Papermaking Science and Technology Book 2 …...Papermaking Science and Technology a book series...
Transcript of Papermaking Science and Technology Book 2 …...Papermaking Science and Technology a book series...
Papermaking Science and Technologya book seriescovering the latesttechnology andfuture trends
Book 2
Second Edition
Totally updated version
Book editorSeppo Kellomäki, Dr., Professor, Faculty of Forest Sciences, University of Joensuu
PublisherPaper Engineers’ Association/Paperi ja Puu Oy
Paperi ja Puu Oy
Forest Resources and Sustainable Management
8
Table of Contents1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................9
2 Trees, forests and forest ecosystems .....................................................................................14
3 Global forest resources ...........................................................................................................97
4 Structure and properties of wood and woody biomass .......................................................133
5 Forest inventories and planning ...........................................................................................216
6 Management of forest ecosystems .......................................................................................252
7 Timber procurement ..............................................................................................................374
8 Timber measurement ............................................................................................................432
9 Wood markets and the cost of wood ....................................................................................475
10 Global forest related policies and governance .....................................................................490
11 The forest sector in a local and global context ....................................................................547
Appendix ................................................................................................................................561
Conversion factors .................................................................................................................562
Index .......................................................................................................................................564
9
Introduction
Forests — resources for many purposes 1 ..........................................................................10
Sustainability — challenges for management and use of forest land2 ..............................11
Objectives and scope of this book3 ......................................................................................12
Chapter 1
14
Chapter 2 Trees, forests and forest ecosystems
Introduction1 ..........................................................................................................................16
Concepts1.1 ...............................................................................................................................16
tree taxonomy1.2 .......................................................................................................................17
Structure of a tree2 ................................................................................................................24
Concepts2.1 ...............................................................................................................................24
Structure of wood2.2 ..................................................................................................................25
Bark2.3 .......................................................................................................................................26
Leaves and needles2.4 ...............................................................................................................27
roots2.5 .....................................................................................................................................28
Functioning of a tree3 ............................................................................................................29
Concepts3.1 ...............................................................................................................................29
photosynthesis3.2 .......................................................................................................................30
Biochemistry3.2.1 ..............................................................................................................30
photosynthetic production of trees3.2.2 .............................................................................32
transpiration3.3 ..........................................................................................................................34
respiration3.4 ............................................................................................................................35
Growth3.5 ...................................................................................................................................38
Concepts and components of growth3.5.1 .........................................................................38
height and radial growth3.5.2 ............................................................................................38
height and diameter growth under climate change3.5.3 .....................................................41
Growth over life span3.5.4 .................................................................................................43
Distribution of growth in a tree and the allometry of a tree3.5.5 .........................................44
Mortality3.6 ................................................................................................................................45
reproductive processes3.7 .........................................................................................................48
Trees in ecosystems and dynamics of the forest ecosystem4 ............................................49
Concepts4.1 ...............................................................................................................................49
15
Trees, forests and forest ecosystems
Functioning and structure of ecosystems4.2 ...............................................................................51
Feedback through energy fixation4.3 ..........................................................................................52
Feedback through nutrient cycles4.4 ...........................................................................................55
Nutrients in tree biomass4.4.1 ...........................................................................................55
Geobiotic cycles affecting availability of nutrients4.4.2 .......................................................55
Decay of organic matter and availability of nutrients4.4.3 ...................................................57
Feedback through hydrological cycle4.5 ......................................................................................62
Succession of ecosystem over time4.6 .......................................................................................66
productivity of the forest ecosystem 4.7 ......................................................................................71
Concepts4.7.1 ....................................................................................................................71
Carbon exchange between atmosphere and forest ecosystem4.7.2 ....................................71
Growth and yield4.7.3 ........................................................................................................75
Trees in ecosystems under climate change 5 ......................................................................79
Global climate change5.1 ............................................................................................................79
Concepts5.1.1 ....................................................................................................................79
Global changes in atmospheric properties5.1.2 ..................................................................79
Observed changes in global climate5.1.3 ...........................................................................79
Future expectations5.1.4 ....................................................................................................80
Impacts of global climate change on vegetation 5.2 ....................................................................82
Mechanisms in short term5.2.1 ..........................................................................................82
Mechanisms in long term5.2.2 ...........................................................................................83
Global impacts on structure and functioning of forests5.3 ...........................................................85
Local impacts on structure and functioning of forests5.4 .............................................................87
Outlines for a case across managed boreal forests5.4.1 .....................................................87
Changes in temperature and precipitation5.4.2 ..................................................................87
Impacts on growth5.4.3 .....................................................................................................88
