Part 3: Nomenclature - Web viewIn all acids, the word acid is part of the name – notice the ....

REVISION: 1.0 ISSUING DATE: 10/27/2015 CURATOR: ________ (15 PAGES)

NOMENCLATURE: Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Name__________________________________

Lab Section (Day/Time)___________________________

Objectives

To understand the differences between ionic and covalent bonding To link ionic and covalent bonding with the physical properties of matter

Introduction

Have you ever accidentally used salt in the place of sugar?Drinking tea that has been sweetened with salt or eating vegetables that have been salted with sugar tastes awful! Salt and sugar may look the same, but they obviously taste very different. They are also very different chemically. Salt is made up of sodium and chloride and is ionically bonded. Sugar, on the other hand, is composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen and has covalent bonds.

A sodium-chloride molecule is made up of one sodium atom and one chlorine atom. In order for the atoms to combine, the sodium must lose one electron, while the chlorine must gain one electron. The resulting ions have opposite charges and attract one another, forming the ionic bond.

When sodium loses an electron it becomes a positively charged ion (Na+), called a cation.

Na Na+ + e-

The chlorine atom adds this free electron, becoming a negatively charged anion (Cl-)

Cl + e- Cl-

A bond can now form between the negatively charged Cl - and the positively charged Na+ (Figure 1). This type of bond is called an ionic bond. Ionic bonds typically form between a metal ion and a nonmetal ion. The metal usually forms the cation counterpart and the nonmetal usually forms the anion counterpart. The above reaction can be written as:

Na+ + Cl- NaCl

Table sugar differs from salt in the bonding between its atoms. The atoms in sugar do not form ions; instead, they are held together because of shared electrons. The type of bond that forms from the sharing of electrons between the atoms of the

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table sugar is a covalent bond. Covalent bonds usually occur between two nonmetals (See the example of Methane in Figure 2). Table sugar has a much more complex chemical structure than table salt (See Figure 3). This is because more atoms are involved in the formation of a single molecule of table sugar (45!) than in a single molecule of table salt (2!) A covalent bond between one carbon atom and one hydrogen atom forms when one of the valence electrons of the carbon atom groups with one of the valence electrons of the hydrogen atom, forming an electron pair.

Ionically bonded compounds behave differently from covalently bonded compounds. When an ionically bonded compound dissolves in water, it will conduct electricity. A covalently bonded compound dissolved in water will not conduct electricity. This is because when an ionic compound dissolves, the cation and anion dissociate and form free floating (+) and (-) charges within the solution; i.e. when NaCl dissolves in water, the Na+ ion dissociates from the Cl- ion in the water solution. A covalently bonded compound dissolved in water will not conduct electricity, because it does not dissociate or form free charges within the solution.

Another difference is that ionically bonded compounds generally melt and boil at much higher temperatures than covalently bonded compounds. Remember that the change of a substance from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas is an example of a physical change of the compound. Ie there has been no chemical modification of the compound itself. The higher melting point of ionic compounds is due to the stronger intermolecular forces created by fully charged ions involved in the ionic bond. (ie two molecules of NaCl are more strongly attracted to each other than 2 molecules of sugar – Thus, the two molecules of NaCl will remain in a tightly coordinated crystal structure at higher temperatures (i.e. they will remain in the solid state longer) than the two sugar molecules that are less strongly attracted to one another and will move apart more easily at higher temperatures (ie they move farther apart and melt into the liquid state faster)

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Some covalent compounds can also form ions. These are known as polyatomic ions, or ions that contain more than one atom. Most of the common polyatomic ions are negatively charged. Polyatomic ions can be involved in ionic bonding, just as elemental ions can form these interactions. When evaluating polyatomic ions, they will remain together as a unit and have characteristics typical of ionically-bonded compounds. Examples include the phosphate ion, which contains one phosphorous atom covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms to generate the phosphate anion, PO 4

3-. The phosphate anion has a charge of -3, meaning that it has three extra electrons associated with it. Thus, if it were to form an ionic bond with a cation, such as Na+, which loses one electron; it would require three sodium ions to donate enough electrons to the phosphate group to form the fully charged anion, as indicated in the equation below:

3Na+ + 1PO43- Na3PO4

The overall charge of the new ionic compound has to be zero

Note that compounds that are stable in nature are always neutral. Thus, when you are figuring out the chemical formula for a compound, you need to be sure that the resulting compound has an overall charge of zero. To easily figure out the chemical formula of a compound, you can build a charge box to help you:

For example: What is the chemical formula of aluminum oxide?

