Pangasinan Reference Grammar...Although Pangasinan speakers only slightly outnumber speakers of...

PANGASINAN REFERENCEGRAMMAR

PALI LANGUAGE TEXTS PHILIPPINES(Pacific amp Asian Linguistics Institute)

Howard P McKaughanEditor

PANGASINANREFERENCEGRAMMAR

by

Richard A Benton

University of Hawaii PressHonolulu 1971

Open Access edition funded by the NationalEndowment for the Humanities Andrew WMellon Foundation Humanities Open BookProgram

Licensed under the terms of Creative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 40 Inter-

national (CC BY-NC-SA 40) which permits readers to freelydownload and share the work in print or electronic format fornon-commercial purposes so long as credit is given to theauthor The license also permits readers to create and share de-rivatives of the work so long as such derivatives are sharedunder the same terms of this license Commercial uses requirepermission from the publisher For details seehttpscreativecommonsorglicensesby-nc-sa40 The Cre-ative Commons license described above does not apply to anymaterial that is separately copyrighted

Open Access ISBNs9780824879105 (PDF)9780824879112 (EPUB)This version created 20 May 2019

Please visit wwwhawaiiopenorg for more Open Access worksfrom University of Hawailsquoi Press

The work reported herein was performed pursuant to a contractwith the Peace Corps Washington DC 20525 The opinions ex-pressed herein are those of the author and should not be con-strued as representing the opinions or policy of any agency ofthe United States Government

Copyright copy 1971 by University of Hawaii PressAll rights reserved

Foreword

This Reference Grammar forms part of a series for learnersof Pangasinan The other two texts by the same author areSpoken Pangasinan and Pangasinan Dictionary These materialswere developed under a Peace Corps Contract (PC 25-1507)through the Pacific and Asian Linguistics Institute of the Uni-versity of Hawaii

It is the hope of the editor of the series and its authorrsquos thatthese materials will encourage many to learn the languages ofthe Philippines and thereby to get to know its peoples


vii

Preface

Pangasinan is one of the eight major languages of the Philip-pines and is spoken by more than 650000 people most ofwhom live in the central portion of the province of PangasinanAlthough Pangasinan speakers only slightly outnumberspeakers of Ilocano in their own province the cities of SanCarlos and Dagupan the provincial capital Lingayen and mostof the major commercial centers of the province lie within thePangasinan speaking area and this alone makes it advanta-geous for any stranger coming to live in the province to acquiresome knowledge of the language

This book is designed primarily to provide a summary ofvarious aspects of the Pangasinan language which an interestedlearner with some knowledge of English will find useful in fur-thering his studies in the language It is not meant to be usedas a textbook for learning the language --that need has beenprovided for by a companion volume Rather it stockpiles infor-mation in such a way that it may be referred to by the student torefresh his memory on certain points clarify structural featureswhich may be puzzling to him and provide further examples offeatures of the language he may encounter elsewhere and wishto employ in different contexts

The aim of this grammar then is to help the learner interpretwhat he hears and reads and to answer some of the questionsabout the language which are likely to puzzle the Englishspeaking student This book is not however a complete and de-finitive study of the Pangasinan language It is simply a guidedtour and thus will satisfy some people more than others It ishoped however that it will provide the enterprising tourist witha good basis from which to undertake further explorations onhis own and at the same time provide a good overall view of thelanguage for the less ambitions

Technical language has been avoided as far as possible andwhatever special terms or concepts have been introduced arecarefully explained in the text It is assumed that most of thepeople who will be using this book will not be professional stu-

viii

dents of language and would rather not have to learn the jargonof linguistics in order to understand what is being said aboutPangasinan

It is also assumed however that most readers will be incontact with native speakers of Pangasinan and thus have op-portunities for supplementing the knowledge gained from thiswork with first-hand observations of their own The section onphonology for example will not mean very much to someonewho has no opportunity to hear Pangasinan spoken Fur-thermore the notes on many major grammatical elements aresupplemented by translation exercises (with answers) whichwill be most useful to students who already have someknowledge of the language In the explanation of any particularelement however a contrary assumption is made so that evensomeone with no knowledge at all of the language should beable to understand what is being discussed

Finally a word of warning Do not ask your Pangasinan in-formants unless you know them very well indeed to evaluatewhat you say Out of politeness they are likely to tell you thateverything you say is correct Avoid questions that could poten-tially embarrass your informants or friends -if you are not surewhat to say it is better to give several alternatives and askwhich if any is better Even here of course there are endlesspossibilities for being misled as your associates will go out oftheir way to avoid hurting your feelings It is only when theybegin to laugh openly and good-naturedly at your mistakes thatyou can be in any way confident of a straight forward answerto your questions It is always best to observe carefully whatyou hear and to practice speaking the language (and employingnew words or patterns you have picked up) as often as possibleTry to overcome the natural hesitation you may feel at gropingaround in a tongue which is still strange to you And rememberwhen your friends start making fun of the way you speak thelanguage you are probably at last on the way to becoming aproficient speaker of Pangasinan

Preface

ix

Table of Contents

Foreword viiPreface viii

I PHONOLOGY 1Vowels 2Significant sounds 3Pangasinan vowel Phonemes 3The phoneme i 6The phoneme E 9The phoneme e 9The phoneme a 10The phoneme o 11Is there a phoneme u 12General features of Pangasinan vowels 12Pangasinan semivowels 13

Consonants 14Pangasinan consonant phonemes 14Labial consonants 15Dental consonants 16Alveolar consonant 18Velar consonants 18Glottal consonant 19Consonant combinations 20Initial consonant clusters and phonemic ch 20Medial clusters 21Agreement of nasals with following consonants 21Nasal replacement 22

