Paper 34 APN Conference 10 January

8/4/2019 Paper 34 APN Conference 10 January

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Role of processed fuels in cooking energy transitions

Abhishek Kar1*

, Sumeet Mohanty2

, Lokendra Singh1

, Anupama Arora1

, Ibrahim

Hafeezur Rehman1, Ram Chandra Pal1

1 The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India

2 Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

* Corresponding Author [email protected] +91-9899972727
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Abstract

In the backdrop of a dominant regime of direct combustion of fuel wood and

agricultural residue as cooking fuel, a transition experiment on processed fuel is

being carried out in a village in India by The Energy and Resources Institute

(TERI) supported by Government of India. Direct combustion of low density

agricultural residues leads to significantly low energy yield per unit volume of

biomass consumed. It is expected that a value chain for processed fuel (through

densification of agricultural residue to yield high energy density low volume mass

through Pelletization process) catering to cooking fuel need of rural households

can contribute to sustainability transition. In the context of renewed interest in

improved stoves, processed fuel (pellets) can improve performance of such stoves

because of consistency in size, energy content, and moisture level resulting in

increased fuel efficiency along with reduction in indoor air pollution. Many

households in developing countries are forced to purchase fuel wood to

supplement their non-monetized biomass fuel supply. Hence, pellets can

potentially become a commercially sustainable substitute to the existing

traditional fuel wood market regime. Further, biomass like fallen leaves, which

otherwise remains unutilized and rots in the open creating a threat to public

health, can be utilized as feedstock for pellet. The experiment has been analyzed

as asustainability experimentin this paper using the Strategic Niche Management

(SNM) framework to understand the innovation and identify its strengths and

short-comings by understanding the interaction between three internal niche

processes.

Keywords: fuel processing, biomass, pellet, rural energy, SNM


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1.0 Introduction: One of the key concerns related to transitions to a more sustainable energy

sector has been fuel and technology switching in rural households of the developing

world (Rehman et al., 2010). Without access to modern cooking and heating energy

technologies and fuel, domestic households are forced to use unprocessed solid biomass

in traditional mud stoves (Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009). It is felt that while

renewed interest in research and investment in cooking devices is pertinent

(Venkataraman et al., 2010), it is also worthwhile to focus on processing of biomass

which can further improve performance of these stoves for rural households (Rehman et

al., 2010, Sharma, Mukunda and Sridhar, 2009). Romjin, Raven and Visser (2010) have

raised concerns on sustainability challenges of structural over-usage of unprocessed

biomass for meeting household energy needs which is characterized by low efficiency

and negative public health and environmental impacts (Ravindranath and Balachandra,

2009).

An experimental project (Kemp, Schot and Hoogma, 1998) involving research,

production and dissemination of pellets (processed biomass based cooking fuel) targeted

at rural households is being implemented by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)

in Uttar Pradesh state of India with financial support from Government of India in 2010.

With potential to contribute to sustainable development, the experiment has been

analyzed as a sustainability experimentin this paper using the Strategic Niche

Management (SNM) framework to understand the innovation (Witkamp, Raven and

Royakkers, 2010). To this end, the paper gives an overview of the dominant regime and

landscape factors (section 2) and an introduction to the pelletization technology and its

significant social and environmental benefits (section 3). In section 4, analyses of the


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dynamics played by the three inter-related processes which are important for niche

development (Berkhout et al., 2010) in context of the project is carried out apart from

describing the protection offered under the experiment (Raven, 2005). In conclusion

(section 5), the paper builds a case for about the need for further research in pelletization

technology and implementation of multiple pelletization projects to create a technology

niche which in the long run can contribute to sustainable transition.