Cation AnionAluminum (Al) Oxygen (O)

Charge+3

-2 Charge of Compound# Atoms 2 3 (sum of total charges)

Total Charge +6 -6 = 0

Step 1: Fill in the cation and anion (In this case, Aluminum is the cation and Oxygen is the anion) Step 2: Use the Periodic Table of Ions to determine the ionic state of each element (In this case, Al = +3 and

O = -2) Step 3: Use the cross charge rule to determine the number of atoms of each cation and anion that you need. (In

this case, the cation charge is +3, therefore, we will try using 3 anions to balance this charge. Likewise, the anion carries a -2 charge, therefore, we will try using 2 cations to balance this charge)

Step 4: Determine the total charge of the cation and anion, by multiplying the charge X # atoms (In this case, the Al ions will have a +6 charge and O ions will have an overall -6 charge)

Step 5: Double check to make sure the sum of the positive and negative charges cancel each other out and equal zero (In this case, +6 + (-6) = 0; This is what we want!)

Step 6: Write the chemical formula, noting that the # of atoms will become the subscript characters in the formula: (In this case, Al2O3) The charges are NOT included in the chemical formula.

Step 7: Double check your formula and make sure that you have the lowest number of atoms possible for the correct chemical formula (ie In this case, Al2O3 is correct vs Al4O6 or Al6O9)

Part 3: Nomenclature

The naming of chemical entities is useful in a variety of applications. Directly, by knowing how to name chemical compounds you can begin to use the language of chemistry in your lecture discussions. This is vital to your ability to understand what is happening in a chemical process, and why learning to name chemical compounds is presented early in this course. In addition to lecture, as an experimental scientist, you will encounter chemical reagents when in working in the chemistry laboratory. These reagents are most often labeled by name, sometimes by symbol, or combination of

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the two. To be certain you are using the proper reagent, an understanding of chemical nomenclature is important. And, last but not least, outside of this class you use products every day that contain chemicals! You can directly apply your knowledge of naming chemical entities to what is in your environment. As a complement to that, with the ever-present concern about what is being put into the environment, this knowledge can help in your awareness of the impact chemicals are having on the planet.

In this experiment you will learn how to use the rules for naming inorganic compounds and will be asked to apply these rules to a number of examples. As you progress through this term and over the next several chemistry courses, you will become more proficient at naming chemical compounds. The key to this assignment is to become familiar with naming chemical compounds, not to have the rules memorized. Continue to review and practice naming and it will get easier over time. Many of the rules outlined in this handout and the textbook will make little sense until you begin to see the patterns in naming compounds. Thus, before you begin filling in the tables, read through most of this handout and use the rules provided to complete the lab.

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this exercise, you should feel comfortable with:

Identifying the differences between ionic and covalent compounds by chemical name and formula

Recognizing binary compounds from ternary compounds (ionic and covalent).

Using IUPAC naming rules to name ionic and covalent compounds.

Writing balanced chemical formulas based on the names of compounds.

When to name compounds containing hydrogen cations as either ionic compounds or as acids.

II. INFORMATION/DISCUSSION

As the field of chemistry evolved over time, it was clear that every chemical entity needed a unique chemical formula and a corresponding name. Because there were several ways compounds could be named, early chemists realized that a standardized procedure for naming was required. Thus, the IUPAC (the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) was founded and one of its duties was to establish such a system. Today, chemical compounds are most often represented by their proper chemical title (IUPAC name), but in some cases a common or trade name is used instead of the accepted chemical name. Fortunately, very few of the common names are still used in the general chemistry laboratory. When these common names are presented, it would be prudent to get them memorized.