Impacts on tree species composition5.4.4 ..........................................................................90
Impacts on potential cutting drain 5.4.5 .............................................................................91
Impacts on carbon sequestration 5.4.6 ...............................................................................91
references ............................................................................................................................93
97
Chapter 3 Global forest resources
Biosphere, vegetation zones and forest formations1 ...........................................................98
Biosphere1.1 ..............................................................................................................................98
Vegetation zones 1.2 ...................................................................................................................99
Forest formations1.3 .................................................................................................................100
Boreal forests1.3.1 ...........................................................................................................100
temperate forests1.3.2 ....................................................................................................100
tropical forests1.3.3 ........................................................................................................101
Forest biomass and productivity2 .......................................................................................102
State of global forest resources3 ........................................................................................104
Concepts3.1 .............................................................................................................................104
Forest cover3.2 .........................................................................................................................104
Growing stock and removals3.3 ................................................................................................107
production and consumption of roundwood3.4 ..........................................................................110
Conservation of forests3.5 ........................................................................................................113
Forest health and vitality3.6 ......................................................................................................115
Wood energy3.7 ........................................................................................................................117
Climate change3.8 ....................................................................................................................118
Forest plantations3.9 ................................................................................................................121
the concept of forest plantations3.9.1 .............................................................................121
Global plantation resources3.9.2 ......................................................................................122
Future role of forest resources4 ..........................................................................................124
Future development and utilisation of forest resources4.1 .........................................................124
role of forest plantations in biomass and timber supply4.2 .......................................................126
trends in plantation development4.3 .........................................................................................127
references ..........................................................................................................................130
133
Chapter 4 Structure and properties of wood and woody biomass
Biomass components of trees1 ...........................................................................................134
Introduction1.1 .........................................................................................................................134
Crown mass1.2 .........................................................................................................................135
Stump and root wood1.3 ...........................................................................................................138
Wood as a raw material for pulp and paper2 .....................................................................139
Macroscopic characteristics of wood2.1 ...................................................................................139
Formation of wood2.2 ...............................................................................................................142
Chemical composition of wood2.3 .............................................................................................145
Concepts 2.3.1 .................................................................................................................145
primary cell wall constituents2.3.2 ...................................................................................148
extractives2.3.3 ...............................................................................................................150
Inorganic components2.3.4 ..............................................................................................153
Structure of the cell wall2.4 ......................................................................................................155
Woody cells2.5 .........................................................................................................................158
Concepts2.5.1 ..................................................................................................................158
Softwood cells2.5.2 .........................................................................................................161
hardwood cells2.5.3 ........................................................................................................164
Irregularities in wood2.6 ...........................................................................................................168
Juvenile wood2.6.1 ..........................................................................................................168
reaction wood2.6.2 .........................................................................................................171
heartwood2.6.3 ...............................................................................................................175
Knots2.6.4 .......................................................................................................................178
Moisture content of wood2.7 .....................................................................................................182
Basic density of wood2.8 ..........................................................................................................184
Bark2.9 .....................................................................................................................................196
Wood as a raw material for energy3 ...................................................................................200
Wood-based energy3.1 .............................................................................................................200
heating value3.2 of wood and bark ...........................................................................................202
Recycled wood fibres4 and non-wood fibres as raw materials for pulp and paper .........204
references ..........................................................................................................................209
216
Chapter 5 Forest inventories and planning
Forest inventories1 ..............................................................................................................218
Concepts 1.1 ............................................................................................................................218
tree measurement1.2 ...............................................................................................................218
Measurement of a forest stand1.3 ............................................................................................220
Stand and compartment1.3.1 ...........................................................................................220
Stand characteristics1.3.2 ................................................................................................221
Site characteristics1.3.3 ...................................................................................................222
Forest stand plot1.3.4 ......................................................................................................222
Compartment inventory1.3.5 ............................................................................................223
Large area inventory1.4 ............................................................................................................224
Sampling concepts1.4.1 ...................................................................................................224
Simple random sampling1.4.2 ..........................................................................................225
