Part 1: Academic English 10.30 vocabulary and style 10.30 ...

1

Writing Intensive for ESOL Students

Martin McMorrow

ESOL Learning Advisor

With contributions from other SLC staff, particularlyKate Pritchard, Ken Cageand Vanessa Vanderham

Writing Intensive for ESOL Students

Part 2: Academic writing: essay, paragraph and sentence

10.40 –12.00

Break10.30 – 10.40

Part 1: Academic English vocabulary and style

9.00 –10.30


Key features of academic style and vocabulary

1 a

Academic vocabulary test & feedback 1 b

Academic vocabulary strategies1 c

You need to be really into learning a language if you stand any chance

of getting anywhere with it

Motivation is a key element in successful language learning

for adults

Opinion

hypothesis

Key features of academic style and vocabulary1 a

More academic language allows you to develop your ACADEMIC voice, so that it’s as clear as your ordinary VOICE – but instead of expressing opinions, you’re presenting arguments

20 words: 15 % of Latin origin

11 words: 45 % of Latin origin

Academic EnglishEveryday English

And no evidence is given And this hypothesis is supported by reference to relevant research

Teachers play a big part in motivation because, if you ask me, even if you’re motivated to begin with, if the teacher’s boring, you’ll soon lose your motivation.

Opinion is clear. Opinion is equally clear

But it’s expressed impersonally – as a hypothesis

Teachers can influence the motivation of their learners. A study by Nikolov showed how initially positive attitudes to language learning were badly affected by a dislike of the teaching methodology. (Dornyei, 2005, p. 75)


But it sounds personal.

• Define ‘ageism’ giving an example to show what you mean?

‘Ageism’ means when someone is treated badly just becausethey’re young or old. What matters most isn’t whether or not someone’s treated differently but whether it’s got anything to do withwhat’s going on at the time. For instance, someone might not get ajob or get promoted because people think they’re too young or tooold. You’d probably think that a bar that wouldn’t give a job to a 50year old to serve drinks was being a bit ageist and if that person was good enough in every way except for the fact that they weregetting on a bit, then you could call them ageist and they wouldn’treally have a leg to stand on. But you could hardly say a bar wasbeing ageist if they didn’t take on a 16 year-old for the job becausethey’re not allowed to do so.


Sample paragraph in everyday English style

2


Ageism may be defined as “unfair discrimination towardssomeone on account of their age” (Smith & Davidov, 2003, p. 23).The crucial aspect is not discrimination in itself, but its unfairness.In other words, whether or not age is a relevant consideration in the circumstances. Let’s consider the case of someone preventedfrom obtaining employment or promotion because they are considered too young or too old. A bar which refused to employ a50 year old to serve drinks might be considered ageist, if that person fulfilled the employment specifications in every other respect. However, no one could claim a bar was being ageist because they didn’t employ a 16 year-old, since they are legallyprohibited from doing so.


The same paragraph in academic English styleEveryday English normally …

– repeats the same basic vocabulary– is based on verb phrases– uses active voice most of the time(does)– connects sentences with ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘because’– uses colloquial expressions– uses shorter (Anglo-Saxon) words and phrases

Academic English normally …

– uses a larger vocabulary with less repetition– is based around longer noun phrases– often uses passive (is done) as well as active (does)– connects clauses and sentences with a wider range of linking words– is less personal (not ‘believe me’ but ‘be convinced by my

argument’)– uses longer (Latin) words with more prefixes and suffixes


• unfair discrimination• the crucial aspect• no one could claim• may be defined as• they are considered …• However• on account of • employ• is a relevant consideration

in the circumstances• may be prevented from

obtaining employment


meanssomeone is treated badlybecause ofWhat matters mostit’s got anything to do with

what’s going onmight not get a jobpeople think they are …you could hardly sayButtake on

everyday English academic English

Task 1: Matching exercise


academic English

is less personal

uses a larger vocabulary with less repetition

is based around longer noun phrases

uses passive (is done) as well as active (does)

connects clauses and sentences with a wider range of linking words

• unfair discrimination• relevant consideration in the

circumstances

• may be defined as • they are considered

• However• on account of

• fulfilled the employment specifications• legally prohibited

• No one could claim • Let’s consider


written Latin spoken Latin

2000

1500

1000

500

RomanEmpire

French

everyday life

societyculture

English

WrittenLatin

churchscience

Anglo-Saxon

A brief history of the English language

Today’s English is a hybrid language: most common words and grammar is Anglo-Saxon; a lot of common vocabulary is from French; nearly all academic and formal language is from French or Latin

The more academic the writing is, the higher proportion of words of French and Latin origin


Relevance of this history for English language today

3


‘Ageism’ means when someone is treated badly just becausethey’re young or old. What matters most isn’t whether or not someone’s treated differently but whether it’s got anything to do withwhat’s going on at the time. For instance, someone might not get ajob or get promoted because people think they’re too young or tooold. You’d probably think that a bar that wouldn’t give a job to a 50year old to serve drinks was being a bit ageist and if that personwas good enough in every way except for the fact that they weregetting on a bit, then you could call them ageist and they wouldn’treally have a leg to stand on. But you could hardly say a bar wasbeing ageist if they didn’t take on a 16 year-old for the job becausethey’re not allowed to do so.


Everyday English style – words from Latin / French in red


Ageism may be defined as “unfair discrimination towardssomeone on account of their age” (Smith & Davidov, 2003, p. 23).The crucial aspect is not discrimination in itself, but whether or notage is a relevant consideration in the circumstances. Let’s consider the case of someone prevented from obtainingemployment or promotion because they are considered too youngor too old. A bar which refused to employ a 50 year old to servedrinks might be considered ageist, if that person fulfilled theemployment specifications in every other respect. However, noone could claim a bar was being ageist because they didn’temploy a 16 year-old, since they are legally prohibited from doingso.


Academic English style– words from Latin / French in red

The next slide shows an extract from a prescribed text (Quester, P., McGuiggan, R., Perreault, W., & McCarthy, S. (2004).