In our discussion of naming we will need to consider two kinds of chemical bonds: Ionic and Covalent. In general, ionic bonding exists between a cation (positively charged ion) and anion (negatively charged ion) pair. Typically we find metal cations and nonmetal anions form ionic compounds. Many ionic compounds contain a collection of covalently bonded nonmetal atoms, called polyatomic ions in place of one or both of the ions. By contrast, molecular compounds contain only covalently bonded nonmetals, and are often referred to as covalent compounds. Within this definition exist molecular elements: a single type of nonmetal atom that exists in nature covalently bound as two or more elements as their basic units. This is different from atomic elements, which exist in nature as single atoms as their basic units. Most elements fall into the atomic element category.

A. Naming Ionic Compounds (cation + anion, usually contains a metal)

For most classes of compounds, the more positive portion of the compound is represented first in the chemical formula. Typically, this would be a metal or positive polyatomic ion. The negative portion of the compound then follows in the formula (typically a nonmetal anion or negative polyatomic ion). Following this pattern, it would only make sense to name all ionic compounds as the positive portion first and the negative portion last.

GENERAL RULE: For ionic compounds, write the name of the positive ion followed by the name of the negative ion.

The IUPAC rules divide ionic compounds into two classes: binary compounds (consisting of two element types) and ternary compounds (consisting of three or more element types).

Examples of Binary compounds:

metal (Na+, sodium) + nonmetal (Cl, chlorine Cl-, chloride) NaCl sodium chloride

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metal (Ba2+, barium) + nonmetal (Cl, chlorine Cl-, chloride) BaCl2 barium chlorideFor the ionic compounds above, the sum of all ions (charges) in each compound formula is zero. That is, enough of each positive and negative ion were combined in each to form a neutral compound. Both sodium chloride and barium chloride are neutral compounds. The chemical formula, written correctly, tells us so.

Helpful Hint: Unless a charge is written next to a chemical formula, assume the overall charge is zero.

In contrast to the binary compounds above, ternary compounds contain more than two types of atoms. These compounds contain polyatomic ions, a collection of atoms with an overall charge. The procedure for writing formulas and naming ternary compounds is very similar to the procedure for binary compounds, however. The positive and negative charges must balance to give a neutral compound, and this compound is named by the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion.

Examples of Ternary compounds:

sodium (Na+1) + phosphate ion (PO43-) Na3PO4 sodium phosphate

ammonium ion (NH4+) + nitrate ion (NO3

-) NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate

ammonium ion (NH4+) + chloride ion (Cl-) NH4Cl ammonium chloride

GENERAL RULE: Any ionic compound that contains at least one polyatomic ion will be a ternary compound.

Helpful Hint: The Periodic Table of Elements is useful in predicting the charges of metals and nonmetals. Until you are familiar with the table, you need to be able to recall many atomic charges/oxidation states.* Likewise, getting familiar with names, formulas and charges of the polyatomic ions assigned by your instructor (many listed in Table 2) will also be important early on. *Refer to your textbook for a discussion on oxidation numbers and how it relates to charge.

IUPAC Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds

1. Metal Containing Binary Compounds (only two elements)

When a metal and a non-metal combine to form an ionic compound, the name for the compound consists of the name of the positive portion (metal) followed by the name of the negative portion.

A. Positive portion (cation): metals or elements with a positive atomic charge/oxidation number (metals will always be positive). See Table 1 for a list.

Type I: If the metal or element with the positive oxidation number has only one oxidation number possible, use the regular name of the element.

Group IA (1A) metal ions all have a charge of +1Group IIA (2A) metal ions all have a charge of +2Group IIIA (3A) metal ions all have a charge of +3

Examples: Na — always +1, named sodiumBa — always +2, named bariumGa — always +3, named gallium

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Type II: If the metal or element with the positive oxidation number has two or more oxidation states (i.e. divalent or multivalent) there are two methods for naming the positive portion (cation).

IUPAC Method - Use the element's regular name with the oxidation state written as a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name. (This is used with most transition elements and some heavier main group elements, such as mercury and lead)

Example: copper (I) for Cu+1 and copper (II) for Cu+2

B. Negative portion (anion): nonmetals with a negative atomic charge/oxidation number. See Table 2 for a list.

Typically Groups V, VI and VIIA (5A, 6A, and 7A): N3-, O2-, Cl-.

The root name is typically the first syllable of the element name and the ending is replaced with –ide.