Systematic sampling1.4.3 ................................................................................................227
Stratified sampling1.4.4 ...................................................................................................227
Cluster sampling1.4.5 ......................................................................................................228
two-phase sampling1.4.6 ................................................................................................230
Use of remote sensing in forest inventories1.5 ..........................................................................230
aerial photographs1.5.1 ...................................................................................................230
Satellite images1.5.2 .......................................................................................................231
Laser scanning1.5.3 .........................................................................................................232
Forest management planning2 ...........................................................................................233
Concepts2.1 .............................................................................................................................233
Cutting budget methods2.2 .......................................................................................................233
planning based on stand economy2.3 .......................................................................................234
217
Forest inventories and planning
Mathematical programming2.4 .................................................................................................235
Optimisation techniques available2.4.1 ............................................................................235
Linear programming2.4.2 .................................................................................................236
Goal programming2.4.3 ...................................................................................................237
heuristics methods2.5 ..............................................................................................................238
problem formulation2.5.1 .................................................................................................238
Outlines of numerical heuristics2.5.2 ...............................................................................240
Simulated annealing 2.5.3 ...............................................................................................240
tabu search2.5.4 .............................................................................................................242
Genetic algorithms2.5.5 ...................................................................................................242
Cellular automata2.5.6 .....................................................................................................243
Including non-timber benefits into forest planning2.6 ................................................................245
Non-timber products2.6.1 ................................................................................................245
recreation amenities2.6.2 ...............................................................................................246
hunting and game2.6.3 ....................................................................................................248
Biodiversity2.6.4 ..............................................................................................................248
environmental services 2.6.5 ...........................................................................................249
risks2.7 ...................................................................................................................................250
references ..........................................................................................................................251
252
Chapter 6 Management of forest ecosystems
I1 ntroduction........................................................................................................................256
ecosystem services in forest production1.1 ...............................................................................256
Management and forest succession1.2 .....................................................................................256
Forest structure and ecosystem services1.3 ..............................................................................257
Management measures1.4 .......................................................................................................259
Processes and measures to establish tree populations2 ..................................................262
Concepts 2.1 ............................................................................................................................262
Measures for natural regeneration2.2 .......................................................................................262
Factors affecting the regenerative process2.2.1 ...............................................................262
Factors affecting the success of the regeneration process2.2.2 ........................................264
techniques and applications2.2.3 ....................................................................................265
Measures for regeneration through planting2.3 .........................................................................267
Factors affecting the regeneration process2.3.1 ...............................................................267
tree species selection2.3.2 ..............................................................................................268
provenance selection2.3.3 ...............................................................................................269
Seedlings for planting2.3.4 ..............................................................................................269
techniques and applications2.3.5 ....................................................................................270
Genetic improvement and tree breeding for forest plantations2.4 ..............................................271
Concepts 2.4.1 .................................................................................................................271
tree breeding 2.4.2 ..........................................................................................................273
traits applied in breeding2.4.3 .........................................................................................277
rules to control the trade in seeds and seedlings 2.4.4 ....................................................279
results obtained in improving genotypes for reforestation2.4.5 ........................................281
Future challenges for tree breeding 2.5 .....................................................................................282
Climate change2.5.1 ........................................................................................................282
Genetic diversity2.5.2 ......................................................................................................283
Use of biotechnology 2.5.3 in tree breeding .......................................................................283
253
Management of forest ecosystems
Processes and measures to promote the growth of established tree populations3 ........284
Growth and need for growing space3.1 .....................................................................................284
Space, growth and mortality3.1.1 .....................................................................................284
Mass and density in tree populations3.1.2 .......................................................................286
Space and differentiation of tree size3.1.3 .......................................................................287
thinning and impacts on availability of resources3.2 .................................................................288
Concepts3.2.1 ..................................................................................................................288
Impacts on radiation in canopy and crowns3.2.2 ..............................................................289
Impacts on soil water3.2.3 ...............................................................................................291
Impacts on nutrient availability 3.2.4 ................................................................................292
thinning regimes 3.3 ................................................................................................................293
Concepts 3.3.1 .................................................................................................................293
Growth of trees and productivity of a tree population3.3.2 ................................................294
thinning rules 3.4 .....................................................................................................................296
Outlines3.4.1 ...................................................................................................................296
timing and intensity of thinning3.4.2 ...............................................................................296
Length of rotation3.4.3 .....................................................................................................297