Stress and syllabification 22Initial consonant clusters 22Syllable types 23Syllabification within the word 23Stress 24Stress contrasts 25

Intonation 26Characteristics of intonation patterns 27Critical points 28

x

Relativity of pitch 29Some basic Pangasinan intonation patterns 30

Orthography 35II WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURE 38

Word roots affixes and word classes 39Kinds of root 40Types of affix 40Stems 41Word classes 41

Particles 42Topic marking particles 43Phonological changes 43Use of topic markers 44 Examples (personal markers) 44 Examples (imay iraacutemay) 45 Examples (so) 46

Articles 47Changes in phonological shape 47Use of articles 47 Examples 47

si as an article 48 Examples 48

Attributive and object (non-focus) markers 48Changes in phonological shape 49 Examples 49

Use of attributivenon-topic object markers 49 Examples (attribution) 49 Examples (na marking object) 50

Further uses of na 50Referent markers 51Phonological changes 51 Examples 51

Use of referent markers 52 Examples 52

Benefactive marker 53 Examples 53

Identificational prepositions 53 Examples 53

Temporal and conditional prepositions andconjunctions 54

Examples (anteacutes) 55 Example (alaacutes) 55 Examples (nen no) 55

Table of Contents

xi

Examples (no conditional) 56 Examples (saacuteno saneacuten) 56

The linker ya 56 Examples 57

Displacement of linked phrase 57 Examples 57

Other conjunctions 58 Examples (et baacutelet ingeacuten aacutekin) 59 Examples (tan o) 59 Examples (ta) 60 Examples (kaiaacuten piaacuten insaacuten lapoacute daacutepot bantildeg

baacutentildegno) 61Adverbs 62Negative adverbs 62 Examples 62

Interrogative adverbs 63 Examples 63

Optative adverbs 64 Examples 64

Adverbs of certainty and uncertainty 64 Examples 65

Adverbs of limitation 65 Examples 66

Adverbs of intensity duration continuity andfrequency 67

Examples 68Adverbs of repetition 69 Examples 69

Adverbs of distribution 69 Examples 69

Adverbs of alternation 70 Examples 70

Adverbs of time 70 Examples 71

Adverb of respect 71 Examples 71

Adverb of identity 72Example 72

Adverbs of comparison 72 Examples 72

Adverbs and adjectives 73Pronouns Demonstratives and Pro-Phrases 73

PRONOUNS 74

Table of Contents

xii

Subjecttopic pronouns 74Phonological variations 75 Examples 75

Attributivenon-focus pronouns 75Phonological changes 76Order of subject and attributive pronouns 76 Examples 76

Independent pronouns 77Interrogative pronoun 77 Examples 77DEMONSTRATIVES 78

Basic demonstratives 78Phonological changes 78 Examples 79

Locative demonstratives 79 Examples 79

Combination of locative demonstratives and existentialadjective 80

Examples 80Existential demonstratives 80 Examples 80

Independent demonstratives 80Phonological changes 81Components of independent demonstratives and

articles 81 Examples 81

Independent pronouns and demonstrative stems 82 Example 82

Demonstratives of similarity 82 Examples 82

PRO-PHRASES 82Pro-phrases of time 82 Examples 82

Interrogative pro-phrases 83 Examples 84

Nouns 85Structure of noun stems 85Basic nouns 85 Examples 85

Derived nouns 85Grammatical categories of nouns 86PLURALITY (MULTIPLICITY) IN NOUNS 86

Table of Contents

xiii

Agreement of articles demonstrative adjectives verbsand nouns 87

Devices for indicating plurality in nouns 87Shift in stress 87 Examples 87

Reduplication of first consonant and following vowel 88 Examples 88

Reduplication of initial (C)VC 88 Examples 88

Reduplication of initial (C)VCV 89 Examples 89

Affixation with -(e)s 90 Examples 90

Affixation with ka- hellip -rsquo an 90 Examples 91

AFFIXES ASSOCIATED WITH NOUN STEMS 91Nominal affixes 91Nominalizing affixes 94Multiple classification of word roots 97Non-productive affixes 98

Adjectives 100Structure of adjective stems 100 Examples 101

Constructions involving adjectives 101Phrases containing several adjectives 101Adjectives followed by attributive phrases 102 Examples 102

lsquoSuperlativersquo adjectives 102 Examples 103

Affixes of intensity and diminution 103Derivational affixes 104 Examples 108

Verbs 108Characteristics of verbs 108Aspect 108Transitivity 109Mode 109Focus 110Voice 110Verbal affixes 110Unaffixed passive verb stems 124 Examples 124

Unaffixed verb stems denoting activity itself 125

Table of Contents

xiv

Examples 125Phonological changes in verb and adjec-tive roots 126Stress shifts 126Vowel deletion 126 Examples 126

Numerals 127BASIC NUMERALS 127Spanish derived numerals 127Cardinal numerals 127Spanish derived ordinal numerals 128 Examples 128

Pangasinan numerals 129Ordinal numerals 129Use of simple ordinal numerals 130 Examples 130

COMPLEX NUMERALS 131Individuated numerals 131Distributive numerals 131Frequentative numerals 132 - 132cardinal132Frequentative numerals 132 - 132ordinal132Numerals of limitation 133Numeral of group distribution 133Ordinal numerals 134Fractional numerals 134Affixes associated with numeral stems 134

III PHRASES AND SENTENCES 137Sentence types 138MINOR SENTENCES 138Greetings 138Farewells 139Interjections 140Other minor sentences 140