Example: oxygen becomes oxide

bromine becomes bromide

2. Ternary Compounds (three or more elements)

Ternary compounds are named in the same manner as binary compounds: name of the positive ion (cation) first and the negative ion (anion) last. Prefixes are not used to indicate multiple ions.

A. For the positive portion use the same rules for metal ions as were used for the binary compounds (see 1A). For polyatomic cations, use their name (ex: NH4

+ is ammonium).

B. Most polyatomic anions involve a central atom surrounded by some number of oxygen atoms. These are called oxoanions. Use the one of the following rules to name these anions.

1) For those with the lower oxidation number on the central atom (or a smaller number of oxygens), use the stem name of the central atom plus -ite for the ending syllable.

2) For those with the higher oxidation number on the central atom, use the stem name plus -ate for the ending syllable.

Example: oxidation state polyatomic anion name

S = +4 SO3-2 sulfite

S = +6 SO4-2 sulfate

3) If a central atom exists in two or more polyatomic anions at the same oxidation state in combination with oxygen, use appropriate prefixes such di, tri, tetra in front of the polyatomic ion names. You are not expected to memorize polyatomic nomenclature, you will be provided a table with this information

Example: oxidation state Polyatomic anion name

Cr = +6 CrO4-2 chromate

Cr = +6 Cr2O7-2 dichromate

Helpful Hint: The oxidation number for oxygen does not change in polyatomic oxoanions and is therefore left out of consideration. Oxygen uses the oxidation number of -2 for most compounds it’s found in.

4) If a central atom exists in several polyatomic anions at different oxidation states when combined with oxygen, use appropriate prefixes such as hypo and per in front of the polyatomic ion name. The

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following is an example for oxoanions of chlorine. Any of the group 7A elements would follow the same pattern.

Example: oxidation state polyatomic anion name

lowest oxidation # Cl = +1 ClO-1 hypochlorite

lower oxidation # Cl = +3 ClO2-1 chlorite

higher oxidation # Cl = +5 ClO3-1 chlorate

highest oxidation # Cl = +7 ClO4-1 perchlorate

Additional Examples:Cation + Anion Ionic Compound Formed (neutral) Ca+2 calcium + ClO-1 hypochlorite Ca(ClO)2 calcium hypochloriteZn+2 zinc + CO3

-2 carbonate ZnCO3 zinc carbonateFe+3 iron (III) + CrO4

-2 chromate Fe2(CrO4)3 iron (III) chromateK+ potassium + PO4

3- phosphate K3PO4 potassium phosphateNa+ sodium + H2PO4

- dihydrogenphosphate NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogenphosphate

B. Naming Covalent Compounds (all nonmetals – no ions involved)

The IUPAC rules for naming covalent compounds uses the same binary and ternary classifications. In similar fashion, covalent names begin with the more positive nonmetal in the compound followed by the negative nonmetal in the compound formula.

GENERAL RULE: For covalent compounds, the least electronegative atom is typically written first in the formula, and is the first element used in the compound name.

In contrast to the ionic compounds, the covalent compound names must use prefixes to indicate how many of each atom the compound contains. These prefixes and their meanings are listed on the next page.

Examples:

nonmetal (N, nitrogen) + nonmetal (O, oxygen oxide) NO2 nitrogen dioxide

nonmetal (N, nitrogen) + nonmetal (O, oxygen oxide) N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide

Helpful Hint: For covalent compounds there are no ions! We will learn how to predict which element will be more positive in a covalent compound as we learn more about the Periodic Table! For now, remember the first element listed is most likely the more positive one!

Helpful Hint: One class of covalent compounds are the polyatomic ions! These groups of covalently bonded atoms carry an overall charge – but they are NOT ionic!

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IUPAC Rules for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds

1. Non-metal Binary Compounds (two nonmetals combined, molecular and covalent)

When two nonmetals form a binary compound, an additional step is used in naming: the number of atoms of each element is indicated using one of the Greek prefixes shown below. In the compound name, the first element (less electronegative) retains the element name. If only one atom of the first element is present, the name is unchanged (no prefix needed). If more than one of the first element is present, a numerical prefix is used before the element name. The second (more electronegative) element keeps the root portion of its name and ends in -ide. The second nonmetal ALWAYS gets a numerical prefix in the name, even if there is only one atom present.