Marketing: Creating and Delivering Value. Sydney, Australia: McGraw Hill)

The style is not technical or especially formal – although some of the words would be very formal in spoken English

In this exercise, the original words and expressions have been taken out and replaced with colloquial, spoken English phrases

Replace them and see what a difference it makes to the academic style of the whole text.


Task 2: Making a text more academic in style

assist (x 2) serve competitive edge retain stagnate base initially establish seek benefits meet someone’s needs

A marketing manager should 1) look for new ways to 2) deal with existing customers and strengthen therelationship with them. Too often companies allow theirstrategies to 3) get tired after they have 4) got a customerbase and a set of marketing mix decisions. For example,special business services related to the determining needsof front-line executives might 5) first of all 6) give a hotel ahand in winning this business. But the hotel will lose its 7) advantage if other hotels begin to offer the same 8) nice things. Then, the determining dimensions change.To avoid this problem, and 9) keep hold of the 10) bunch ofcustomers it has built, the hotel needs to find new and better ways to 11) give the executives what they want. Forexample, the hotel could provide a voice mail system to 12) help traveling executives during their stay.

McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy,2004

• A marketing manager should seek new ways to serveexisting customers and strengthen the relationship with them. Too often companies allow their strategies to stagnate after they have established a customer base and a set of marketing mix decisions. For example, special business services related to the determining needs of front-line executives might initially assist a hotel in winning this business. But the hotel will lose itscompetitive edge if other hotels begin to offer the same benefits. Then, the determining dimensions change. To avoid this problem, and retain the base of customers it has built, the hotel needs to find new and better ways to meet the executives’ needs. For example, the hotel could provide a voice mail system to assist traveling executives during their stay.

Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy,2004


Original text (in academic English style)

This test will give you an idea of how strong your foundation ofacademic English vocabulary is at the moment

If there are any gaps, it will allow you to identify them. We will then discuss resources which will help you fill them

You can keep the test paper and make notes, ask questions during our feedback session

After 20 minutes, I will collect in the answer sheets. These will be anonymous. The purpose of collecting them is to develop the test further

Academic English test and feedback1 b

Task 3: Academic English test

4

1) It’s difficult to define the con________ of beauty.2) The internet gives you acc ________ to information and personal

contacts from around the world.3) Evolution explains how simple animals developed into more com ________ ones over a long period of time.4) Come to the meeting if you feel you have anything to con ________ to

the discussion.5) We are not really in competition with them, but there are a few ove ________ between our products.6) She asked me to check the first dra ________ of her presentation.7) The final cost of the project should not exc ________ $ 10 000.8) It’s impossible to eli ________ crime completely, but this government

aims to reduce it substantially.9) Financial experts have det ________ some signs that the economy

may be improving.10) No agreement has been reached but negotiations are still ong ________.


Task 3: Academic English test11) One reason that many goods are manufactured in China is the lower

lab ________ costs there. 12) We have to in ________ from his silence on the matter that he has

nothing he wishes to say.13) A recent sur ________ found that more than 60 % of workers were

dissatisfied with their bosses.14) We had to make several calls to the tec ________ support line

before anyone came to repair out computer.15) We all ass ________ in the meeting room to meet the new

management team.16) The company publishes its ann ________ accounts every

September.17) At the moment we don’t ant ________ any problems with the new

system.18) The internet has become an important med ________ of

communication for companies.19) Her work has been a cru ________ part of the company’s success.20) Unemployment will be one of the most important iss ________ in the

next election.



21) The main foc ________ of our attention is the need to reform our organisation.

22) He decided to buy separate com ________ for his computer and put them together at home because it was cheaper than buying a complete one from a shop.

23) Please check with the legal department pri ________ to signing any contracts.

24) The company has had to am ________ its employment contracts as a result of the new law.

25) Among his reasons for resigning he cit ________ the pressure of working to a limited budget.

26) We have to ada ________ our products to the differing needs of our customers.

27) Vegetable sales flu ________ according to the season.28) Between one and two children per family is the nor ________ in many

countries.29) The city needs to improve its basic inf ________ if it wishes to attract

international companies.30) They have sent the sample to the laboratory to be ana ________ so

that they can be sure what exactly it is.



31) His point was highly rel ________ to the discussion, but, there was no real time for discussion.

32) Some airlines have decided to cancel less popular routes in order to max ________ profits.

33) Salaries may not seem large in dollars, but when con ________ into local currency, they are highly competitive.

34) Our British customers are most interested in low cost, whe ________ in the United States, customers are happy to pay more for higher quality.

35) I knew a lot about the subject; nev ________, her talk was interesting enough.

36) Con ________ to all our expectations, the introduction of new working practices went smoothly.

37) I found the instruction ambi ________ so I didn’t know what to do. Could you please make it clearer?

38) Production has been temporarily sus ________ because of technical problems.

39) In the financial sec ________, both banks and insurance companies have had a difficult year.

40) We have to start the meeting on time because we have several important ite ________ on the agenda.



41) The road was blocked so we had to use an alt ________ route.42) The true reason for the company’s problems only eme ________

much later.43) The hall only has a cap ________ of 50 people so we won’t be able

to invite everybody.44) Our involvement in community education projects has enh ________

the reputation of the company.45) We all need to be realistic. We only have a fin ________ amount of

time to complete the task.46) We decided to ter ________ the contract because we were

dissatisfied with their service.47) The rat ________ of men to women in management is still three to

one.48) We are transferring the dat ________ from magnetic tape to hard

disk.49) It’s important that we remain neu ________ on the question until we

have enough information to make an informed decision.50) The most positive asp ________ of living abroad is the chance to

experience a new culture.



1) It’s difficult to define the concept of beauty.2) The internet gives you access to information and personal contacts

from around the world.3) Evolution explains how simple animals developed into more complex

ones over a long period of time.4) Come to the meeting if you feel you have anything to contribute to the

discussion.5) We are not really in competition with them, but there are a few

overlaps between our products.6) She asked me to check the first draft of her presentation.7) The final cost of the project should not exceed $ 10 000.8) It’s impossible to eliminate crime completely, but this government

aims to reduce it substantially.9) Financial experts have detected some signs that the economy may be

improving.10) No agreement has been reached but negotiations are still ongoing.