Equational sentences 141The comment phrase 141The topic phrase 141 Examples 141

Inverted equational sentences 143 Examples 144

Negating equational sentences 144 Examples 144

Cross-reference to attributive and topic pronouns 145 Examples (attributive pronoun + appo-sitional

phrase) 145

Table of Contents

xv

Examples (attributive + topic pronoun + appositionalphrase) 146

Examples (topic pronoun + appositional phrase) 146Verbal sentences 147

STRUCTURE OF VERBAL SENTENCES 147The verb phrase 147Potential subjects of the verbal sentence 147 Examples 148

Other phrases 150 Examples 150ORDER OF PHRASES WITHIN THE VERBAL

SENTENCES 150Normal order 150Emphasis 151Subject functioning as comment phrase 151 Examples 151

Emphasis of time phrase 152 Examples 152

Emphasis of referent of location 152 Examples 153

Shift of subject in emphatic equation-type verbalsentences 153

Displacement of focused attributive phrase by commentphrase 153

Examples 153Displacement of focused attributive phrase by

independent demonstrative 154 Examples 154

Emphasis of subject pronoun 155 Examples 155

Emphasis of linked adjective in verb phrase 155 Examples 155

Pronominalization 156Pronominalization of action-attributive phrase 156 Examples 156

Pronominalization of plural attributive phrase 157 Examples 157

Pronominalization of focused phrase other than actionattributive 158

Examples 158Pronominalization of unfocused non-attributive

phrases 158 Examples 159

Table of Contents

xvi

Displacement of linked complements by subject andattributive pronouns 159

Examples 159Displacement of particles contiguous to verb 160 Examples 160NEGATING VERBAL SENTENCES 161

Equation-type emphatic sentences 161 Examples 161

Negating an anaphoric comment phrase 162 Examples 162

Other verbal sentences 162Negation of verb action-attribute or subject 162 Example 163

Negation of non-equational emphatic sentence 164 Examples 164

Negation of imperative sentences 164 Examples 164

Negation of particles in the verb phrase 165 Examples 165

Anaphoric negative action-attributive phrases 165 Examples 166FOCUS 166

Focus transformations 167Relationship of grammatical to logical categories 169Changes in status of focused and un-focused

phrases 169Transitivity actors objects and goals 171 Examples 172

Sets of focus affixes 173Focus of verbs used in lsquoinfinitiversquo sense 174 Examples 174

Focus relationships between questions and replies andin verb sequences 175

Imperative sentences 177Modal imperatives 177 Examples 178

Declarative imperatives 178 Examples 179

EXERCISES DIRECT VOICE VERBALSENTENCES 180

Active sentences 181Exercise I on- -inm- 181Exercise II man- man- 181Exercise III maN- aN- 181

Table of Contents

xvii

Exercise IV mangi- antildegi- 182Exercise V aka- 182Exercise VI mi- aki- 183Exercise VII mi- hellip -an aki- hellip -an 183Exercise VIII maka- 183Exercise IX maka- + pi- 184Exercise X makaka- 184Exercise XI magsi- nagsi- 185Passive affixes 185ExerciseExercise XII -en -in- 185Exercise XIII i- in- 186Exercise XIV ni- 186Exercise XV na- a- 187Exercise XVI nana- + stress shift etc 187Exercise XVII pan- inpan- paN- inpaN- pantildegi-

inpantildegi- 188Referent focus affixes 188Exercise XVIII -an -in- hellip -an 188Exercise XIX pan- hellip -an nan- hellip -an 189Exercise XX paN- hellip -an aN- hellip -an 189Exercise XXI pantildegi- hellip -an antildegi- hellip -an 189Exercise XXII na- hellip -an a- hellip -an 190Exercise XXIII paka- hellip -an aka- -an 190Exercise XXIV na- hellip - an na- + stress shift etc hellip

-an 191Benefactive focus 191Exercise XXV i- hellip -an in- hellip -an 191Exercise XXVI ni- hellip -an 192Instrumental focus 192Exercise XXVII (i)pan- inpan- 192Exercise XXVIII (i)pantildegi- inpantildegi- 193

CAUSATIVE VOICE 193Implications of causative voice 193Transitivity and focus relationships in causative

sentences 194Active sentences 194 Examples 195

Passive sentences 195 Examples 196

Referent focus sentences 196 Examples 197

Benefactive and instrumental focus sent ences 197 Examples 198EXERCISES CAUSATIVE VERBAL SENTENCES 198

Table of Contents

xviii

Active sentences 198Exercise XXIX man- nan- + pa- 198Passive sentences 199Exercise XXX i in- + pa- 199Exercise XXXI na- a + pa- 199Referent focus sentences 200Exercise XXXII -an -in- hellip -an + pa- 200Benefactive focus sentences 200Exercise XXXIII i- hellip -an in- hellip -an + pa- 200

Appendix I 202Index to Affixes 202

Appendix II 210Key to Exercises 210

Appendix III 225Miscellaneous Lexical Items 225Personal pronouns 225Basic demonstratives 225Case-marking particles 225Basic numerals 226Focus-marking verbal affixes 226Active affixes 226Passive affixes 226Referent focus affixes 226Benefactive focus affixes 226Instrumental focus affixes 227Agent focus affixes 227Examples of affixed verb stems 227Basic Vocabulary (Swadesh 200-word list) 228

Table of Contents

xix

IPHONOLOGY

1

IPHONOLOGY

In this section the sounds of Pangasinan are discussed --firstly the vowels and consonants then stress and intonationpatterns As far as is possible these aspects of Pangasinanspeech are compared and contrasted with similar aspects ofEnglish However the student should continually bear in mindthe fact that such comparisons are necessarily inexact and thateverything that is lsquosaidrsquo in this section will be far more meaning-ful when it is said again in the context of natural conversationby a Pangasinan speaker