2.0 Existing regime characteristics- wide spread unprocessed solid biomass usage as

cooking fuel: Across the developing world, women are dependent on collected or

purchased biomass as cooking fuel. Non-monetized cooking fuel comprises of fuel wood

(defined by Saxena (1997) as fallen wood, smaller pieces, twigs, wood shavings, saw

dust, bark and roots which have no alternative applications), unutilized (not suitable

either as feed or fodder) agricultural by-products like rice straw, mustard stalk etc., and

dried cattle manure, which are used as cooking fuel by rural households in India and

across the developing world (Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009). Increasingly, more

and more households are also forced to purchase hardwood due to scarcity of fuel wood

in vicinity. This existing bioenergy based cooking regime is dominatedby a combination

of structures, culture and practices such as lack of cash surplus and absence of reliable

supply/access to enable switching over to modern fuels like LPG or processed biomass

based fuel (Raven, Bosch, and Weterings, 2007, Ravindranath and Balachandra, 2009).

About 85% of Indias 159 million rural households and 21.5% of 63 million urban

households use solid un-processed bio-fuels in traditional mud stoves for cooking

purpose (Parashar et al., 2005, NSS, 2010).


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Such cooking practice is characterized with incomplete combustion resulting in emission

of pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen & sulfur

oxides (NOx and SOx) and other toxic compounds including poly-aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs) (Smith et al., 2005) which mostly occurs inside poorly ventilated kitchens in

rural areas across developing countries (Desai et al, 2004). Indoor air pollution (IAP)

increases risk of pneumonia, acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) among children

under 5 years and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) among adults over 30

years of age (Arcenas et al, 2010, Rehfuess et al., 2006). Approximately half a million

premature deaths and nearly 500 million cases of illness are estimated to occur annually

as a result of exposure to smoke emissions from biomass use by households in India

(UNDP/ ESMAP, 2003). It has also been reported that women and children spend

significant time in collection of cooking fuels which have negative health and safety

implications (World Bank, 2003).

3.0 Alternative to existing regime: Pelletization as a form of biomass processing

3.1 Continued dependence on biomass fuels: Considering IEA (2007) estimates

that dependence on unprocessed solid biofuels for cooking is expected to continue

in foreseeable future (632 million Indians estimated to be dependent in 2030) in

conjunction with expected population explosion (and consequent stress on natural

resources), it is imperative to look into biomass fuel processing for such rural

households (Rehman et al., 2010).

3.2 Biomass processing: Biomass processing in the context of cooking fuel for

households involves low cost densification of low grade fuel wood (Saxena,

1997), agricultural residues and other bio-waste such as fallen leaves to develop a

fuel block which can be cleanly combusted to extract energy for cooking or


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heating application (Sharma, Mukunda and Sridhar, 2009). Pelletization is one of

the most prevalent densification processes for biomass resources. Mani (2005)

define it as a mechanized method of densifying biomass such that the bulk density

becomes more than 500 kg/m3 and the moisture reduces to about 8% on a wet

basis. Manufacturing of pellets involves drying of biomass, grinding, and the

pelleting process.

Pelletization of biomass waste and its emergence as a competitor to purchased

fuel wood may be envisioned as a transition from this existing dominant regime

of unprocessed biomass usage as cooking fuel. While research on fuel

densification has been carried out earlier (Saxena, 1997), the scope of research

was targeted at heating applications for processing industries. Under this

transition experiment, the focus is on densification of locally available low cost

biomass for usage as household cooking fuel in a decentralized manner.

3.3 Characteristics and advantages of pelletization: During a given task of boiling

water in a forced draft stove, performance of pellets was compared with hard

wood purchased locally for various aspects such as reduction in indoor air

pollution and reduction in fuel feeding iterations. The results are discussed in

relevant sections related to the advantages of pelletization.

3.3.1 Improved combustion of pellets reduces emission: Fuel

characteristics like packing density of the fuel and moisture content

also affect emissions during combustion (Sharma, Mukunda and

Sridhar, 2009, Atkins et al., 2010). Processed fuel, in form of pellets,

are generally more suitable for burning in stoves because of greater


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density, consistency in size, and lower moisture level thus reducing

emissions. Exposure of cook to black carbon concentration, which is

an important indicator of indoor air pollution, reduced by 50% when

pellets were used in lieu of wood.