Academic English test: Answers

5

11) One reason that many goods are manufactured in China is the lower labour costs there.

12) We have to infer from his silence on the matter that he has nothing he wishes to say.

13) A recent survey found that more than 60 % of workers were dissatisfied with their bosses.

14) We had to make several calls to the technical support line before anyone came to repair out computer.

15) We all assembled in the meeting room to meet the new management team.

16) The company publishes its annual accounts every September.17) At the moment we don’t anticipate any problems with the new

system.18) The internet has become an important medium of communication for

companies.19) Her work has been a crucial part of the company’s success.20) Unemployment will be one of the most important issues in the next

election.


21) The main focus of our attention is the need to reform our organisation.

22) He decided to buy separate components for his computer and put them together at home because it was cheaper than buying a complete one from a shop.

23) Please check with the legal department prior to signing any contracts.24) The company has had to amend its employment contracts as a result

of the new law.25) Among his reasons for resigning he cited the pressure of working to a

limited budget.26) We have to adapt our products to the differing needs of our

customers.27) Vegetable sales fluctuate according to the season.28) Between one and two children per family is the norm in many

countries.29) The city needs to improve its basic infrastructure if it wishes to

attract international companies.30) They have sent the sample to the laboratory to be analysed so that

they can be sure what exactly it is.


31) His point was highly relevant to the discussion, but, there was no real time for discussion.

32) Some airlines have decided to cancel less popular routes in order to maximise profits.

33) Salaries may not seem large in dollars, but when converted into local currency, they are highly competitive.

34) Our British customers are most interested in low cost, whereas in the United States, customers are happy to pay more for higher quality.

35) I knew a lot about the subject; nevertheless, her talk was interesting enough.

36) Contrary to all our expectations, the introduction of new working practices went smoothly.

37) I found the instruction ambiguous so I didn’t know what to do. Could you please make it clearer?

38) Production has been temporarily suspended because of technical problems.

39) In the financial sector, both banks and insurance companies have had a difficult year.

40) We have to start the meeting on time because we have severalimportant items on the agenda.


41) The road was blocked so we had to use an alternative route.42) The true reason for the company’s problems only emerged

much later.43) The hall only has a capacity of 50 people so we won’t be able to

invite everybody.44) Our involvement in community education projects has enhanced

the reputation of the company.45) We all need to be realistic. We only have a finite amount of time

to complete the task.46) We decided to terminate the contract because we were

dissatisfied with their service.47) The ratio of men to women in management is still three to one.48) We are transferring the data from magnetic tape to hard disk.49) It’s important that we remain neutral on the question until we

have enough information to make an informed decision.50) The most positive aspect of living abroad is the chance to

experience a new culture.


Massey papers:

192.101 English for Academic Purposes192.102 Academic Writing

Both papers include a focus on basic academic English vocabulary

Selected online resources:

Massey University: Academic Word List: http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/index.shtmlMassey University: Academic English Generator: http://www.academicenglishgenerator.comHong Kong University of Science and Technology: http://uvt.ust.hk/about.htmlHong Kong Polytechnic University: http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/default.htmUniversity of Hertfordshire: http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htmUniversity of Manchester: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk


Resources for building up basic Academic English vocabulary

Academic Vocabulary Strategies1 c

Suggestions for developing your academic vocabulary

• Ensure you have a good basic foundation of academic English

• It’s not worth learning very formal English

• Have a daily / weekly routine of reviewing academic and technical vocabulary you’ve noted

• Focus on phrases – including prepositions, typical uses etc – rather than words on their own

• Vocabulary that you want to use in writing / speaking needs to be activated: make associations and examples

6

1) Which of these words is closest in meaning to ‘acquisition’?purchase expenditure interruption explanation

2)Which of these most needs to be unambiguous?a poem a legal contract the words of a song a promise

3) Which of these words is the opposite of ‘analysis’?research thesis investigation synthesis

4) Which of these are assumptions not usually based on?appearance previous experience testing gossip

5) Which of these would you be happy to receive from someone?assumption acquisition inadequacy assurance


Quiz questions: one way to activate your basic academic vocabulary6) Which form of categorization is often used for social class?SWOT SQ3R ABC Do-Re-Mi

7) In which kind of court case is ‘incompatibility’ often used as the main argument?

Divorce Burglary Kidnap Murder

8) Which of these is a common misconception about London?• It’s foggy and often snows. It’s expensive to live in.• Public transport is old-fashioned. It’s a very international city.

9) Which of these companies diversified by purchasing a Hollywood film studio?

• Microsoft Apple Panasonic Sony


10) Which of these English scientists was famous for his evolutionarytheory?

Dickens Durkheim Disraeli Darwin

11) What’s the opposite of ‘minimal’?Optimal Cynical Maximal Sceptical

12) Which of these events would be unprecedented?• New Zealand qualifying for the finals of the soccer world cup?• The soccer world cup finals being held in Asia?• A small country winning the soccer world cup?• An African or Asian country winning the soccer world cup?


1) purchase2) a legal contract3) synthesis4) testing5) assurance6) ABC7) divorce8) it’s foggy and often snows9) Sony10) Darwin11) Maximal12) An African or Asian country winning the soccer World Cup


Quiz answers

Personal questions: another way to activate basic academic vocabulary

General academic vocabulary

What was your initial impression of the following? Has it changed since?

•Television in New Zealand•The weather here

Subject-specific vocabulary

How could you define the customer base of the following?

•Massey University•MacDonalds


Strategies to deal with unknown vocabulary in your reading


high

futurerelevance

low

ignore

work out meaning and move on

look it up to confirm

file it in your system with example sentence and reviewat end of day and week

7

Sample difficult vocabulary from a prescribed text

Refrain fromDisseminateDistinguishDiscriminate betweenValidityArbitraryDelegatedStatutoryJudicial precedentComplianceConformLaid downCanvassedDecriminalizationOut of step


A head-on clashIn accord withIt was held ..ConstraintsDerivedIncidenceLegal liabilityAdherentsUnethicallyDiscloseFiduciary dutyutmost good faithPresumptionAdjudication

JurisdictionPrescribingVigilanceFlora and faunaSeizureUndergoNomenclatureUnderpinLay readerTyroProne solecismsParties

Hubbard, Thomas & Varnham, 2001

Chapter 1

Much of this is low relevance –practice working out meaning from context to deal with it efficiently

“adequate research of overseas markets is … one of several prerequisites for international marketing success”

prerequisites

– advantages– things that must be done – things that will surprise you


Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 118

Use your background knowledge and other clues in the sentenceto guess the most likely definition of the keyword.