thinning programme over a rotation3.4.4 .........................................................................298
Management of tree species mixtures3.5 ..................................................................................298
Management for mitigation of climate change and its impacts 3.6 ............................................299
Management to sequestrate carbon for mitigating climate change3.6.1 ...........................299
Management to adapt to climate change3.6.2 ..................................................................302
Processes for improving timber quality 4 ..........................................................................304
effect of spacing and thinning on knots in wood4.1 ...................................................................304
effect of pruning on knots in wood4.2 .......................................................................................307
effect of spacing on basic density of wood4.3 ...........................................................................308
effects of climate change on properties of wood4.4 ..................................................................308
Management of nutrient resources and site fertility5 .......................................................309
Concepts5.1 .............................................................................................................................309
Site preparation in managing site fertility5.2 .............................................................................310
Mechanical preparation 5.2.1 ...........................................................................................310
Ditching5.2.2 ...................................................................................................................311
prescribed burning5.2.3 ...................................................................................................311
254
ChaPter 6
Use of fertilization in managing site fertility5.3 ..........................................................................313
Impact mechanisms on growth5.3.1 ................................................................................313
Growth responses5.3.2 ....................................................................................................315
timber harvesting and impacts on nutrient resources 5.4 .........................................................316
Impacts 5.4.1 ...................................................................................................................316
Nutrient management and sustainable forest production — a case5.4.2 ..........................317
Management of abiotic risks6 ............................................................................................320
Concepts6.1 .............................................................................................................................320
risks of wind damage6.2 ..........................................................................................................321
Mechanisms6.2.1 ............................................................................................................321
Wind risks under current climate 6.2.2 .............................................................................324
Wind risks under climate change 6.2.3 .............................................................................326
risk of snow damage6.3 ...........................................................................................................327
Mechanisms6.3.1 ............................................................................................................327
Snow risks under current and changing climate6.3.2 .......................................................328
risk of wild fire 6.4 ...................................................................................................................330
Mechanisms 6.4.1 ...........................................................................................................330
Fire risk under current and changing climate 6.4.2 ...........................................................332
risk of frost damage6.5 ............................................................................................................332
Management of biotic risks7 ..............................................................................................332
Concepts 7.1 ............................................................................................................................332
Forest herbivores 7.1.1 ....................................................................................................332
Characteristics of pest outbreaks7.1.2 .............................................................................334
herbivorous species attacking trees7.2 .....................................................................................335
herbivore abundance related to tree species7.2.1 ............................................................335
host plant size and growth form7.2.2 ...............................................................................335
taxonomic affinities of host plant7.2.3 .............................................................................336
Insect recruitment by introduced plants7.2.4 ....................................................................336
role of introduced herbivores in forest ecosystems7.2.5 ..................................................337
resistance mechanism of trees against herbivores and pathogens7.3 ......................................338
Constitutive resistance7.3.1 .............................................................................................338
Seasonal variation of constitutive resistance7.3.2 ............................................................339
Induced defence7.3.3 ......................................................................................................340
255
Management of forest ecosystems
Models explaining variation in chemical defence between plants7.4 .........................................345
Management of forest pests7.5 .................................................................................................347
tree resistance7.5.1 .........................................................................................................347
effect of environmental factors on tree resistance7.5.2 ....................................................348
Biological control of pest management7.5.3 .....................................................................349
Viruses in pest management 7.5.4 ...................................................................................350
Bacteria in pest management 7.5.5 ..................................................................................351
Fungi in pest management7.5.6 .......................................................................................351
Chemical control in pest management7.5.7 .....................................................................352
Signalling chemicals in pest management 7.5.8 ...............................................................353
effects of forest management and structure on forest pests7.5.9 .....................................355
Climate change and forest pests7.6 ..........................................................................................357
Management for adaptation to climate change8 ...............................................................359
Concepts 8.1 ............................................................................................................................359
adaptation in forestry and adaptive management8.2 .................................................................360
assessment of needs8.2.1 ...............................................................................................360
Framework for adaptive management8.2.2 ......................................................................362
Management for adaptation — a european example8.2.3 ................................................363
references ..........................................................................................................................366
374
Chapter 7 Timber procurement
Introduction1 ........................................................................................................................376
timber assortments1.1 .............................................................................................................378
Harvesting and timber transport2 .......................................................................................381
harvesting methods and systems2.1 .........................................................................................381
Logging machinery2.2 ..............................................................................................................385
harvesting woody biomass for energy2.3 ..................................................................................393
harvesting of logging residues in connection with final fellings2.3.1 .................................394
harvesting of forest energy biomass from early thinnings2.3.2 .........................................395
