PART 2 A CLOSER LOOK AT MARKETS Elasticities of Demand and Supply CHAPTER 5.
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Transcript of PART 2 A CLOSER LOOK AT MARKETS Elasticities of Demand and Supply CHAPTER 5.
When you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be able to
C H A P T E R C H E C K L I S T
Define, explain the factors that influence, and calculate the price elasticity of demand.
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Define, explain the factors that influence, and calculate the price elasticity of supply.
Define and explain the factors that influence the cross elasticity of demand and the income elasticity of demand.
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3
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Price elasticity of demand
A measure of the extent to which the quantity demanded of a good changes when the price of the good changes.
To determine the price elasticity of demand, we compare the percentage change in the quantity demanded with the percentage change in price.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Percentage Change in Price
Percent change in price =New price – Initial price
Initial Pricex 100
Percent change in price =$5 – $3
$3x 100 = 66.67 percent
Suppose Starbucks raises the price of a latte from $3 to $5 a cup. What is the percentage change in price?
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Suppose Starbucks cuts the price of a latte from $5 to $3 a cup. What is the percentage change in price?
Percent change in price =New price – Initial price
Initial Pricex 100
Percent change in price =$3 – $5
$5x 100 = – 40 percent
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
The same price change, $2, over the same interval, $3 to $5, is a different percentage change depending on whether the price rises or falls.
We need a measure of percentage change that does not depend on the direction of the price change.
We use the average of the initial price and the new price to measure the percentage change.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
The Midpoint Method
x 100Percent change in price =New price – Initial price
(New Price + Initial Price) ÷ 2
To calculate the percentage change in the price divide the change in the price by the average price and then multiply by 100.
The average price is at the midpoint between the initial price and the new price, hence the name midpoint method.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
The percentage change in price calculated by the midpoint method is the same for a price rise and a price fall.
x 100Percent change in price =$5 – $3
($5 + $3) ÷ 2
Percent change in price = 50 percent
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Percentage Change in Quantity Demanded
x 100Percent change in quantity =
New quantity – Initial quantity
(New quantity + Initial quantity) ÷ 2
x 100Percent change in quantity =
$5 – $15
($5 + $15) ÷ 2= – 100 Percent
If Starbucks raises the price of a latte, the quantity of latte demanded decreases.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
When the price rises, the quantity demanded decreases along the demand curve.
Similarly, when the price falls, the quantity demanded increases along the demand curve.
Price and quantity always change in opposite directions.
So to compare the percentage change in the price and the percentage change in the quantity demanded, we ignore the minus sign and use the absolute values.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Elastic and Inelastic Demand
Elastic demand
Demand is elastic if the percentage change in the quantity demanded exceeds the percentage change in price.
Unit elastic demand
If the percentage change in the quantity demanded equals the percentage change in price.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Inelastic demand
If the percentage change in the quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price.
Perfectly elastic demand
When the quantity demanded changes by a very large percentage in response to an almost zero percentage change in price.
Perfectly inelastic demand
When the quantity demanded remains constant as the price changes.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.1(a) shows a perfectly elastic demand.
1. For a small change in the price of spring water,
2. The quantity demanded of spring water changes by a large amount.
3. The demand for spring water is perfectly elastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.1(b) shows an elastic demand.
1. When the price of a Sony Playstation rises by 10%,
2. The quantity demanded decreases by 20%.
3. Demand for Sony Playstations is elastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.1(c) shows a unit elastic demand.
1. When the price of a trip rises by 10%,
2. The quantity demand of decreases by 10%.
3. The demand for trips is unit elastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.1(d) shows an inelastic demand.
1. When the price of gum rises by 20%,
2. The quantity demanded decreases by 10%.
3. The demand for gum is inelastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.1(e) shows a perfectly inelastic demand.
1. When the price rises,
2. The quantity demanded does not decrease.
3. Demand is perfectly inelastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Influences on the Price Elasticity of Demand
Influences on the price elasticity of demand fall into:
• Availability of substitutes
• Proportion of income spent
Availability of Substitutes
The demand for a good is elastic if a substitute for it is easy to find.
The demand for a good is inelastic if a substitute for it is hard to find.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Three main factors influence the ability to find a substitute for a good:
Luxury Versus Necessity
• A necessity has poor substitutes, so the demand for a necessity is inelastic. Food is a necessity.