VOWELSUntil very recently at least children in English speaking

countries have been taught that there are five vowels -a e io u Some learn later that what this really means is that thereare five letters of the alphabet which between them representmost of the vowel sounds in English and other languages usingthe Roman alphabet but that there is not necessarily a one toone correspondence between letter and sound in any given lan-guage (and that in two different languages the same letter mayrepresent quite dissimilar sounds --so that what a Spaniard andan Englishman would say if asked to read the word pie each as-suming it was a word in his own language would give us twosharply divergent pronunciations)

In Pangasinan the conventional five letters are used to rep-resent four or five (maybe even six for some speakers) differentvowel sounds one letter e having two possible pronunciationswhile two others o and u really standing for a single significantsound By and large however there is a close correspondencebetween the letter and the significant sound in Pangasinanwhich makes it much easier for a foreigner to read Pangasinanthan a language like English where the spelling system is muchmore complex

2

Significant soundsWhat are these lsquosignificantrsquo sounds Many linguists and lan-

guage teachers use the term phoneme to describe a cluster ofspeech sounds that native speakers regard as the same (or thatthe linguists think they ought to regard as the same) althoughthey may be perceived differently by speakers of other lan-guages To give an example let us compare the English wordsskip and king To English speakers the consonant before thei in both words is the same and identical with the consonantin queue or the first consonant in quiet and the last in aspic(notice that this is a matter of pronunciation not spelling) Wecould call this sound k enclosing it in slashes to show that it isa phoneme

Just like the atom however the phoneme can be split up intoa number of constituent parts In the case of English k twosuch parts are represented in the words king and skip --the kin king is accompanied by a king size puff of breath while com-paratively little extra air is expelled with the k in skip So itcan be said on the basis of the two words discussed that thephoneme k in English has at least two phonet ic variants oneof which is aspirated (the k in king) and one that is not Thesevariants could be written [kh] and [k] respectively if there is aneed to distinguish them

Of course it is possible to go much further than this insplitting up the phoneme --in the opinion of some linguiststhe concept of the phoneme is itself open to dispute Certainlythere is a tremendous amount of variation among speakers ofa language and even within the speech of a single individualin the production of any phoneme or phonetic variant thereofHowever the idea of the phoneme is not hard to grasp and isvery useful to the learner of a language so in the ensuing dis-cussion of Pangasinan we shall list the various phonemes andtheir gross constituents and compare them with the Englishsounds to which they show greatest affinity

Pangasinan vowel phonemesAll speakers of Pangasinan recognize four vowel phonemes

which we may symbolize as a e i o Many speakers distin-guish a fifth which may be symbolized as E (to separate it frome --they are both normally written with the letter e) Some maydistinguish yet another significant sound u although for most

PHONOLOGY

3

speakers the letters u and o are used in writing to representa single unit o and are not symptomatic of a phonemic dis-tinction

Vowels are essentially sounds made by allowing air toproceed from the vocal chords through the mouth and emergeinto the outside world without being subjected to stoppage orfriction at any point along the way Vowel sounds are given theirquality by the position of the tongue in the mouth which whilenot blocking the outflow of air does significantly determine thecourse it must take to escape from the mouth For examplethe English word beat contains a vowel sound that is madeby placing the tongue quite high up and near the front of themouth We can call this sound a lsquohigh front vowelrsquo and sym-bolize it with the letter i If we compare i with the vowelsound in bet we find that although the tongue is as far forwardin one sound as in the other it is not as close to the roof of themouth in the latter as it is in the former We may therefore callthe vowel sound in bet a lsquomid front vowelrsquo and symbolize it ase (remembering that we are discussing English vowels at themoment not those of Pangasinan) If we say bat we find thatthe tip of the tongue is still near the front of the mouth but thatthe rest of the tongue is even further from the roof of the mouththan it was when we pronounced bet So bat may be said to havea lsquolow front vowelrsquo which we will call aelig

We have thus established three degrees of height for thetongue and assigned a vowel sound to each degree We can dothis where lsquofrontnessrsquo of the tongue is concerned too Startingagain from beat compare i with the vowel sound in the wordjust in a sentence like lsquohe left just a minute agorsquo where justis said rather quickly and is not stressed at all This time thetongue is still high in the mouth but not as far front So we maycall the sound a lsquohigh central vowelrsquo and symbolize it by i Ifwe compare this sound to that of the vowel in hoot we find thatthe latter is even further back In addition our lips are roundedwhen we pronounce hoot but are not rounded when we pro-nounce beat bet bat and just Therefore we can say that thesound in hoot to which the symbol u may be assigned is inaddition to being a lsquohigh back vowelrsquo also a rounded vowel andthat i e aelig and i in addition to their other qualities areunrounded vowels

PANGASINAN REFERENCE GRAMMAR

4

We can quickly add some more points of reference to thosewe have already listed The word luck contains a mid centralvowel say ᵊ father has for its first vowel a low central vowelsay a cot at least in New England and Received Standard(British) English a low back rounded vowel o whereas homein New England or the lsquoslangrsquo gonna (= going to) has a midback rounded vowel o in its first syllable The vowel soundin bit is a little lower than that in beat --we can describe itas lower-high front unrounded and symbolize it as I --it hasa counterpart in look a lower-high back rounded vowel (ie alittle lower than u in hoot) which can be represented as U

We are now in a position to examine the vowel sounds ofPangasinan by comparing them on the basis of tongue heightand frontness and lip rounding with the English vowels wehave been discussing To do this a chart can be constructedon which the English vowels with the values we have assignedthem may be placed along with the main variants of the Pan-gasinan phonemes we have listed Then each of the Pangasinanphonemes may be discussed in turn

LIPS UNROUNDED ROUNDEDTongue Front Central Back of

CentralBack

HIGH i [i1] i [e] u [o1]

LOWERHIGH

I [i2] [e] U [o2]

HIGH MID [E][i3]

[o3]

MID e[E]