“Time-saving kitchen appliances … could be aimed at women over 35 years of age .. offering the luxury of less drudgery and more leisure time while at home’

drudgery

– relaxation– hard work– professional employment





“it is easy for both consumers and marketing managers to be lulled by the promise of constantly increasing standards of living. Adjustments in consumer thinking will be required if growth does not resume”

lulled

– made to feel worried– made to feel embarrassed– made to feel too comfortable

p 192Quester, McGuiggan, Perreault, & McCarthy, 2004, p. 118




“If you watch a Yoplait advertisement that shows other people enjoying a new yoghurt flavour, you might conclude that you would like it too. For services, such vicarious learning is essential, as consumers can rarely assess the benefit directly and have to rely on the experience of others…”

vicarious

– second-hand– useless– religious







high

futurerelevance

low

Only if the answer is ‘Yes’, file itin your system with examplesentence and review at the endof the day and week

In order to spend more quality time with the vocabularythat will be really useful for your writing, you need to spend less time with the rest.

Is it key topic vocabulary?

Will it be usable in your own writing?

8


Key features of academic style and vocabulary

1 a

Academic vocabulary test & feedback 1 b

Academic vocabulary strategies1 c

End of Part 1

Part 2: Academic English writing

Essay and report structure2 a

Paragraph structure 2 b

Sentence structure2 c

Essay and Report Structure2 a

•What are lecturers etc basically looking for?

•Where do I start?

•What’s the first sentence I should write in an essay?

•How do I write an introduction?

•How do I write a conclusion?

•How do I summarise someone else’s text?

•What is ‘flow’ and how do I get more of it?

Not frequently enough asked questions Using andexplaining technical words

Referring to a range of sources

Using theory as a tool to analyseexamples

What are they basically looking for?

Logical structure based on question


Step 1: Identify the different parts of the question

Step 2: Estimate how many paragraphs you have in your assignment

Step 3: Make a grid matching paragraphs to parts of the assignment


Where do I start?

Question 1It has been suggested that New Zealand and

Australia should adopt a common currency. What are the arguments for and against this proposal? Refer to specific sectors of New Zealand business and / or society which might benefit or suffer from such a development and express an overall opinion on the proposal.

Part 2

Part 3

Part 4

Part 1Step 1: Identify the different parts of the question


9

Intro= 150 words (1 paragraph)

Body= 1700 words (12 – 13 paragraphs)

Conclusion= 150 words (1 paragraph)

Step 2: Estimate how many paragraphs you have in your assignment


ConclusionParagraph 15

Part 4: Reasons for preferring a common currency and ways of minimising negative effects

Paragraphs 13 –14

Part 3: Arguments for a common currency (3 arguments for supported by 3 examples of sectors / firms that might benefit)

Paragraphs 8 - 12

Part 2: Arguments against a common currency (3 arguments supported by 3 examples of sectors / firms that might suffer)

Paragraphs 3 – 7

Part 1: Define + analyse ‘common currency’Paragraph 2

IntroParagraph 1

Step 3: Make a grid matching paragraphs to parts of the assignment


The basic thesis is your opinionstated in one arguable sentence.

You are making a claim about your topic.


What’s the first sentence I should write in an essay?

Your thesis

statement

How to Write a Thesis Statement

Step 1: Write an arguable statement of opinion related to your question

New Zealand should not make a foreign language compulsory for primary school children



Step 2: Add elements of support

“…because A, B, and C…”…in A, B and C areas…”


…because it would be a costly policy with little long-term benefit.


Step 3: Address the antithesis (the opposite point of view).

“Although, ……”


Although this would seem a good way to address the problem of low-achievement in language

learning at schools…

10

Although this would seem a good way to address the problem of low achievement in language learning at school ,

Opinion Statement

because it would be a costly policy with little long-term benefit.

Elements of SupportAntithesis

New Zealand should not make a foreign language compulsory for primary school children

Final Thesis Statement


General, Broad Overview

Your Specific Thesis StatementHow do I write an introduction?


• How can you lead your reader into your topic?

• What is your essay going to do? Compare? Contrast? Explain? Define? Apply? Analyse? Examine?

• What point are you making about this topic? What is your Thesis Statement?

Key Questions for the Introduction


New Zealand organisations are increasingly involved in international initiatives, such as joint ventures and outsourcing. Nonetheless, language and cross-cultural communication skills remain a low priority for most business executives. This essay investigates the causes and effects of this situation, examines potential advantages of developing these skills among key employees and outlines principles for successful implementation of effective training in this area. Although companies may feel that business negotiation may easily be conducted in English, research has shown that investment in language and cultural training equips organisations with real competitive advantages.

Context

Structure

Thesis

Essay and Report Structure2 a Sample introduction

Your Specific Thesis Statement

Broad Implications in the Field


How do I write a conclusion?

• Gives the reader a sense of closure• Restates the thesis• States implications and significance

of the argument• Ends strongly and positively.


11

As we have seen, successful leadership needs to be dynamic in order to respond to changing circumstances. Although XXs’s directive leadership style had been effective in the past, changes in the organisational culture had created a more competent and committed team which performed better with less direction and more delegation. This mismatch between leadership style and organisational culture led to serious problems of staff retention, motivation and productivity. In this case, the degree of damage only became apparent on the departure of the marketing manager and recovery was a long-term process. This underlines the need for more effective management training, closer monitoring of management performance and improved channels of communication within organisations if such problems are to be avoided.

