 40percent of the skipper’s entire range (Ryke and Madsen2002). Another 10 percent of the skipper’s range wasburned recently by the Buffalo Creek and Hi MeadowFires. Because approximately 50 percent of theskipper’s habitat burned in recent years, and becauseof the skipper’s limited distribution, the status of theskipper population is of particular concern.

Burn-severity patterns of skipper habitat within theHayman burn perimeter differed among NBR andBAER maps. NBR burn severity maps indicated that76 percent of skipper habitat occurred in low- tomoderate-severity burn patches. The remaining habi-tat was located along the perimeter of high severityburns area (fig. 31a). BAER burn severity maps indi-cated greater burn severity in potential skipper habi-tat; 48 percent of the potential habitat within the burnperimeter burned sufficiently to cause high tree mor-tality, whereas the remaining 51 percent was classi-fied as either low-severity or unburned remnantpatches (fig. 31b).

Because much of the skipper population was eitherin the larval or pupal stages during the Hayman Fire,direct mortality from the fire may have been high dueto limited mobility. However, skipper populations arecharacterized by extreme fluctuation, in part becauseof the current drought. Thus, the low numbers ofskippers observed in 2002 surveys may also reflectdrought conditions, presumably due to limited avail-ability of adult host plants (L. Ellwood, personal com-munication). Recovery of populations postfire dependson the species’ ability to gain access to suitable postfirehabitats and rebuild numbers from survivors or colo-nizers (Swengel 2001). Past studies suggest that skip-pers may take several years to recolonize an areafollowing fire, severe disturbance, and regeneration(Ryke and Madsen 2002).

The effects of the Hayman Fire on skipper habitatquality and availability are expected to vary based onthe severity of fire, the response of hosts plants to burnseverity, and suitability of postfire vegetation. ThePawnee montane skipper occurs in open ponderosa


pine woodlands on moderately steep slopes. Blue gramagrass (Buteloua gracillis), the larval food plant, andLiatris punctata, the primary nectar plant, are criticalcomponents of skipper habitat. Blue grama typicallyresprouts from rhizomes across a range of burn severi-ties, provided moisture is available and nonnativeplant species invasions do not interfere with recovery(see Wasser 1982; see also http://www.fs.fed.us/data-base/feis/plants/graminoid/bougra/fire_effects.html).Liatris appears to require openings created by distur-bances such as fire but apparently does not toleratecontinuous disturbance (USFWS 1998) and may maketake several years to recolonize high-severity burns.Based on fire research in mixed-grass prairies, postfiresoil moisture is a major factor in determining theeffects of fire; drought can slow or alter Liatris re-sponse to a fire (see http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/liapun/fire_effects.html). Thus, if therewere higher than average precipitation received in2003, it would have facilitated host plant recovery;however, Colorado continued its drought into thatyear.

Skipper habitat quality may either be enhanced ordiminished depending on the effects of burn severityon forest structure. Skippers appear to prefer smallforest openings and avoid large openings (USFWS1998). Much of the skipper habitat within the Haymanburn was characterized as moderate severity, whichcan enhance skipper habitat by creating forest open-ings. In contrast, large treeless areas created by severefires may diminish habitat quality in the short term.The size of forest openings may also be increased bypostfire tree mortality resulting from outbreaks ofbark and woodboring beetles. The effects of fire on theunderstory structure may likewise affect habitat suit-ability. Skippers are uncommon in pine woodlandswhere tall shrubs or young conifers dominate theunderstory (Keenan and others 1986; Earth ResourcesTechnology 1986). They also avoid north-facing Dou-glas-fir stands where neither Liatris or blue grama areuncommon (USFWS 1998). Thus, fire exclusion, whichcan lead to greater density of understory trees andshrubs, can thereby diminish habitat quality andavailability (USFWS 1998). In contrast, moderate-severity burns that kill understory but not overstorytrees can enhance skipper habitat suitability. By con-tributing to landscape heterogeneity and dynamics aswell as reducing future risk of severe crown fire, theHayman burn may have many positive effects onskipper habitat in the long term.