ǝ o

LOWERMID

[a1]

LOW aelig a [a2] [a3] ǝ

PHONOLOGY

5

RELATIVE POSITION OF ENGLISH AND PAN-GASINAN VOWELS English phonemes enclosedin slashes eg i phonetic variants of Pan-gasinan phonemes enclosed in square bracketseg [i1] [i2] [i3]

The phoneme iIn Pangasinan i has three major variants labelled [i1] [i2]

and [i3] respectively in the chart above Although they use thesevariants in an orderly way in their speech most speakers ofPangasinan are not aware that they are different sounds Thuswe can say that [i1] [i2] and [i3] are members of the same sig-nificant sound or phoneme i In writing this sound is repre-sented by the letter i (but see also the discussion on E below)

[i2] which sounds like the English I in bit can occur inany position in a word but is always the sound made when iis neither stressed nor the last sound in a word unless the un-stressed i occurs before another vowel with no pause in be-tween There is one important difference between English Iand Pangasinan [i2] as well as between English U and Pan-gasinan [o2] its nearest equivalent and that is that the Englishvowels I and U are pronounced with the vocal chords relaxedin contrast with English i and u where the vocal chord aretense --compare the vowel sounds in bit and beat and thosein look and luke and you will find that the second member ofeach pair requires the construction of your throat when youpronounce the vowel In Pangasinan however this contrast oftenseness with laxity is not inherent in the vowel as it is inEnglish but is determined by stress --when the vowel is stronglystressed it is also tense when weakly stressed it is lax so thatunlike their English cousins the Pangasinan vowels [i2] and [u2]may be either tense or lax as may [i1] and [o1] (which corre-spond to the tense vowels i and u in English) Stress is dis-cussed later in this chapter it is sufficient to say here that allwords with more than one syllable and also many with only onesyllable have at least one strong stress which is marked in theexamples given in this book and in some other works by anacute accent (´) over the vowel in the syllable concerned


6

[i2] is also the form assumed by stressed i when it is fol-lowed by two consonants with no pause interrupting the se-quence or by one consonant followed by a pause What is meantby lsquopausersquo here is normally the transition from one word to an-other but as in rapid speech words are sometimes lsquotelescopedrsquoit is more accurate to talk about pauses even though these arein fact most often equated with the ends of words

Words of the type where Pangasinan i is always pro-nounced as [i2] are

iknoacutel lsquoeggrsquoineacuter lsquowherersquobilaacutey lsquolifersquopilaacutepil lsquoirrigation dykersquobaiacutem lsquoyour grandmotherrsquoawiacutet lsquobring carryrsquomasamiacutet lsquosweetrsquopiacutesta lsquofiestarsquo

[i1] which is somewhat like English i in beat occurs mostoften in stressed syllables except in the environments men-tioned above in connection with [i2] (ie before a final con-sonant or before two consonants when no pause intervenes)Although [i1] is more commonly heard in such stressed syl-lables [i2] may also be freely substituted for it when i occursas the last phoneme before pause it may be pronounced as [i1][i2] or [i3] whether the syllable is stressed or not (see below)

Words of the type where i is frequently pronounced as [i1]are

iacuteba lsquocompanionrsquoniacutetan lsquolocated therersquosaliacuteta lsquospeechrsquo

[i3] which sounds a little like the English e in bet but alsohas affinities with I in bit as the tip of the tongue is closer tothe front of the mouth than is the case with English e but notso far forward as with English I may occur only when i is thelast phoneme before pause In this position however it may alsobe replaced by either [i1] or [i2] the latter being more likely ifthe syllable is unstressed and the former in a stressed syllable

PHONOLOGY

7

Words of the type where [i3] may occur are

baacutei lsquograndmotherrsquo (sometimes written bae)poacutenti lsquobananarsquo (in some areas pontiacute)andiacute lsquonorsquo

There is a fourth variant of i which is not listed in the chartThis is the semivowel y a phoneme in its own right whichreplaces unstressed i whenever the latter occurs immediatelybefore another and different vowel (To save endless repetitionunless the contrary is stated explicitly it may be assumed by thereader that all positional descriptions like lsquofinalrsquo lsquoinitialrsquo lsquofol-lowed by two consonantsrsquo etc refer to the context of a singleunit (usually identical with a word) bounded by pauses --pausesbeing a perceptible transition from one word to another or si-lence)

Words where i becomes y are typified by the following

siaacutek lsquoIrsquo ([syaacute3k])bieacutek lsquoover on the other sidersquo ([byeacutek])diaacute lsquoherersquo ([dyaacute1])municiacutepio lsquotown hallrsquo ([mo2ni2ciacute2Pyo3])

To summarize it may be said that Pangasinan i has the fol-lowing qualities

[i1] (like English i in beat) especially in stressed syllableswhere it is not followed by a final consonant or by two conso-nants in sequence and also finally

[i2] (like English I in bit) in any position except where ymay replace i and especially in unstressed syllables and instressed syllables when followed by two consonants in sequenceor by a final consonant

[i3] (somewhat like English e in bet) word final onlyy when unstressed and followed by any vowel except an-

other i


8

The phoneme EPangasinan E is absent from the speech of many native

speakers of the language while very much present in that ofmany others For those who do not have E the phoneme iis substituted in those places where E would otherwise occur(with a few additional changes in some cases -this will be re-turned to below) E is a mid to high-mid front vowel soundingsomething like the English e in bet or a little higher like the[i3] variant of Pangasinan i