3.3.1.1 Size: Atkins et al (2010) indicated that homogeneous size

distribution of wood fuel can significantly increase combustion

efficiency. Further, smaller wood pieces (difficult to chop

manually) with higher surface area to volume ratio expedites

burning as more fuel surface area is exposed to the combustion

chamber temperature resulting in greater heat absorbance per

unit time (Yang et al., 2005). A survey commissioned by TERI

in the project area indicated that manually chopped wood

pieces (greater than 10 cm in length, 5 cm in width and 3 cm in

height) are used for cooking in rural households. TERI pellets

have homogeneity in shape (cylindrical) and size (2 cm length

and 1 cm diameter) resulting in improved combustion.

3.3.1.2 Low Moisture content: Atkins et al. (2010) have reported that

biomass with high moisture content emits significant amounts

of smoke before it can burn properly, as the fuel is unable to

attain the requisite high combustion temperatures quickly.

Gathered biomass or even purchased hardwood has high

moisture content in comparison to pellets which being

produced though a mechanized exothermic process has

moisture content less than 10% (Shokansanj and Felton, 2006).

Greater the moisture content in the fuel during combustion


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more will be the heat of combustion1 which is waste energy as

it converts the moisture to water vapor and does not contribute

to cooking thereby reducing energy efficiency (Van Loo and

Koppejan, 2006). TERI pellets have average moisture content

of 9% to 11% during packing.

3.3.2 Usage of waste biomass: Ravindranath and Balachandra (2009)

estimated that the total agro-residue production in India exceeded 450

Mtons/year out of which the biomass available for energy purposes

amounts to 150 Mtons out of which only 11% is being utilized.

Surplus and unused biomass is usually burnt in the open field, causing

air pollution. Production of pellets locally as clean burning cooking

fuel from locally available resources will create a market for the waste

biomass, providing an incentive to farmers to sell their unused

biomass, instead of burning it. Biomass sources like fallen leaves of

mango and mahua trees which have no food or fodder value have been

utilized in pellet production. TERI pellets have 45% saw dust, 5% rice

husk and 25% fallen leaves and the rest of previous cycle pellet

powder residue and binders.

3.3.3 Easy usage

3.3.3.1 Reduced fuel feed iterations: Chin and Siddiqui (2000)

established an empirical relationship between die pressure

applied during biomass densification (which implies increasing

packing density2 of the densified biomass known as pellet or

briquette) and combustion rate in a standard combustion

1Moisture content increases the specific heat capacity of the fuel because additional amount of heat is required to vaporize the water present

thereby taking more time to reach ignition temperature leading to poor combustion in initial burning period.2 Packing density simply refers to the mass per unit volume of the solid, in this case the fuel


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device. It is observed that as die pressure increases, it leads to

a decrease in the combustion rate and hence increase residence

time. TERI pellets require 14% less fuel charges for a given

task in comparison to hard wood purchased from local market.

3.3.3.2 Easy handling and storage: Past research (Bergmann, 2005;

Mani, 2005) suggests that pellets, unlike raw biomass have a

high packing density hence, rigidity which leads to lower

transportation costs as well as less handling problems, thereby

making it an ideal fuel for domestic stoves. Lehtikangas (1999)

has reported that biomass pellets are less susceptible to

biological decay in comparison to unprocessed biomass due to

lower moisture content, thereby prolonging their storage

period.

4.0 Application of SNM framework to assess success potential of the experimental

project: While SNM has traditionally been used to analyze historical case studies in

retrospective it has a role of technology management strategy of ongoing projects

(Raven, Bosch, and Weterings, 2007). Transition literature identifies three interrelated

processes - voicing and shaping of expectations, network formation and learning &

articulation that influence the potential success of the introduction of an innovation (here,

pelletization) in the context of niche development (Raven, 2005). In the following

sections, each of these three processes has been discussed in the context of this ongoing

experimental project apart from highlighting how the experimental project was offered

protected space.