SignificanceAnd Closure

Main Points

RestateThesis

Essay and Report Structure2 a Sample conclusion

• This essay has examined the similarities and differences between language disorders of individuals with TBI and aphasia, and their implications for intervention. It was argued that, despite certain similarities between the two language disorders, they are fundamentally different in origin and extent, aphasia being limited to language areas in the brain, leaving other cognitive functions essentially undamaged. As we have seen, this directly affects both the aim and procedure of intervention in both cases. For aphasia, intervention is intended to facilitate longer-term restoration of lost language function and the development of coping strategies. For TBI, on the other hand, a combination of highly structured, clinic based activities is needed to designed to foster the recovery of core cognitive abilities, while more specific language therapy will generally focus on basic functional conversational and social skills.

Essay and Report Structure2 a Sample conclusion 2

Another’s words?

Another’s idea?

No

No

Do not cite it

YesQuote and cite it – author, year, page

Cite it –author + year.

Yes

Use of Sources

Decision ChartHarris, 2001, p. 158


How do I summarise someone else’s text?

A recent analysis of 50 000 applications for medical schools and top universities in the UK showed that 5% of them had based their ‘personal statements’on ideas from websites. These included over 200 applications using the same story about burning their pajamas when they were eight years old to explain why they wanted to be doctors! (Degree candidates copy from web, 2005)


Sample summary

Step 1: identify key points of relevance in your original text

Degree applicants 'copy from web'

Thousands of prospective university students are using the internet to cheat in their applications, analysis by admissions service Ucas reveals.Checks on 50,000 personal statements found 5% had borrowed material. Itsstudy, by CFL Software Development, was done after the 15 October deadline for Oxbridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary science applications. Almost 800 drew on three example medicine statements on a free website, including a story about burnt pyjamas. The Ucas application form includes a personal statement for people to detail their interests and say why they want to study their chosen course. CFL, which makes detection software Copycatch, found:

– 370 sentences contained a statement beginning: "a fascination for how the human body works..."

– 234 contained a statement relating a dramatic incident involving"burning a hole in pyjamas at age eight"

– 175 contained a statement which involved "an elderly or infirm grandfather". (text continues)

(Degree candidates copy from web, 2005)


Step 1: identify key points of relevance in your original text

Degree applicants 'copy from web' Thousands of prospective university students are using the internet to cheat in their applications, analysis by admissions service Ucas reveals.Checks on 50,000 personal statements found 5% had borrowed material. Its study, by CFL Software Development, was done after the 15 October deadline for Oxbridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary scienceapplications. Almost 800 drew on three example medicine statements on a free website, including a story about burnt pyjamas. The Ucas application form includes a personal statement for people to detail their interests and say why they want to study their chosen course.CFL, which makes detection software Copycatch, found:

– 370 sentences contained a statement beginning: "a fascination for how the human body works..."

– 234 contained a statement relating a dramatic incident involving"burning a hole in pyjamas at age eight"

– 175 contained a statement which involved "an elderly or infirm grandfather".

As the deadline had approached the number of applications with borrowed material had increased.

(Degree candidates copy from web, 2005)


12

Use note form to shake ideas out of yoursource

• 50 000 apps for top UK unis• 5% borrowed mat from web for pers statements• 234 used same story about burning pajamas – age 8 – to show

why they wanted to go to med sch

Note down citation details and decide how you want tointroduce your source


Step 2: separate these points from the original language

3 ways to introduce your summary (or quote)

According to Dunbar and Holmes (2003), cognitive behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred …..

Dunbar and Holmes (2003) claim that cognitive behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred …..

(claim / argue / explain / point out / provide evidence / suggest that ..)

Cognitive behavioural therapy is increasingly preferred to more traditional medical interventions in such cases (Dunbar & Holmes, 2003).

According to ….

End brackets

Reporting verb


A recent analysis of 50 000applications for the most competitive degree courses andtop universities in the UK showed that 5% of them had based their ‘personal statements’on ideas from websites. Theseincluded over 200 applicationsusing the same story about burning their pajamas when they were eight years old to explainwhy they wanted to be doctors! (Degree candidates copy from web, 2005)

50,000 personal statements

Oxbridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary science applications

5% had borrowed material

using the internet

234 contained a statement relating a dramatic incident involving "burning a hole in pyjamas at age eight"

say why they want tostudy their chosen course.

phrases from original article my summary

Step 3: Write your own sentences which fit YOUR audience and argument


Cognitive theories of motivation, on the other hand, seek to explain motivation to learn language in relation to learners’ beliefs about their abilities (Dornyei, 1994, p. 276). Perhaps the most influential of these, attribution theory, suggests that our beliefs about past experiences influence expectations of future success. According to this view, the common experience of low achievement in foreign languages at school does not necessarily lead to low motivation in adults, since those who ascribe their past failures to factors beyond their control, might still be highly-motivated despite past failures. Research by Wu and Ushiodasupports this view, finding that highly motivated learners did in fact tend to associate their successes with personal factors and failures with external factors (in Dornyei, 2005, p. 80). A practical application of such research might be a stronger emphasis on learner training with the goalof helping learners overcome unfounded perceptions of lack of language learning ability based on past failures.

Your voice guides the reader, showing how the different sentences are related to each other and how your argument develops.

personal evaluation

address the question


‘hook’ to previous paragraph

What is ‘flow’?

Cognitive theories of motivation seek to explain motivation to learn language in relation to learners’ beliefs about their abilities (Dornyei, 1994, p. 276). Attribution theory suggests that our beliefs about past experiences influence expectations of future success. The commonexperience of low achievement in foreign languages at school does not necessarily lead to low motivation in adults, since those who ascribe their past failures to factors beyond their control, might still be highly-motivated despite past failures. Research by Wu and Ushioda found that highly motivated learners did in fact tend to associate their successes with personal factors and failures to external factors (in Dornyei, 2005, p. 80). There might be a stronger emphasis on learner training with the goal of helping learners overcome unfounded perceptions of lack of language learning ability based on past failures.

Without these linking and introductory expressions, your personal voice is gone and the reader has to try and guess what the argument is.