The words in which E may occur are mainly of Spanishorigin and in these E is represented by the letter e For peoplewho use i instead of E in these environments further changesmay be made -the combination yE for example is likely tobecome simply i as in fiesta -- pyEsta to those who use Epiacutesta to those who do not Even people who often use E intheir speech may not always do so in words where its Spanishequivalent was originally present however -- peso lsquopesorsquo isusually pronounced and written piacuteso even by people whouse E consistently elsewhere veinte lsquotwentyrsquo is similarly com-monly pronounced baiacutenti (where the final i may be [i3] andthus equivalent to E) in this case E is transformed into abefore i --some speakers those who do not use E at all willpronounce this word as biacutenti

Words in which E is commonly encountered are

luacutenes lsquoMondayrsquoanteacutes lsquobeforersquofieacutesta pyEacutesta lsquofiestarsquoviernes byEacuternEs lsquoFridayrsquotres lsquothreersquo

The phoneme ePangasinan e is quite different from the sound most com-

monly associated with the letter e in English or in Spanisheither for that matter It is more like the vowel sound in lookpronounced without rounding the lips The English soundsnearest to it are (apart from u and U) i and ǝ but neitherof these is very like Pangasinan E This sound will probablybe the hardest for the English speaker to imitate successfully

PHONOLOGY

9

--however if one were to practice saying English u and Uwithout rounding the lips the resulting sound would be veryclose to Pangasinan e

Words in which Pangasinan e appears are

pegleacutey lsquomiddlersquotaacutewen lsquoskyrsquosileacutew lsquo(artificial) lightrsquoeleacutek lsquolaughrsquoed lsquoto for atrsquo

The phoneme aLike i Pangasinan a has three major variants Of these

one ([a1]) sounds somewhat like the vowel in English jump al-though the Pangasinan sound is made a little lower and furtherback than its English cousin while the other two ([a2] [a3])sound much like the English vowel a in father the main dif-ference between them being that the more commonly encoun-tered of the two ([a3]) is pronounced with the tongue furtherback in the mouth than the other which is very close to itsEnglish counterpart

[a2] is usually encountered only before y in which envi-ronment [a1] and [a3] may also occur

[a3] occurs initially and finally and is common in stressedsyllables

[a1] is most common in unstressed syllables but may alsooccur in stressed syllables

Words in which a commonly takes the form of [a1] are

anaacutek lsquochildrsquo ([a3naacute1k])maksiacutel lsquostrongrsquolamaacuten lsquobodyrsquolampiacuteng lsquodiaperrsquoiacutebak lsquomy companionrsquo

[a2] may occur in words like

naynaacutey lsquooftenrsquoday lsquotheir by themrsquo + marker -y


10

saacuteray lsquothe (pl)rsquo ([saacute3ra2y])may lsquonon-personal subject markerrsquo

[a3] occurs in words like

iacuteba lsquocompanionrsquolimaacute lsquofiversquosaliacuteta lsquospeechrsquo ([sa1liacuteta3])pilaacutepil lsquoirrigation ditchrsquo

The phoneme oPangasinan o follows almost the same pattern as i as far

as its major variants are concerned Apart from the three formsshown on the chart there is a fourth w which replaces o inthe same circumstances that y replaces i

[o2] similar to the vowel in English look is the form of ofound especially when o occur in unstressed syllables or astressed syllable when followed by a consonant which in turn isfollowed either by pause or by another consonant [o2] may alsooccur wherever [o1] or [o3] are permitted

[o1] like the vowel in English moon is found in stressedsyllables except when these are followed by a consonant pluspause or a second consonant It may also occur where [o3] is al-lowed

[o3] which is like the o in gonna is found only when ooccurs immediately before pause (But see also note on ubelow)

w replaces o when the latter occurs unstressed before an-other vowel unless the o is the last phoneme in a root andthe following vowel belongs to an affix (eg lutoaacuten (lutoacute lsquocookrsquo+ -aacuten) or is in a root which consists of a consonant o and astressed vowel (eg duaacute lsquotworsquo)

Words in which [o1] commonly occurs are

moacuteling lsquoforeheadrsquomenuacutedo lsquofish dishrsquo ([mEnuacute1do3])suacutelat lsquoletterrsquo

PHONOLOGY

11

Words in which [o2] is encountered are

losoacuter lsquocuprsquoaroacutem lsquosomersquotongtoacuteng lsquoconversationrsquo

Words in which [o3] may occur are

batoacute lsquostonersquoasoacute lsquodogrsquokayoacute lsquoyou (plural or respect)rsquo

w replaces o in words like the following

dueacuteg lsquocarabaorsquo (doeacuteg becomes [dweacuteg])sueacuteldo lsquosalaryrsquo (soEacuteldo becomes [swEacuteldo3])kuaacuten lsquosaidrsquo (koaacuten becomes [kwaacute1n])

Is there a phoneme uSome speakers of Pangasinan may consistently distinguish

[o1] from [o3] in words of Spanish origin where [o1] would par-allel Spanish u and [o3] Spanish o Much more commonlyspeakers will make this kind of distinction in some words ofSpanish origin and treat the rest as if they were indigenousPangasinan words following the rules given above Thus it isconvenient to recognize only o as a significant sound and notethat some of its variants may occur in unexpected places in thespeech of some speakers Thus in the word oacutecho lsquoeightrsquo [o3] mayappear as the first as well as the last vowel and in diroacutesa lsquopinkrsquo[o3] may occur instead of [o1] as might be expected

Orthographically o is represented by the letters u and owhich are used interchangeably in almost any word in which ooccurs --to give one example loto lsquocookrsquo may be written lutoloto lutu or lotu (the first three versions being very commonlyencountered) all representing the same pronunciation

General features of Pangasinan vowelsThere are a few features common to all Pangasinan vowels

which may be mentioned here All are tense under stress andrelaxed when unstressed (as explained earlier in this section)