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4.1 Voicing and shaping of actor expectations: Like any other experimental project,

actor expectations about commercial potential of pellets played an important role

in the early stages of the experiment which enabled investment of resources

(including time and money) when no market existed for pellets (Raven, 2005).

Playing the role of an action research organization, TERI has been instrumental in

voicing concerns (articulating expectations in SNM) about biomass scarcity and

the urgent need to explore biomass based fuel processing for household cooking

fuel in different forums in terms of technology development and commercial

sustainability. As suggested by Raven, Bosch, and Weterings (2007), it attracted

attention and resources of policy makers and government. As a result, the project

sponsor- GoI believed in the societal, economic and environmental benefits of

decentralized fuel processing and its commercial potential and hence agreed to

generously fund a pilot demonstration project. The village entrepreneur, a

businessman, believed in the shared (with TERI) vision of a potential market for

low cost pellet produced from locally available waste biomass and shared initial

project cost. However, it should be noted that protection by project funds in terms

of substantially covering capital costs lowered entrepreneurs risk exposure

(Raven, 2005). Initially demonstration and trials for various combinations (of raw

materials) for pelletization was carried out over a period of three months

involving 0.4 tonnes of pellets across 150 households. It helped in voicing and

shaping of expectation in terms of:

4.1.1 Identification of target customer: During the first round of user trials

actors were encouraged to express their opinion of the commercial

potential of these products. It was communicated by the end users

(actors who are critical for sustainability of such initiatives) during


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first round of trials that pellets will be purchased only by those

households who purchase hard wood from market to meet entire fuel

need or to supplement their gathered biomass. Families using non-

monetized biomass gathered locally articulated their decision of not

intending to switch over to monetized pellets irrespective of its current

and future benefits. Hence, the initial entrepreneur (actor) expectation

of catering to rural households became more specific (Hoogma,

2000) in terms of catering to only those households who purchase fuel

wood where subsequent user trials were conducted.

4.1.2 Creation of price ceiling: During user trials in 45 such households,

majority of end users articulated there inability to spend more than

their then current expenses for cooking fuel irrespective of its

characteristics like lesser smoke. Such price sensitivity created a price

ceiling of 100 USD/tonne for pellets which then was the rate of locally

available hard wood making pricing expectation more specific which

led to re-structuring of pellet composition.

4.1.3 Positive response during trials: As more experiments (user trials)

supported expectations (of a comparatively clean burning and easy to

use fuel at the same price of hard wood), quality of expectations

increased (Raven, 2005; Hoogma, 2000). During user trials as both

end users expressed willingness to purchase pellets and the

entrepreneur being confident of producing pellets within the price

ceiling.

4.1.4 Increased demand for user trials: When the word about user trials

spread, 120 more end users, who then purchased hardwood , expressed


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interest to be part of user trials and insisted on getting samples

before they make purchase decisions. It created more robust user

expectations about pellets as larger number of relevant actors shared

the same expectation (Raven, 2005) of commercial potential of

pellets.

As suggested by transition scholars, this process of articulating and

negotiating shared expectations provided direction to the experiment

(Witkamp, Raven and Royakkers, 2010). As a result, almost 100

households, who earlier used locally purchased hard wood as cooking

fuel, have switched over to pellets (repeat purchase) within a period of

six months having purchased more than 1100 kg at market price (zero

subsidy) of USD 100 per tonne as on 30th November 2010. Overall, it

may be deducted that experimental project had fairly specific and

quality expectations which were growing increasingly robust thereby

improving the chance of successful niche development (Hoogma,

2000).