Postfire management and resulting vegetation char-acteristics also influence habitat quality. During seed-ing and/or mulching of burned areas, efforts weremade to minimize disturbance or unintentional intro-duction of nonnative plants that could affectrecolonization/resprouting of host plants (D. Bohon,

personal communication). However, research andmonitoring are needed to determine the effects ofpostfire treatments on natural regeneration in skip-per habitats.

It is unclear whether the potential long-term effectsof drought and fire will compound other threats to thepopulation. Human activities and development (forexample, livestock grazing, logging, housing, roads,reservoirs, recreational access) in the Platte RiverCanyon have decreased former skipper range andmodified its habitat. Invasion of noxious weeds thatmay compete with blue grama and Liatris, are aserious threat to the skipper (USFWS 1998). Long-term monitoring of the skipper populations is neces-sary to determine if any mitigation of postfire effectsis warranted.

Preble’s Meadow Jumping Mouse – Montanepopulations of the Preble’s meadow jumping mouseare poorly studied (Meany 2000), but recent surveyslocated the mouse along the South Platte River and itstributaries (Schorr 1999; Meany 2001). Preble’smeadow jumping mouse habitat has been character-ized as “well-developed plains riparian vegetationwith relatively undisturbed grassland and a watersource in close proximity” (Armstrong and others1997). Almost 6,000 ha of stream segments identifiedas potential critical habitat occurred within the perim-eter of the Hayman Fire (fig. 32). Both NBR and BAERmaps indicated that 66 percent of the habitat burnedunder low to moderate severity, with the remaining 34percent burned with high severity (fig. 32).

In riparian areas, higher fuel moisture and theability of dominant riparian species to resprout, canmoderate fire effects compared to upland areas. Formuch of the potential critical habitat this appears to bethe case. However, under severe drought, riparianareas can burn severely, as occurred along severalportions of the habitat; in many high-severity patches,riparian vegetation apparently burned in continuousblocks along with surrounding trees and upland areas;thus, direct fire mortality may have been high in theseareas if the mouse was unable to find refuge under-ground. However, most of the potential critical habitatthat burned under high severity is in proximity to low-or moderate-severity patches that may serve as poten-tial recolonization sources (fig. 32). There are someconcerns that postfire erosion could alter mouse habi-tat further (L. Ellwood, personal communication), butit is difficult to predict the short- and long-term effectsof erosion on Preble’s meadow jumping mouse popula-tions. Additional information is needed to assess theeffects of fire, climate variability, and invasive plantspecies on these montane populations. Given the lim-ited amount of potential mouse habitat that burned,the heterogeneity of the burn within its habitat, andthe ability of riparian vegetation to resprout following


disturbance, the effects of the Hayman Fire on thesepopulations will likely be relatively short lived.

Three-Toed Woodpecker – Three-toed woodpeck-ers are uncommon and difficult to monitor, so popu-lation levels and trends are poorly quantified (Leonard2001). Three-toed woodpeckers rapidly colonize se-verely burned forests in response to outbreaks ofbark and woodboring beetles that feed on dead anddying trees (Kotliar and others 2002). Postfire insectoutbreaks are short lived, and three-toed woodpeck-ers are usually rare in burns older than 5 years.Because the woodpeckers are generally uncommonoutside areas of insect outbreaks, the availability ofmixed-severity and severe burns may represent criti-cal habitat needs; it has been suggested that three-toed woodpecker populations fluctuate with fluctuat-ing availability of burns and other extensive insectoutbreaks (Crist 2000). Thus, severe burns representpotentially critical, but ephemeral, habitat for thisspecies (Kotliar and others 2002). Recent nearby fires(Hi Meadow, Buffalo Creek) may have increased thelocal woodpecker populations available to colonizethe Hayman burn; at least 30 adult three-toed wood-peckers were observed in 2003 (Kotliar, personalobservation). In turn, the Hayman Fire will likelyresult in an increase in local populations of three-toed woodpeckers.