Chipping2.3.3 ..................................................................................................................396
Opening forest areas for logging by constructing roads2.4 ........................................................396
Storing timber2.5 ......................................................................................................................399
Organising and planning harvesting operations3 ..............................................................400
Organising timber harvesting3.1 ...............................................................................................400
planning and monitoring of timber procurement3.2 ...................................................................401
Harvesting in industrial plantations4 ..................................................................................406
harvesting conditions4.1 ...........................................................................................................406
Logging technology4.2 ..............................................................................................................408
Debarking of wood during logging4.3 .......................................................................................409
Damage to timber5 ..............................................................................................................409
Causes of damage5.1 ...............................................................................................................409
abiotic damage5.2 ....................................................................................................................410
Fungal decay5.3 .......................................................................................................................411
Comparison of rot types and prevention of rot5.4 ......................................................................412
attack by insects and aquatic organisms5.5 .............................................................................413
Decay caused by bacteria and biological reactions5.6 ...............................................................414
Influence of storage on mill processes5.7 .................................................................................414
375
Timber procurement
Decay in chip storage5.8 ..........................................................................................................415
Storage of bark5.9 ....................................................................................................................419
Environmental impacts of timber harvesting6 ...................................................................419
Common conceptions6.1 ..........................................................................................................419
energy consumption and emissions6.2 .....................................................................................421
Impacts on forest site in thinnings6.3 ........................................................................................422
Impacts on biodiversity, multiple-use of forests, and landscape6.4 ............................................423
Timber trade7 .......................................................................................................................424
purchasing timber on domestic markets7.1 ..............................................................................424
International timber markets7.2 ................................................................................................425
references ..........................................................................................................................427
432
Chapter 8 Timber measurement
Principles and concepts1 ....................................................................................................434
Aims of measurement2 .......................................................................................................436
Measurement of standing trees3 ........................................................................................437
Timber measurement during logging4 ...............................................................................439
Mechanised logging4.1 .............................................................................................................439
Method description4.1.1 ..................................................................................................439
Self-control and calibration of measuring device4.1.2 ......................................................441
Controlling timber measurement4.1.3 ..............................................................................442
accuracy of measurement4.1.4 ........................................................................................443
Optimisation of crosscutting4.1.5 .....................................................................................444
Motor-manual logging 4.2 .........................................................................................................444
Weighing timber with forwarder’s grapple-mounted scales4.2.1 ......................................444
Other methods4.2.2 .........................................................................................................445
Timber measurement at roadside5 .....................................................................................446
Saw and veneer logs — softwoods 5.1 .....................................................................................446
Saw and veneer logs — hardwoods and special timber assortments5.2 ...................................447
Measurement of stacked timber — concepts5.3 .......................................................................448
Measurement of frame volume of stacked timber5.4 ................................................................448
Measurement of stack density of stacked timber5.5 .................................................................449
Weighing timber stacks with grapple-mounted scales on timber trucks5.6 ...............................451
Timber measurement at mill6 .............................................................................................452
Concepts 6.1 ............................................................................................................................452
Weight measurement of timber6.2 ............................................................................................453
Measurement of stack volume of pulpwood on the vehicle6.3 ...................................................454
Frame-scanning of pulpwood volume6.4 ...................................................................................454
Sampling-based frame and bundle measurement of pulpwood6.5 ............................................457
433
Timber measurement
automatic pulpwood measurement and grading stations6.6 ......................................................457
Measurement of volume of saw and veneer logs6.7 ..................................................................458
Measurement of by-products from mechanical wood processing6.8 .........................................459
Detection of timber quality and moisture content7 ...........................................................460
Concept of timber quality7.1 .....................................................................................................460
Quality measurement methods7.2 .............................................................................................460
harvesting and transportation7.2.1 ..................................................................................460
pulpwood at mills7.2.2 .....................................................................................................460
Saw and veneer logs at mills7.2.3 ....................................................................................461
Determination of moisture content7.3 .......................................................................................462
Concept and uses7.3.1 ....................................................................................................462
Selected methods7.3.2 ....................................................................................................462
Development potential7.3.3 .............................................................................................463
Costs involved in timber measurement 8 ...........................................................................464
Concepts8.1 .............................................................................................................................464
harvester-based measurement8.2 ............................................................................................464
truck- or forwarder-based measurement8.3 .............................................................................465
Measurement at roadside8.4 ....................................................................................................465
Measurement at the mill8.5 ......................................................................................................466
Further development of timber measuring methods9 .......................................................466