The same paragraph – minus ‘flow’! Another example of a paragraph which ‘flows’

Efficient management of human resources, likewise, requires knowledge and ability to implement macroeconomic principles. For instance, according to the Principle of Comparative Advantage, “everyone does best when each concentrates on the activity for which he or she is relatively most productive” (Frank & Bernanke, 2001, p. 23). This suggests that the underlying purpose of human resources ought to be to ensure that employees are trained, motivated and managed so that they can spend most of their time contributing to the company’s mission at the highest skill level they are capable of. In other words, human resources management needs to be proactive, rather than reactive.

Own voice in topic and concluding sentences

Intro phrase, quotation marks and page for copied definition

Own voice to relate principle to your topic


13

Three qualities make a successful paragraph:

UnityThe paragraph should focus on one idea

CoherenceThe sentences in the paragraph should be clearly related to each other

Development

The paragraph’s main idea must be supportedsufficiently with details and examples

Paragraph Structure2 b

TEE Structure is a standard way to achieve this

PARAGRAPH

TOPIC SENTENCE

TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES EXAMPLES

CONCLUSION

TopicStatement

Explanation

Examples


UNITY

A paragraph should have a TOPIC SENTENCEwhich states the main idea clearly. It is usually good to start each paragraph with a topic sentence. Every single sentence in the paragraph should contribute or relate to the main idea. If a sentence does not clearly relate to the topic sentence, you should discard it. If the paragraph begins with one point of discussion, it should not end with another.


A topic sentence has two essential parts:

This names the subject or main idea of the paragraph

This makes a specific comment about the topic

The TOPIC

The CONTROLLING IDEA





Development

It’s main idea must be supported sufficiently with details and examples


COHERENCE can be achieved by creating logical bridges from one sentence to another. This allows the same idea of a topic to be carried from sentence to sentence within the paragraph.

This can be done by:

• Using Transition words to link ideas from different sentences.

• Using Pronouns for already mentioned nouns in previous sentences

• Substituting key words with SynonymsRepeating Key words


14

Use linking words and expressions guiding reader through paragraphs. These ones help the reader see how the different components relate to each other.

See www.phrasebank.man.ac.uk for a very useful set of phrases for different purposes in academic writing

former / latter There are two major approaches to XXXX. The former is the YYYY model devised by Smith (1985) and consisting of AAAA, BBBB and CCCC. The latter is the ZZZZZ model developed by Hassan and Watanabe (1993), which …….

Firstly, …… There are a number of drawbacks to this model. Firstly, ……… . Moreover, ……… . Finally, and most significantly, …….


See www.academicenglishgenerator.com for more examples of academic writing, focusing on vocabulary development.

Thus, though functionalists and Marxists both discern common features in education, they draw radically different conclusions. For functionalists, education is a means of resolving many of the divisions and tensions of modern society. Marxists perceive this conception of education as fundamentally flawed, since for themcapitalist societies are inherently unfair to the majority of the population. Therefore, they seek to extend the scope of education, so that its main role is to enable people to reject, rather than passively accept those divisions.


These expressions allow the reader to follow the logic of yourargument

Transition words can indicate various things

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

OBJECTS IN RELATION TO EACH OTHER

ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

first

secondly

next

meanwhile

later

then

afterwards

finally

next to

in front of

beside

between

behind

on the other hand

conversely

similarly

likewise

however

furthermore

as a result

in fact

yet

also

in addition


GIVE AN EXAMPLE

GIVE AN EFFECT/ RESULT

ADD A CONCLUSION

for example

for instance

therefore

thus

consequently

as a result

in brief

all in all

indeed

in other words

in short

in the end





Development

It’s main idea must be supported sufficiently with details and examples


Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy-five miles an hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by mankind throughout the world in one year.

The developmental features in a paragraph

4. Its power

The concept of the power of the hurricane is developed through reference to:

1. Its size2. Its speed3. Its capacity for destruction


15

DEVELOPMENT

In addition to being unified and coherent, a paragraph should hold a reader’s interest and explore its topic fully, using details and evidence. Illustrating a point with examples can help to develop the main idea of the paragraph.

Use enough evidence to convince your readers that the topic sentence’s assertion is valid. Your evidence should illustrate the point, not merely restate it.


On 5 April the Ministry issued a statement denying the

accusations by the former Prime Minister. This angered several

former MPs.

On 5 April the Ministry issued a statement denying the

accusations by the former Prime Minister. This move angered

several former MPs.

Sometimes the word this is not clear enough alone and you need to add a noun after it..

Connecting ideas in a paragraph: Repeating ideas from a previous sentence


The government has decided to build a new factory on the west side of

town. The decision has angered a lot of residents, who fear that the

factory will destroy the beauty of their neighbourhood.

According to new statistics from the government, unemployement has

fallen in the last six months. These figures suggest that the economy is

improving.

The noun figures is a synonym for the noun ‘statistics’ in the earlier sentence

Here the writer uses this + the noun form of the verb used in the previous sentence.


Some common words to make the reference back clearer and form a ‘bridge’ to your developing argument

On April 15, 1912, the Titanic, the largest passenger ship in the world at

that time, sank in the North Atlantic. A total of 1,522 passengers and

crew lost their lives. The disaster shocked the world.

Here the writer is again using the + noun, but the noun is a general word that descibes something in the earlier sentence.

For things that happenincidenteventsituationcircumstancesdevelopment

For things that we doactionmovereactionbehaviourpractice

For things that we thinkideaviewattitude


PARAGRAPH LENGTH

No hard and fast rules. At undergraduate level a paragraph of between 100 and 200 words is probably what you should be aiming for

Shorter than five or six good, substantial sentences - re-examine the paragraph and see whether you have developed the ideas fully. (This is just a guideline and doesn’t apply to all paragraphs)

A paragraph should be long enough to do justice to the main idea of the paragraph - it may be short or it may be long - it is not the number of words which count, but whether the paragraph is “complete”.


If your paragraph runs onto a page or longer, there may be a problem. In this case:

Check that you are sticking to only ONE TOPIC

Check that you have not introduced SUB TOPICS that appear to be related to the topic but which in fact deserve their own paragraphs

Check for REPETITION of ideas


16

WHAT TO DO IF A PARAGRAPH IS TOO SHORT

It probably lacks sufficient development.