• A luxury has many substitutes, so the demand for a luxury is elastic. Exotic vacations are luxuries.
Narrowness of Definition• The demand for a narrowly defined good is elastic.• The demand for a broadly defined good is inelastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Time Elapsed Since Price Changed
The longer the time elapsed since the price change, the
more elastic is the demand for the good.
Proportion of Income Spent
A price rise, like a decrease in income, means that people cannot afford to buy the same quantities.
The greater the proportion of income spent on a good, the more elastic is the demand for the good.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand
• If the price elasticity of demand is greater than 1, demand is elastic.
• If the price elasticity of demand equals 1, demand is unit elastic.
• If the price elasticity of demand is less than 1, demand is inelastic.
Price elasticity of demand
Percentage change in quantity demanded
Percentage change in the price=
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.2 shows the price elasticity of demand calculation.
The price elasticity of demand is 2.
By using the formula, the price elasticity of demand equals 100% divided by 50%.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand
We can use this formula to calculate the price elasticity of demand for a Starbucks latte:
Price elasticity of demand
Percentage change in quantity demanded
Percentage change in the price=
Price elasticity of demand100%
50%= 2=
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Interpreting the Price Elasticity of Demand Number
The elasticity of demand for a Starbucks latte of 2 tell us three things:
1. The demand for a Starbucks latte is elastic--it has substitutes and the proportion of a buyer’s income spent is small.
2. If Starbucks raised its price, revenue per cup will rise but it will lose lots of potential business.
3. Even a slightly lower price could bring in a lot more revenue.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Elasticity Along a Linear Demand Curve
Slope measures responsiveness. But slope and elasticity are not the same thing!
Along a linear (straight-line) demand curve, the slope is constant but the elasticity varies.
Along a linear demand curve, demand is:
• Unit elastic at the midpoint of the curve.
• Elastic above the midpoint of the curve.
• Inelastic below the midpoint of the curve.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.3 shows that the elasticity decreases along a linear demand curve as the price falls.
1. At any price above the midpoint, demand is elastic.
3. At any price below the midpoint, demand is inelastic.
2. At the midpoint, demand is unit elastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Total Revenue and Price Elasticity of Demand
Total revenue
The amount spent on a good and received by its sellers and equals the price of the good multiplied by the quantity of the good sold.
Total revenue test
A method of estimating the price elasticity of demand by observing the change in total revenue that results from a price change.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
If demand is elastic: • A given percentage rise in price brings a larger
percentage decrease in the quantity demanded.• And total revenue decreases.
If demand is inelastic: • A given percentage rise in price brings a smaller
percentage decrease in the quantity demanded.• And total revenue increases.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Total revenue test:• If price and total revenue change in the opposite
directions, demand is elastic.
• If a price change leaves total revenue unchanged, demand is unit elastic.
• If price and total revenue change in the same direction, demand is inelastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.4(a) shows total revenue and elastic demand.
At $3 a cup, the quantity demanded is 15 cups an hour.
Total revenue is $45 an hour.
Total revenue decreases to $25 an hour.
When the price rises to $5 a cup, the quantity demanded decreases to 5 cups an hour.
Demand is elastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Figure 5.4(b) shows total revenue and elastic demand.
At $50 a book, the quantity demanded is 5 million books.
Total revenue is $250 million.
Total revenue increases to $300 million.
When the price rises to $75 a book, the quantity demanded decreases to 4 million books.
Demand is inelastic.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Applications of Price Elasticity of Demand
Orange Prices and Total RevenuePrice elasticity of demand for agricultural products (oranges) is 0.4.
So if a frost cuts supply of oranges (and demand doesn’t change), a 1 percent decrease in the quantity harvested will lead to a 2.5 percent rise in the price.
Demand is inelastic and farmers’ total revenue will increase.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Addiction and Elasticity
Nonusers’ demand for addictive substances is elastic.
So a moderately higher price leads to a substantially smaller number of people trying a drug.
Existing users’ demand for addictive substances is inelastic.
So even a substantial price rise brings only a modest decrease in the quantity demanded.
5.1 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
High taxes on cigarettes and alcohol limit the number of young people who become habitual users of these products.
High taxes have only a modest effect on the quantities consumed by established users.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Price elasticity of supply
A measure of the extent to which the quantity supplied of a good changes when the price of the good changes.