12

Secondly when a vowel is followed by another vowel of thesame quality (as when a is followed by a e by e i by ietc) the two vowels may be lsquorun togetherrsquo to make one longvowel Similarly stressed vowels may be lengthened (ie takemore time to pronounce) while a vowel at the end of a sentenceor phrase (before a major pause) is always lengthened

One very important difference between English and Pan-gasinan vowels is that the latter do not lose their quality whenunstressed as do many English vowels Unstressed syllablesare not skipped over quickly in Pangasinan --although thestressed syllables are often lengthened the vowels in the un-stressed syllables are always articulated clearly (even i and uare not partial exceptions to this statement as their variantsy and w have essentially the same phonetic features as thevowels they lsquoreplacersquo)

Like English vowels Pangasinan vowels in initial positionare preceded by a non-phonemic glottal stop (the sound pro-duced by stopping temporarily the passage of air through thethroat before articulating an initial vowel as in oh) This sameglottal stop may also be inserted between two vowels followingeach in sequence although it is often absent in such environ-ments depending on the speakerrsquos whim

Pangasinan semivowelsy and w are often called semivowels because although

they have most of the qualities of vowels they do not form thecenter of a syllable --that is they are not directly subject toany kind of stress whether light or strong (what we have beencalling lsquounstressedrsquo vowels are vowels which are centers of syl-lables and not strongly stressed) Thus while being formed inthe same way as true vowels they are used in the same way asconsonants

y is a high front semivowel with the tip of the tongue inabout the same position as for i but with the part of the tonguenear the palate a little higher This gives rise to a lsquopalatalizingrsquoeffect on consonants followed by y especially s d and twhich come to sound like sh in English show j in English jeepand ch in English chip respectively in this environment -- thussiaacutek lsquoIrsquo sounds like shyaacutek diaacute lsquotherersquo sounds like ǰyaacute andtioacute lsquounclersquo sounds a bit like chyoacute y becomesrsquo invisiblersquo orrather lsquoinaudiblersquo following i at the end of a word and may

PHONOLOGY

13

be dropped or retained at will when following i in other envi-ronments -- thus eg iyakaacuter lsquowill be movedrsquo may be pronouncedwith or without the y With certain word roots an initial ymay occur in the speech of some people but be absent in thatof others akaacuter lsquomoversquo is one example of this alternating withyakaacuter others are aacutetol lsquokeeprsquo alternating with yaacutetol and thegrammatical linker ya alternating with a (and -n)

Words containing y are exemplified by biacutenyag lsquobaptismrsquomanyoacutegtan lsquohave a younger child pageacutey lsquorice grainrsquo yoacuteyolsquoyoyorsquo say lsquothersquo

w is a little higher and further back than [o1] The combi-nationow (written uw or ow) may be reduced to o under thesame conditions as iy is reduced to i An audible w may beinserted whenever o followed by another vowel is not itself re-duced to w - thus for example luaacute lsquotearrsquo may be pronounced(and sometimes spelled) lowaacute luacutetoen lsquobe cookedrsquo loacutetowen

Some typical examples of words containing w are saliacutewlsquobuyrsquo awiacutet lsquocarryrsquo walaacute lsquoexistsrsquo linaacutewa lsquobreathersquo sileacutew lsquolightrsquo

Apart from the special peculiarities discussed above w andy play the same role within the word as any of the true conso-nants

CONSONANTS

Pangasinan consonant phonemesExcluding y and w there are thirteen consonant

phonemes employed by all speakers of Pangasinan and a fewothers which are used by varying numbers of individuals Ofthese questionable phonemes only one ch is of any specialimportance

Unlike vowels consonants are produced by obstructing theoutflow of air from the lungs to the atmosphere usually some-where in the mouth It is the nature and location of the ob-struction which gives the various consonants their distinctivequality

Firstly the location of the obstruction Pangasinan conso-nants offer five possibilities in this regard --the air may beobstructed at the lips the teeth the alveolar ridge between


14

the teeth and the palate near the velum at the back of themouth or right in the throat itself Similarly there are fivemajor ways in which the air is obstructed as far as Pangasinanconsonants are concerned --it may be stopped altogether di-verted through the nose trilled forced through a constrictedopening or allowed to flow around the side of the tongue Fur-thermore the vocal chords may or may not be vibrating whilethe other activities are taking place We may summarize thesepossibilities in a chart locating the major phonemes on it (ig-noring for the moment variations within each phoneme) andthen go on to discuss the phonemes individually For conve-nience the last two methods of obstruction mentioned abovemay be termed fricative and lateral respectively Sounds madewithout vibrating the vocal chords are labelled voiceless

Location of ObstructionManner ofObstruction lips teeth alveolar velum throat

stopped bp

dt

gk

nasal m n ntildegtrilled r

fricative s hlateral l

PANGASINAN CONSONANT PHONEMES(Asterisk indicates voiceless sounds)

Labial ConsonantsThe three labial consonants b p and m are alike in that

to produce them the flow of air from the mouth is stopped bymomentarily closing both lips

b is pronounced in much the same way as English b in bigWhen it occurs finally b may be unreleased ie the sound ischoked off by failing to open the lips to release the stopped air

PHONOLOGY

15

Examples of words containing b are baboacutey lsquopigrsquo vieacuternes(byiacuternis or byEacuternEs) lsquoFridayrsquo baacuteka lsquocowsrsquo sakoacuteb lsquocoverrsquo am-balangaacute lsquoredrsquo It should be noted that Spanish v retained inthe spelling of some words is generally treated as b by Pan-gasinan speakers

p is pronounced like the English p in spit ie it is exactlylike b except that the vocal chords are not vibrated A largepuff of breath does not accompany the release of this phonemeJust as with b p may be unreleased when it occurs at the endof a word