Greek prefix: mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca-

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 10

Example:

CO — carbon monoxidePCl3 — phosphorous trichlorideN2O4 — dinitrogen tetroxide

2. Non-metal Ternary Compounds (more than two nonmetals combined)

By in large, the only ternary compounds you will learn to name this term are acidic compounds, thus our discussion will shift on how to name acids. Organic compounds can also be ternary covalent compounds and have their own set of IUPAC naming rules. We will reserve our discussion of organic compounds until next term.

Naming Compounds Containing Acidic Hydrogen(s).

Acidic compounds are those compounds that start with hydrogen in the formula. Each carries two names depending on its physical state. In general, acidic compounds are named as acids ONLY when they are dissolved in water (i.e. aqueous solutions) and have ( aq ) after the formula .

A. If the compound is binary (hydrogen and a non-metal), the -ide portion from the anion name changes to -ic and a hydro- precedes the root name for that non-metal element. In all acids, the word acid is part of the name – notice the aq after the formula.

Examples formula name

HX (g) Hydrogen rootide

HX (aq) Hydrorootic acid

HBr (g) hydrogen bromide

HBr (aq) hydrobromic acid

H2S (g) hydrogen sulfide

H2S (aq) hydrosulfuric acid

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B. If the compound is ternary (hydrogen and a polyatomic ion) and the anion name ends in -ite, use the following rules: if the species is a gas, hydrogen is added to the polyatomic ion name; if the species is aqueous, name the polyatomic ion, change the -ite to -ous, and add the word acid as a suffix.


H2SO3 (g) hydrogen sulfite

H2SO3 (aq) sulfurous acid

C. If the compound is ternary (hydrogen and a polyatomic ion) and the name ends in ate for the anion, use these rules: if the species is a gas, again add hydrogen in front of the polyatomic ion name. If the species is aqueous, change the -ate to -ic, and add the word acid as a suffix.


H2SO4 (g) hydrogen sulfate

H2SO4 (aq) sulfuric acid

Additional examples:

HClO4 (aq) anion is perchlorate perchloric acid

HClO3 (aq) anion is chlorate chloric acid

HClO2 (aq) anion is chlorite chlorous acid

HClO (aq) anion is hypochlorite hypochlorous acid

HCl (aq) anion is chloride hydrochloric acid

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TABLE 1COMMON CATIONS AND THEIR OXIDATION NUMBERS

1+ 2+ 3+ 4+

Group IA (1A) Group IIA (2A) Group IIIA (3A) Group IVA (4A)

NH4+ ammonium Cd2+ cadmium

Cu+ copper (I) or cuprous Cu2+ copper (II) or cupric

Cr3+ chromium (III) or chromic

Co2+ cobalt (II) or cobaltous

Co3+ cobalt (III) or cobaltic

Fe2+ iron (II) or ferrous Fe3+ iron (III) or ferric

Hg22+ mercury (I) or

mercurous (+Hg–Hg+)Hg2+ mercury (II) or mercuric

Ni2+ nickel (II) or nickelous

Ni3+ nickel (III) or nickelate

Pb2+ lead (II) or plumbous Pb4+ lead (IV) or plumbic

Pd2+ palladium (II) or palladous

Pd4+ palladium (IV) or palladic

Ag+ silver

Pt2+ platinum (II) Pt4+ platinum (IV)

Sn2+ tin (II) or stannous Sn4+ tin (IV) of stannic

Zn2+ zinc

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TABLE 2COMMON ANIONS, POLYATOMIC IONS AND THEIR OXIDATION NUMBERS

1- 2- 3-

Group VIIA (7A) Group VIA (6A) Group VA (5A)