Blanketflower and Colorado Fire Moth – Theblanketflower (Gaillardia aristata Pursh) is found inopen, sunny areas, such as hillsides, meadows, andclearings in woods from mesas into the foothills(Guennel 1995; Weber 1976). Research indicates thatblanketflower may respond favorably to fire, therebycreating habitat patches for Schinia masoni (referredto as Colorado Firemoth; B. Byers, personal communi-cation). Both larvae and adults of Schinia masonidepend on blanketflower for food. The reliance of themoth on blanketflower is manifest in the adult moth’scryptic coloring; their head and thorax blend with theyellow ray flowers and their crimson wings match thecolor of disc flowers (Ferner 1981).

Blanket flower is often a pioneer species that canbecome established following disturbances such asfire (Cox and Klett 1984). Seeds remain viable in thesoil for 2 years (Hotes 1918) and may germinate afterburning (Cox and Klett 1984). It also quickly resproutsfrom rhizomes if the stem is removed (Iles and Agnew1993). Blanketflower competes well under moisturestress but not under low light conditions present inclosed-canopy forests (Hotes 1918; Coupland andBrayshaw 1953; Budd 1979). Thus, blanketflower lifehistory facilitates a positive response to mixed-sever-ity burns and crown fire as long as seed sources orrhizomes are present. Consequently, increased habi-tat for the Colorado fire moth may occur following the

Hayman Fire, provided the moth is able to recolonizeburned areas from the surrounding landscape. Burnsand other disturbances that cause increases in blan-ketflower may be essential for the long-term survivalof the moth.

Postfire Management

A number of management activities designed tomitigate fire effects and remove dead trees are underway or proposed. The potential ecological effects of suchactivities have been addressed elsewhere (Robichaudand others, this volume). Here, we briefly discuss thepotential implications of postfire management for spe-cies of concern.

Rehabilitation activities are primarily designed toreduce erosion in high severity-burn areas; however,the effectiveness or ecological effects have been poorlystudied (Robichaud and others, this volume). Speciesof concern associated with wetland habitats may benegatively affected by erosion-control materials. Soilscarification, used to break up hydrophobic soils, couldpotentially increase rather than decrease erosion ifassumptions about the prevalence and persistence ofhydrophobicity are incorrect (D. Martin, personal com-munication). Materials used to control erosion (strawmulch, hydromulch, seeds) may collect in riparian andwetland areas following rain events. Such negativeeffects can be magnified by the undetected presence ofinvasive exotics within seed mixes. Once established,invasive exotics are difficult to eradicate and maycompete with native plants, such as host plats forlepidopteran species of concern. Likewise, competi-tion from seeing may inhibit ponderosa pine regenera-tion because seedlings require bare mineral soil forgermination. Consequently, rehabilitation activitiescould alter the timing or direction of postfire succes-sional trajectories and increase the time necessary forpopulations to return to prefire levels; this coulddiminish the ability of a local population to reboundafter fire and may especially pose problems for specieswith restricted or limited populations.

Salvage logging can have serious implications forthree-toed woodpeckers, which rarely use burned for-ests that are partially logged (Kotliar and others2002). Salvage logging can reduce inputs of coarsewoody debris that can provide important refugia forprey species for several species of concern. Distur-bance from salvage logging operations may damageresprouting plants and potentially delay or alterpostfire recovery. Likewise, disturbance from hazardtree removal along roads may have the greatest effectson riparian areas by potentially increasing erosion.Hazard tree removal includes live trees (75 percentcrown scorch) that either may survive or may persistlong enough to provide seed sources or refugia, which


becomes increasingly important as tree mortality anddistance to live trees increases. The potential negativeecological effects of rehabilitation and salvage logginghave been poorly studied and thus not adequatelyconsidered when evaluating postfire management ac-tivities.