To determine the price elasticity of supply, we compare the percentage change in the quantity supplied with the percentage change in price.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Elastic and Inelastic Supply
Perfectly elastic supply
An almost zero percentage change in price brings a very large percentage change in the quantity supplied.
Elastic supply
The percentage change in the quantity supplied exceeds the percentage change in price.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Unit elastic supply
The percentage change in the quantity supplied equals the percentage change in price.
Inelastic supply
The percentage change in the quantity supplied is less than the percentage change in price.
Perfectly inelastic supply
The percentage change in the quantity supplied is zero when the price changes.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.5(a) shows perfectly elastic supply.
1. A small rise in the the price,
2. Decreases the quantity supplied by a very large amount,
3. Supply is perfectly elastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.5 (b) shows an elastic supply.
1. A 10% rise in the price of a book,
2. Increases the quantity supplied by 20%.
3. The supply of books is elastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.5(c) shows a unit elastic supply.
1. A 10 % rise in the price of fish,
2. Increases the quantity supplied of fish by 10%.
3. The supply of fish is unit elastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.5(d) shows an inelastic supply.
1. A 20% rise in the price of a hotel room,
2. Increases the quantity supplied of hotel rooms by 10%.
3. The supply of hotel rooms is inelastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.5(e) shows a perfectly inelastic supply.
1. A small rise in the price of a beachfront lot,
2. Increases the quantity supplied by 0%.
3. The supply of beachfront lots is perfectly inelastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Influences on the Price Elasticity of Supply
The two main influences are:• Production possibilities• Storage possibilities
Production Possibilities
Goods that can be produced at a constant (or very gently rising) opportunity cost have an elastic supply.
Goods that can be produced in only a fixed quantity have a perfectly inelastic supply.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Time Elapsed Since Price Change
As time passes after a price change, producers find it easier to change their production plans, so supply becomes more elastic.
Storage Possibilities
The supply of a storable good is highly elastic.
The cost of storage is the main influence on the elasticity of supply of a storable good.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Computing the Price Elasticity of Supply
Price elasticity of supply
Percentage change in quantity supplied
Percentage change in quantity price=
• If the price elasticity of supply is greater than 1, supply is elastic.
• If the price elasticity of supply equals 1, supply is unit elastic.
• If the price elasticity of supply is less than 1, supply is inelastic.
5.2 THE PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY
Figure 5.6 shows how to calculate the price elasticity of supply.
The price elasticity of supply is 1.8.
By using the formula, the price elasticity of supply equals 120% divided by 66.67%.
Cross Elasticity of Demand
Cross elasticity of demand
Percentage change in quantity demanded of a good
Percentage change in the price of one of its substitutes or
complements
=
Cross elasticity of demandA measure of the extent to which the demand for a good changes when the price of a substitute or complement changes, other things remaining the same
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
Suppose that when the price of a burger falls by 10 percent, the quantity of pizza demanded decreases by 5 percent.
Cross elasticity of demand
– 5 percent– 10 percent
= = 0.5
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
The cross elasticity of demand for a substitute is positive.
• A fall in the price of a substitute brings a decrease in the quantity demanded of the good.
• The quantity demanded of a good and the price of its substitute change in the same direction.
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
The cross elasticity of demand for a complement is negative.
• A fall in the price of a complement brings an increase in the quantity demanded of the good.
• The quantity demanded of a good and the price of one of its complements change in opposite directions.
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
Figure 5.7 shows cross elasticity of demand.
Pizzas and burgers are substitutes. Cross elasticity is positive.
Pizzas and soda are complements. Cross elasticity is negative.
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
Income Elasticity of Demand
Income elasticity of demand
Percentage change in quantity demanded
Percentage change in income=
Income elasticity of demand
A measure of the extent to which the demand for a good changes when income changes, other things remaining the same
CROSS AND INCOME ELASTICITIES
Elasticity in YOUR Life
Pay attention next time that price of something you buy rises. Did you spend more, the same, or less on this good?
Your expenditure on a good = Price Quantity you buy. The buyer’s expenditure is like the seller’s total revenue.
When the price of a good rises, the change in your expenditure on it depends on your elasticity of demand for the good.
• If your expenditure decreases, your demand is elastic.• If your expenditure is constant, your demand is unit
elastic.• If your expenditure increases, your demand is inelastic.