Br- bromide O2- oxide

Cl- chloride S2- sulfide

H- hydride Se2- selenide N3- nitride

F- fluoride Te2- telluride P3- phosphide

I- Iodide

C2H3O2- acetate PO3

3- phosphite

H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate HPO4

2- hydrogen phosphate PO43- phosphate

HCO3- bicarbonate or

hydrogen carbonateCO3

2- carbonate

CrO42- chromate

Cr2O72- dichromate

HSO3- bisulfite or hydrogen sulfite SO3

2- sulfite

HSO4- bisulfate or hydrogen

sulfate SO42- sulfate

S2O32- thiosulfate

ClO- hypochlorite C2O42- oxalate

ClO2- chlorite

ClO3- chlorate O2

2- peroxide

ClO4- perchlorate

OH- hydroxide

MnO4- permanganate

NO2- nitrite

NO3- nitrate

SCN- thiocyanate

CN- cyanide

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Nomenclature

DRILLS: Formulas and Equations. Fill-in each blank in the table below with the formula of the neutral compound resulting when the cation at the left is combined with the anion at the top.

Br-1 SO4-2 NO3

-1 S-2 PO4-3

H+1

K+1

Zn+2

Cu+2

Fe+3

Sn+4

DRILLS: Formulas and Equations. Fill-in each blank in the table below with the NAME of the neutral compound resulting when the cation at the left is combined with the anion at the top. Hydrogen containing compounds are to be named as acids.

Br-1 SO4-2 NO3

-1 S-2 PO4-3

H+1

K+1

Zn+2

Cu+2

Fe+3

Sn+4

Using the electronegativity periodic table, calculate the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms given and determine if they would form an ionic or covalent bond.

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Atoms in the Bond Electronegativity Difference Ionic or Covalent BondH and O

Si and H

Cl and F

K and F

Be and O

Ca and S

Na and Cl

Si and C

Al and N

FILL-IN: Formula Writing and Compound Naming

A. Name or write formulas for the following ionic compounds. Note: Please use the IUPAC rules and examples given in the discussion section on IONIC name and formula writing!

1. Ca3(PO4)2 _________________________________________________________

2. AlBr3 _____________________________________________________________

3. Iron (III) chloride ___________________________________________________

4. Ammonium dichromate ______________________________________________

5. Mg(OH)2 _________________________________________________________

6. H2SO4 (aq) ________________________________________________________

7. Pt(NO3)2 __________________________________________________________

8. Barium bisulfate ____________________________________________________

9. CuF ______________________________________________________________

B. Name or write formulas for the following covalent (molecular) compounds. Note: Please use the IUPAC rules and examples given in the discussion section on COVALENT name and formula writing!

1. SO3 ______________________________________________________________

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2. Carbon dioxide ____________________________________________________

3. O2 ______________________________________________________________

4. N2O ____________________________________________________________

5. Phosphorus trichloride ______________________________________________

6. N2O5 ____________________________________________________________

7. Xenon hexafluoride ________________________________________________

C. Use the Ionic and Covalent Nomenclature Rules to determine whether the following compounds represent ionic or covalent bonding interactions and then determine the name or formula of the compound as indicated.

Compound Ionic or Covalent Name or Formula of CompoundCa(ClO)2

BF3

Ca(CH3CO2)2

N2O5

CuCO3

KMnO4

PF5

Ti(SO4)2

Al(OH)3

Trisulfur Hexaoxide

Diphosphorous Tetrafluoride

Magnesium Perchlorate

Sulfur Dichloride

Copper (II) Phosphate

Perchloric Acid

Lead (II) Sulfide

Silicon Tetrachloride

Hydrobromic Acid

C. Hodgepodge: Write symbols and formulas for the following elements and ionic/covalent compounds:

1. Sodium bicarbonate ______________________________

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1. Oxygen molecule ___________________________________

2. Gold (I) nitrate _____________________________________

3. Calcium hypochlorite ________________________________

4. Cl2 (g) _____________________________________________

5. Copper (II) dihydrogen phosphate _______________________

6. Lithium nitride ______________________________________

7. Pb ________________________________________________

8. Zinc permanganate __________________________________

9. Ag2C2O4 ___________________________________________

10. NH4Cl ____________________________________________

11. CO _______________________________________________

12. Iron (III) oxide ______________________________________

13. Perchloric acid ______________________________________

14. Na3PO4 ____________________________________________

15. Potassium acetate ____________________________________

16. Copper (II) bromide __________________________________

17. Arsenic pentachloride _________________________________

18. Nitrous acid _________________________________________

19. Hydrogen chlorate ____________________________________

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