4.2 Actor network formation: The importance of creating networks in terms of

reducing complexity, scale, investments, risks, and uncertainty by involving

actors from different domains in the project has been extensively highlighted in

transition literature (Mourik and Raven, 2006; Raven, Bosch, and Weterings,

2007). Under this experimental project, conscious decisions were taken to actively

engage multiple actors besides TERI, entrepreneur and end users as it improves

the scope of niche development (Raven, 2005) in the following ways:


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4.2.1 Identify and sensitize potential actors to be part of the network:

TERI has made conscious efforts to ensure than potential stakeholders

from societal, policy and technology domains like key policy makers

and global development institutions like UNDP and DFID officials are

aware of the vision and activities of this experimental project through

periodic briefings and site visits. TERI also requests project sponsor to

undertake multiple mid-term project reviews as the review team

consist of subject experts and influential policy makers who can

potentially play active role in the network. Publications and

dissemination of information (like presentation of this paper in this

conference on Innovation and Sustainability Transitions in Asia)

regarding this project is also being carried out to get expert inputs.

However, it is felt that there is need to more actively engage local

public representatives and community leaders.

4.2.2 Continuous engagement and cross relation amongst network

actors: End user and production teams used to interact on a regular

basis during user trials. However, reluctance of entrepreneur to get in

touch with end users post-sales has been reported and corrective

actions are currently being taken. Further, cross-relation between

actors, sans TERI, has been almost absent which can be a major hurdle

in improvement of network alignment (Raven, 2005).

In conclusion, the existing actor network is heavily TERI dependent

with low cross relationship between other actors which requires

corrective action.


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4.3 Learning processes: Learning in the context of SNM is focused on the changes

executed in the process of the experiment (technology development, actor

interaction etc.) which is aimed to couple with opportunities and overcome

oppositions/barriers in the environment outside of the local project for better

functioning of the innovation (Mourik and Raven, 2006). Under the project, three

key learning processes as mentioned by Raven, Bosch, and Weterings (2007)

have been discussed below in context of the experimental project:

4.3.1 Techno-economic optimization: In order to keep the pellet

production cost within the price ceiling set (please refer to 4.1.2), the

composition of pellet was significantly modified. The proportion of

relatively expensive biomass like rice husk (costing 55 USD/ tonne)

was reduced from 25% to 5% while proportion of freely available

fallen leaves (collection cost of 22 USD/ tonne) was increased from

5% to 25%. As Raven, Bosch, and Weterings (2007) suggested, such

adjustment of technology increases the possibility of successful

diffusion.

4.3.2 Alignment between technical and social aspects: Berkhout et al.

(2010) has highlighted the importance of alignment of user preferences

with technology specifications. Raven (2005) has also highlighted the

important role played by users in the learning process of an

experimental project which is demonstrated in the following section in

terms of negotiating the packaging type.


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4.3.2.1.1 Packaging: During the first round of sales, the

pellets were packaged in 25 kg sacks which lowered

per unit cost of packaging and distribution. It was

reported that some households required 15-20 days

to consume the pellets. Because most rural

households have damp conditions due to thatched

house, the pellets absorbed moisture and performed

poorly in later stage. By early next year, pellets will

also be sold in 5kg jute bags. This has also triggered

unintended add-on benefit of higher demand as

consumers without significant cash surplus prefer

the smaller packs.

4.3.2.1.2 Ignition Style: User feedback pointed out to

difficulty in ignition of pellets and requirement of

large quantities (in some cases exceeding 25 ml;

kerosene costs 0.25 USD/ litre) of kerosene, the

technology usage manual was revised and it

recommended usage of 10- 20 gm of twigs during

lighting the stove along with pellets which

generated enough heat for pellets to reach ignition

temperature.

4.3.3 Reflexive action: Laak, Raven and Verbong (2007) define reflexive

action in transition literature as attention/inclination to question

underlying assumptions such as social values, and the willingness to


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change course if the technology does not match these assumptions.

Under the project, no such reflexive action was demonstrated.

It may be concluded that while there is evidence of first-order learning, defined by

Raven (2005) as learning about the effectiveness of a certain technology to

achieve a specific goal, there is significant scope of improvement in terms of

second order learning of reflexive action .