Have you explained the topic sentence?

Have you given examples to illustrate the topic sentence?


The T E E rubric will enable you to always construct readable, complete paragraphs.

T

E

E

Topic Statement

Explanation

Example orEvidence

Hurricanes are powerful

They get their power from their size and their speed

They can destroy a small town in a matter of hours


Sentence Structure2 C

Some language gas to liftyou up

• Cause and effect language• Similarity and difference language• Problem and solution language

Some language holes to repair

• Basic sentence structure• Singular and plural• Verb tense• Pronoun reference• The

Nouns

CauseC is the cause of EC is one factor in EC is the reason for E

EffectE is the result of CE is the consequence of CE is the outcome of C

Verbs

C causes E

C results in E

C brings about E

C creates E

C gives rise to E

C leads to E

C produces E

C forces E

C plays a part in E

To attribute E to C

To blame C for EMake sure that you use the appropriate tense


Showing cause and effect

Inside a sentence :

• Crops have failed as a result of the drought.

• As a result of the drought, crops have failed.

Between sentences:

• There was a severe drought last year. As a result, the crops failed.

Effect Cause

Cause Effect

Cause

Effect



• More and more women are interested in developing their careers; for this reason, we can expect an increase in the number of women in medicine, law, and scientific research.

• The cost of residential houses has increased by 40% in the last two years. This dramatic rise in prices has forced many young people into the rental market.

• In 1999 the two countries resumed diplomatic talks. This improvement in the relationship between the two countries facilitated the re-opening of trade links.



17

• X is similar to Y

• There is a similarity between X and Y

• X and Y are identical

• X is equivalent to Y

• X (closely) resembles Y


Showing similarity and difference

• Children in private schools have several problems in common with children in government schools. In both sectors of the education system, children struggle with issues such as teasing and bullying.

• Children in public schools have problems with bullying; likewise, many children in private schools face both emotional and physical victimisation on a regular basis.



• Smith and Jones (1999) distinguish between deliberate cruelty towards other children and unintentional cruelty (p.46). An awareness ofthis distinction is useful for a teacher who has to deal with an accusation of bullying in the classroom.

• Wealthy industrial nations are able to provide health care to all those in need of it while many third world countries can provide this care to only twenty or thirty percent of potential patients.

• Wealthy industrial nations are able to provide health care to all those in need of it. In contrast, many third world countries can provide this care to only twenty or thirty percent of potential patients.



Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations face differentissues in the provision of health-care. Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill people in the population. In these nations the focus is on the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are faced with the problem of providing for the majority of their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are widespread in the population because of unsanitary living conditions and the lack of basic health care.



Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations face different issues in the provision of health-care.Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill people in the population. In these nations the focus is on the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are faced with the problem of providing for the majority of their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are widespread in the population because of unsanitary living

conditions and the lack of basic health care.

Subject 1

Topic sentence

Subject 2

Detail

Detail


Showing similarity and differenceWealthy industrial nations and developing nations face different issues in the provision of health-care.Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill people in the population. In these nations the focus is on the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are faced with the problem of providing for the majority of their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are widespread in the population because of unsanitary

living conditions and the lack of basic health care.

Subject 1

Topic sentence

Subject 2

Detail

Detail

Cause

Effect



18

Describing problems

problem risk

difficulty threat

crisis danger

challenge complication

obstacle issue

Describing solutions

to solve to relieve

to resolve to ease

to respond to deal with

to remedy to overcome

to improve to address

The community of Dark Bay has identified childhood obesity as one of the

major threats to the health of the community. In order to address the problem,

the Health Board has launched a campaign to teach parents about healthy

eating habits for their children.

In an attempt to address the problem,

Subject of sentence


Showing problems and solutions

The cheapest and most effective solution to the problem of heartdisease is for people to start taking more responsibility for maintaining their own health. They can do this by developing healthier eating habits, by taking more exercise, by reducing stress in their lives and by avoiding activities like smoking that increase the risk of heart attack.

Problem: heart disease

Solution: Develop healthier eating habits

Exercise more

Reduce stress

Avoid unhealthyactivities


Showing problems and solutions


Some language gas

Cause and effect languageSimilarity and difference languageProblem and solution language

Some language holes

Basic sentence structureSingular and pluralVerb tensePronoun referenceThe

Every sentence must have a Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

• The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must have a Sense of Completion

• The Main Subject/Verb-Phrase must contain a Complete Idea.


Basic sentence structure

Who Did what?The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist.

The committee decided upon a new policy.

Women were portrayed primarily as caregivers.

The question is crucial.

This study has shown a high level of compliance.

Combined, the Subject/Verb-Phrase must state a complete idea.


subject + verb


Although the study was flawed ,

After the riots began ,

Even in comic strips ,

While answers are premature ,

Contrasting all previous work ,

the researcher concluded that…

the committee decided upon…

women were portrayed as…

the question is…

this study has shown…

An introductory phrase is anything that comes before the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

Main Subject/Verb-PhraseIntroductory Phrase(Offers Additional Information) (Complete Idea)



19

Interrupters may come between the Subject and Verb-Phrase

The researcher

Subject Interrupter Verb-Phrase

, a leading academic , concluded…

The committee , which was formed ad hoc , decided…

Women , when they appeared at all , were portrayed…

This question , on the other hand , is…

This study , although narrow in scope , has shown…

Notice the commas on both sides of the interrupter

(Offers Additional Information)(Compete… …Idea)



although it is rarely examined.

demonstrating that…

reinforcing the notion that….

although they are less prevalant…

The researcher concluded that stereotypes still exist

Trailers may come after the Subject/Verb-Phrase

Subject Verb-Phrase

Trailers

( = Complete Idea)

(Offers Additional Information)



A Subject/Verb-Phrase.

Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.

Subject Verb-Phrase

The Subject / Verb- Phrase must state a complete idea.


Subject/Verb-Phrase

Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans

to solve the problem.

+ Trailer.



Other elements can be added to develop the main idea expressed inthe main clause …..

Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans.

Subject/Verb-Phrase.Introductory Phrase +

In subsequent trials,



Subject/Verb-Phrase

Lackson and Enscore (1993) modified their plans

Introductory Phrase + + Trailer.