Critical Ecological Elements

There are a number of important elements createdby fire that can be harmed by postfire managementactivities. High densities of dead and dying trees arecritical resources for insects and woodpeckers. Iso-lated live trees are important seed sources and refu-gia. Likewise, remnant patches of unburned or lightlyburned areas supporting a diverse understory of na-tive plants may be important habitat refugia for spe-cies of special concern and may provide critical seedsources for recovery of burned and or disturbed areas.Bare mineral soil is necessary for germination ofponderosa pine seedlings, and blanketflower may re-spond favorably to the disturbance caused by fire.Only the full spectrum of burn-severity patternspresent in mixed-severity burns can provide all theseessential ecological elements.

In addition, dynamic landscapes are important tothe health of ponderosa pine systems. Native vegeta-tion in heterogeneous arrangements, as would havebeen present during pre-European settlement fireregimes, is essential to the natural recovery of wildlifepopulations. Nonnative plant species are a seriousthreat to the recovery of native vegetation, especiallyin mesic and riparian areas, which also tend to supportthe greatest variety of native species and species ofconcern. In particular, native host plants required bymoths and butterflies may be displaced by seeding andvia competition from invasive exotics. Thus, rehabili-tation and other human activities that alter speciescomposition and natural postfire recovery processes,can diminish the positive effects of fire and magnifythe negative effects.

Conclusions

The effects of the Hayman Fire are expected to varybased on the patterns of fire severity. In general, themixed-severity burn in the Hayman Fire will enhancehabitat availability for several species of concern inthe short term. Although it is possible that severalspecies of concern may decline initially postfire, ourreview suggests that few, if any, species of concern willsuffer long-term negative effects from the mixed-se-verity burn. Because of the lack of specific informationon population changes resulting from fire, and thevariation in fire effects (for example, burn severity),such a conclusion must be considered preliminary formany species. Postfire monitoring is necessary to test

this prediction, and further research is desperatelyneeded to improve our understanding of the effects offire on many species of concern. However, given theimportance of a mixed-severity fire regime to thehealth of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests, it isunlikely that many of the 59 species listed as sensitiveon the Pike will suffer long-lasting negative impacts ofthe fire, whereas several species of concern will benefitfrom the fire.

Concern remains for the Pawnee montane skipperbecause it is restricted to specialized habitat within alimited area. Further research is needed to quantifyburn-severity patterns in the 40 percent of the skipperhabitat that burned, and to determine how the speciesresponds (positively and negatively) to burn-severitypatterns in conjunction with drought conditions. Al-though drought is a common occurrence along the Colo-rado Front Range, rangewide monitoring is necessary tofully quantify the effects of the fire and drought in thecontext of changing land use and other threats to skipperhabitat.

Although we expect that the mixed-severity burnwill generally have positive long-term effects for mostspecies, and forest health overall, the Hayman Fireoccurred across a landscape that has been altered innumerous ways by human activities. The removal ofbeaver, roads, fire suppression, postfire rehabilita-tion, grazing, and habitat fragmentation can alter thestructure and functioning of systems. Consequently,there may be interactions between the Hayman Fireand the altered landscape that could lead to greatereffects on species of concern than that caused byhistoric fires. On the other hand, the Hayman Firemay help restore system structure and function byincreasing landscape heterogeneity and contributingto system dynamics.

Acknowledgments

Denny Bohon, Nancy Ryke, Mike Elson, Steve Tapia,and Becky Parmenter (USDA Forest Service); ErinMuths, Tom O’Shea (U.S. Geological Survey); LeslieEllwood, Shaula Hedland (U.S. Fish and WildlifeService); Michael Menefee (Colorado Natural Heri-tage Program); Eric Odell (Colorado Division of Wild-life); and Pat Kennedy (Oregon State University)provided valuable discussions and expert opinions onthe effects of fire on species of concern. We also thankDiana Tomback for her comments on the manuscript.

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