4.4 Protection from regime: As Caniels and Romijn (2008) points out that the

rationale of protection is to create a space for experimenting with and executing

the innovation process without being subject to immediate market pressures, this

experimental project was protected in multiple direct and indirect ways.

4.4.1 Supply side: The project offered direct protection to ensure regular

supply of pellets both for user trials and off the shelf stock in an

environment without any immediate and direct market demand which

are described below:

4.4.1.1 Capital cost subsidy: As it was a government sponsored

project, local entrepreneur did not bear the capital cost of pellet

machine or initial establishment cost like power connectivity

cost and hence has the liberty of conducting variety of resource

intensive experiments to develop quality pellets instead of

focusing of achieving break even. Further, this enabled

reduction of pellet cost to not only to maintain the price ceiling

but also to make profit of about 120 USD/tonne. As Raven

(2005) pointed out, such protected space created on the basis


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of expectations (by the sponsor) enabled technologists to focus

on development of a radical technology which had no

contemporary market value thereby providing temporary

exemption from dominant regime rules.

4.4.1.2 Technical handholding: Technical and marketing experts

from TERI were engaged in hand holding of the entrepreneur

and his team across the entire value chain- from machine

selection to home delivery of pellets. It helped build local

capacity to carry out pelletization as a professional commercial

enterprise.

4.4.2 Demand side: TERI also executed other activities in the same area

which helped indirectly in creating demand for pellets which are

described below:

4.4.2.1 Awareness about benefits related to clean cooking:

Extensive awareness generation campaigns under the project

were carried out to sensitize local community about benefits of

clean cooking which otherwise would be significantly

expensive for pellet entrepreneur.

4.4.2.2 Dissemination of forced draft stoves: Forced draft cook

stoves with top-loading system (which require small size wood

pieces) were disseminated to almost 1000 households in that

area under other project activities. These beneficiaries faced a

manually tedious job of chopping wood and hence households

who were then already purchasing wood expressed interest to


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purchase small sized pellets which will save the hard work at

no extra price.

Such unique local conditions helped in development of a technological

niche for the radical innovation of pellets which helped users to

create/learn about a new need-pellets and the technology provider to

receive user feedback leading to improvement of quality and reduction

of cost (Raven, 2005; Mourik and Raven, 2006). Lessons drawn from

this experimental project can help create a market in the long run

where a technologically capable entrepreneur can supply pellets in a

commercially sustainable manner thereby replacing the dominant

regime of biomass under-utilization and usage of wood as cooking

fuel.

5.0 Conclusion: Like any other radical innovation, pelletization would require a long

process (even more than a decade) of mutual adjustment and adaptation to form a part of

the then dominant regime of household energy consumption behavior (van Eijck and

Romijn, 2008). As Raven (2005) also pointed out niches are at the cosmopolitan level

of- and above- the local practices of experimental projects, there is need to investigate

the barriers to horizontal scaling of the experimental projectto a scale which is beyond

the local level to be categorized as a niche (Mourik and Raven, 2006). SNM can

significantly contribute to this process by managing the interaction between the different

local projects, and by managing the interaction between these local projects and the wider

selection environment -regime and landscape (Mourik and Raven, 2006). As single

experiments do not result in regime change (Raven, 2005), it is necessary to involve more


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actors for further research in pelletization technology and implementation of multiple

pelletization projects across various agro-climatic and socio-economic zones to enable

comparison between local practices and development of generic lessons. As Raven,

Bosch, and Weterings (2007) suggest, it is also critical to engage in aggregation

activities like technology standardization, documentation and dissemination of best

practices related to biomass resource assessment to identify potential ingredients, trial

and error of combinations, demand assessment and marketing of pellets. This process is

expected to gradually add up to a new technology trajectory which is envisaged to

result in sustainable transition to processing of bio-resources at local level as cooking fuel

in the long run.


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pinewood combustion in a packed bed, Fuel, 84: 2026-2038.

Paper 34 APN Conference 10 January

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Transcript of Paper 34 APN Conference 10 January