In subsequent trials,

to solve the problem.



20

modified their plans.

Verb-PhraseSubject , Interrupter ,

Lackson and Enscore (1993)

, in their work with split-brain patients,

Be careful with interrupters and try to keep the Subject and Verb-Phrase close together.



But take care not to add too many elements. This may mean your poor reader has to ‘fish’ for the main clause!

Intro Phrase + 2nd Intro phrase

Subj/Verb-Phrase+ Trailer + a 2nd Trailer + a 3rd Trailer…

In the 1960s when little study was devoted to facial expression, like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was culturally determined, that we simply use our face according to a set of learned social conventions, a belief that grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished at the time.

+ 3rd Intro phrase +



Intro Phrase + 2nd Intro phrase +

Subj/Verb-Phrase+ 3rd Intro phrase + + a Trailer.This time, making his way through the jungles of Papua New Guinea to the most remote villages where tribesmen had no problems interpreting the expressions on the photographs he carried of men and women making a variety of distinctive facial expressions, Ekman had a breakthrough that established that expressions were the universal products of evolution.


And, take care, especially if there are a lot of introductory phrases, fishing isn’t enough! The reader has to go deep-sea diving for the main clause!


If your sentence is too long or complicated…

1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase (Make sure it’s a complete idea)

2. Identify secondary elements that could be extracted

3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.




1. Identify the Main Subject/Verb-Phrase

(Make sure it’s a complete idea)

2. Identify the secondary elements that could be extracted

3. Create new sentences around the extracted ideas.

One over complicated and ungrammatical sentence ….


…. becomes FOUR clear and grammatical sentences

In the 1960s, little study was devoted to facial expression.

Like most social scientists of her day, Mead believed expression was culturally determined.

In other words, she believed we simply use our face according to a set of learned social conventions.

This belief grew from the emphasis on motivation and cognition in academic psychology that flourished at the time.


21

• Before every sentence, add “I think that…” and listen for a sense of completion of an idea. “I think that WHO? DID WHAT?

Ekman and Friesen created the Facial Action Coding System, or FACS. Wrote them up in a 500 page binder. It is full of details like the 8 possible movements of the lips it also gives four different changes of the skin between the eyes and the cheeks. Researchers have used this information in many ways. To study schizophrenia and heart disease.

X

X

X


If your sentence is a fragment …


• Subject = plural verb = plural form• Subject = singular verb = singular form

Plural subject has –s ending

Plural verb form has no –s ending

Singular subject has no --s ending

Singular verb form has -s ending

The researchers study

A researcher studies


Subject – verb agreement

Singular and Plural

• More and more women are interested in developing their careers; for this reason, we can expect an increase in the number of women in medicine, law, and scientific research.

• The cost of residential houses has increased by 40% in the last two years. This dramatic rise in prices has forced many young people into the rental market.

• In 1999 the two countries resumed diplomatic talks. This improvement in the relationship between the two countries has facilitated the re-opening of trade links.

Subject

Subject

Subject


Singular and Plural

Wealthy industrial nations and developing nations face different issues in the provision of health-care.Industrial nations are concerned with providing the latest drugs and technology to treat the small number of ill people in the population. In these nations the focus is on the sophisticated treatment of conditions such as heart disease and cancer. Developing nations, in contrast, are faced with the problem of providing for the majority of their population the clean water, the basic drugs and the vaccines that the industrial world takes for granted. In these nations the priority is dealing with diseases that are widespread in the population because of unsanitary living

conditions and the lack of basic health care.

Subject 1

Topic sentence

Subject 2

Detail

Detail


Subject verb agreement

Singular and Plural

• The tense − the time element of a verb − needs to be consistent throughout your writing.

• Decide “when” you want your writing to take place −either yesterday, now, or tomorrow

• Check all: – action verbs (buy, rise, cause…)– state-of-being verbs (is, are, was, were…)– auxiliary verbs (have, had, has…)


Verb tense

Verb tense

The economic situation in Peru is dismal. People lost jobs, inflation had been rising, and all the economic problems had been causing social and political problems. Since there is high inflation, employees cannot buy the same things they buy the month before because prices have been rising 3 times faster than salaries.


Verb tense

22

The economic situation in Peru isdismal. People are losing jobs, inflation is rising, and all the economic problems are causing social and political problems. Since there is high inflation, employees cannot buy the same things they bought the month before because prices are rising 3 times faster than salaries.


Verb tense

• A common problem with pronouns is when it is unclear what word the pronoun refers to.

• This is especially common when the referent word is in a previous sentence.

• Check all your pronouns for any possible misunderstandings.


Pronoun reference

Pronoun reference

• Use the “Find and Replace” function to locate your pronouns, especially

If the referent is 1 or 2 (or more) sentences back, or if there are multiple nouns that the pronoun could be referring to in that sentence, restate the noun.

IT, THEY, THEIR, THEM

• What word does the pronoun refer to?• Is it “close and clear”?


Pronoun reference

• When a solution to a problem causes another problem, it should be reanalysed.

Clearer version

• When a solution to a problem causes another problem, the entire problem-solution process should be reanalysed.

?


Pronoun reference

When you’ve mentioned something previously:At the meeting a student spoke about problems in finding housing. The student emphasised…

When the word is qualified by specific information:

Example 1: Qualified by a phrase:The books on the third shelf…

Example 2: Qualified by another noun:The article commented on the New Zealand economy.

Example 3: Qualified by a relative clause:The enquiry that began in 2001…

Using the definite article - the


The

Part 2: Academic English writing

Essay and report structure2 a

Paragraph structure 2 b

Sentence structure2 c

End of Part Two

23

References

Hubbard J, Thomas C & Varnham S. (2001). Principles of Law for New Zealand Business Students [2nd ed.]. Auckland: Prentice Hall

Pakenham, K.J. (2001). Making connections: Academic reading

techniques. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge

University Press.

Quester, P., McGuiggan, Rl, Perreault, W., & McCarthy,M. (2004). Marketing: Creating and Delivering Value. Sydney, Australia: McGraw Hill

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