references ..........................................................................................................................470
475
Chapter 9 Wood markets and the cost of wood
Introduction1 ........................................................................................................................476
Economic structures in wood procurement2 .....................................................................476
Non-industrial, 2.1 private forest ownership ...............................................................................476
Industrial private forest ownership2.2 .......................................................................................477
public ownership2.3 .................................................................................................................478
Economics of forest management and wood production3 ................................................479
Ownership goals3.1 ..................................................................................................................479
revenues from timber sales3.2 .................................................................................................479
Costs3.3 ...................................................................................................................................480
Financial analysis of wood production3.4 ..................................................................................481
Roundwood markets4 .........................................................................................................484
Summary5 ............................................................................................................................486
references ..........................................................................................................................488
490
Chapter 10 Global forest related policies and governance
Background 1 .......................................................................................................................492
Main issues on the global forest agenda2 ..........................................................................492
Deforestation, degradation and desertification2.1 ......................................................................492
Challenges of multi-dimensional sustainable forest management2.2 .........................................492
Climate change and bioenergy2.3 .............................................................................................494
Biodiversity2.4 ..........................................................................................................................494
Other forest benefits and ecosystem services2.5 ......................................................................494
Forests and poverty reduction2.6 ..............................................................................................495
Future, competitiveness and performance of forest-based industries and products2.7 ..............495
Governance2.8 ..........................................................................................................................496
International regimes, nation states and global governance 3 .........................................497
Global forest-related processes and sustainable management of 4
world forest resources ......................................................................................................498
two forerunners4.1 ...................................................................................................................498
FaO Forestry — six decades of information, collaboration and 4.1.1
capacity development ..............................................................................................498
IttO and Itta4.1.2 — can trade save tropical forests? ....................................................501
UNCeD environmental conventions4.2 .......................................................................................503
Convention on Biological Diversity and its expanded forest programme4.2.1 ....................503
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and forest issues4.2.2 ........................505
Convention to Combat Desertification — the Issue of africa and Central asia4.2.3 ...........507
UNCeD-initiated forest processes4.3 .........................................................................................508
regional forest processes and the development of criteria and indicators for 4.3.1
sustainable forest management ..............................................................................508
From UNCeD to UNFF: continuing forest dialogue and search for 4.3.2
the Forest Convention ..............................................................................................512
491
Global forest related policies and governance
Market-based and market-oriented actors and processes5 .............................................517
World Bank and strategic forest financing5.1 ............................................................................517
World trade organization (WtO): free trade and forest sustainability?5.2 ....................................519
Forest industry federations — between bark and wood5.3 .......................................................521
Forest owners’ federations raising the profile of non-industrial private forestry5.4 ....................522
Forest certification — a battle for market shares5.5 .................................................................523
Forest law enforcement governance to combat illegal logging5.6 ..............................................525
Civil society related actors and processes 6 ......................................................................527
eNGOs and market campaigns 6.1 ............................................................................................527
Labour unions in a defence battle6.2 ........................................................................................530
Other civil society actors and processes6.3 ...............................................................................531
Indigenous peoples6.3.1 ..................................................................................................531
World Social Forum6.3.2 ..................................................................................................531
Towards improved global governance of forests?7 ...........................................................533
Diagnosis of the state of global forest governance: between a regime, governance 7.1
and non-governance? ..........................................................................................................533
reasons for weak global forest governance7.2 .........................................................................535
Improved forest governance: a log-jam or slow progress?7.3 ....................................................538
references ..........................................................................................................................541
547
Chapter 11 The forest sector in a local and global context
The forest sector and national economy1 ..........................................................................548
Concepts 1.1 ............................................................................................................................548
Input-output tables1.2 ..............................................................................................................548
production model1.3 .................................................................................................................549
total output1.4 ..........................................................................................................................551
Value added1.5 .........................................................................................................................553
employment1.6 .........................................................................................................................554
Forest industries, forestry and forest clusters in the world economy2 ............................555
Concepts 2.1 ............................................................................................................................555
european forest cluster as an example of international forest clusters2.2 ..................................555
Globalisation of forestry and forest industry 3 ...................................................................556
pulp industry is becoming more global and paper industry more local 3.1 .................................556
Focus of pulp production shifting to fast-growing plantations3.2 ...............................................557
pulp industry based on fast-growing plantations is competitive both in terms of 3.3
cost and quality ...................................................................................................................557
Global forest industry as an example of a sustainable industry3.4 .............................................558
references ..........................................................................................................................560
appendix .............................................................................................................................561