Some words containing p are poliacutes lsquopolicemanrsquo pawiacutellsquoreturnrsquo fieacutesta (pyEacutesta or piacutesta) lsquofiestarsquo plangaacutena lsquowash tubrsquokapoacutet lsquolidrsquo lampiacuteng lsquodiaperrsquo sangpoacutet lsquoendrsquo gaacutelip lsquoto slicersquoSpanish f is generally treated as p by Pangasinan speakers asin the example above

m the nasal member of this group is formed and pro-nounced in the same way as English m in moon It has no specialpositional variations

Examples illustrating m are masibaacute lsquovoraciousrsquo maacutemalsquosirrsquo amaacute lsquofatherrsquo amtaacute lsquoknowrsquo aroacutem lsquootherrsquo

Dental ConsonantsThe dental consonants d t n r and l share the

common attribute of being formed with the tip of the tongueplaced close to the back of the upper teeth

d originally had two main variants one corresponding tothe lsquomodernrsquo d described here and the other to r --the latteroccurring only between vowels or freely replaceable by thepresent d at the end of a word The introduction of manywords into the language where r occurs in other positions hasnecessitated the recognition of this sound as a phoneme sep-arate from d but nevertheless d remains very rare inter-vocalically and in most Pangasinan words with initial d thatsound is replaced by r if a prefix ending in a vowel is added tothe word -thus daboacutek lsquodustrsquo but maraboacutek lsquodustyrsquo dageacutem lsquowindrsquomarageacutem lsquowindyrsquo daacutesal lsquoprayrsquo mandaraacutesal lsquois prayingrsquo


16

Pangasinan d differs from English d as in dug in that thetongue always touches the teeth when it is articulated -- the wayEnglish d is formed in dig is quite close to its Pangasinan coun-terpart Pangasinan d like p and b may be unreleased infinal position

Some further examples of words containing d are diaacutelsquoherersquo (see notes on y above) moacuteda lsquofashionablersquo itdaacuten lsquowill begiven forrsquo tedteacuter lsquochop uprsquo andiacute lsquonorsquo

r occurs in indigenous words as an offshoot of d and alsoin many lsquoforeignrsquo words - eg pasiaacuter lsquoto go around visitingrsquoraacutedio lsquoradiorsquo priacutesio (also preacutesio-priacutesyo or prEacutesyo) lsquopricersquomaacutedre (maacutedrE or maacutedri) lsquonunrsquo r is articulated in about thesame place as d but the air is not stopped --it is instead in-terrupted briefly by tapping the tongue against the back of theupper teeth --once only when r is between vowels and severaltimes in very quick succession (to make a trill) in other environ-ments This sound will require a great deal of practice for manyspeakers of English especially the trilled variant

t is the voiceless counterpart of Pangasinan d It re-sembles English t in stick being pronounced with the tongueclose to the back of the upper teeth and without aspiration Aswith the other phonemes requiring a complete stoppage of thepassage of air from the mouth it may be unreleased in final po-sitiop t may also be replaced by the glottal stop (mentionedabove in the discussion of Pangasinan vowels) when it is in a syl-lable final position and followed by another consonant unless amajor pause (eg the end of a sentence) intervenes

Some words containing t are tayoacute lsquowe allrsquo antoacute lsquowhatrsquonoacutenot lsquothinkrsquo taacutetay lsquofatherrsquo

n is similar to English n knee No matter what envi-ronment it is in Pangasinan n is always articulated with thetongue tip near the upper teeth Some words containing n arenaacutenay lsquomotherrsquo manoacutek lsquochickenrsquo pogoacuten lsquoovenrsquo andekeacutet lsquoblackrsquoinmogiacutep lsquosleptrsquo nannengneacuteng lsquosawrsquo

1 is somewhat like English 1 in leap -- it is pronounced withthe tip of the tongue actually touching the upper teeth and theblade raised towards the hard palate so that the air escapesaround the sides When it occurs in final position 1 may soundlike d transformed into 1 - ie dl said with the first soundblended with the second

PHONOLOGY

17

Words containing 1 are lotoacute lsquocookrsquo laacutebi lsquonightrsquo relleacuteno(rElyEacuteno) lsquoa type of fish dishrsquo miacutela lsquomutually gorsquo kasaacutel lsquomar-riagersquo baacutensal lsquowedding receptionrsquo aacutelmo lsquofindrsquo Note that thesequence 11 in words of Spanish origin is interpreted phonemi-cally as ly as in the above example

Alveolar consonants is formed by raising the blade of the tongue so that the

sides are close to the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth thetip of the tongue ends up behind the bottom teeth --in otherwords Pangasinan and English s are formed in much the sameway Words containing this phoneme are sikaacute lsquoyoursquo siaacutek lsquoIrsquo (seenotes on y --s here becomes palatalized as the blade of thetongue moves back a little before y) roacutesas lsquoflowerrsquo sapsaacuteplsquokind of fishrsquo pespeacutes lsquoto squeezersquo

Velar consonantsThe velar consonants g k and ntildeg all require the

blockage of air through the back of the tonguersquos coming intocontact with the velum (soft palate)

g involves the vibration of the vocal chords and the com-plete stoppage of the flow of air before itrsquos released - it is quiteclose to the sound of g in English goat Like other lsquostopsrsquo (pbtetc) it may be unreleased at the end of a word Words con-taining g are gaacutetas lsquomilkrsquo maogeacutes lsquobadrsquo paacutetnag lsquorecognizersquotogtoacuteg lsquoplay a musical instrumentrsquo asintildegger lsquoclosersquo (ntildeg repre-sents a single phoneme described below --ntildegg consists of ntildegplus g)

k is the voiceless counterpart of g it is articulated like theEnglish k in coat but without the accompanying aspiration -nomore breath is released than is the case with g The nearestEnglish sound to Pangasinan k then is the variant of Englishk in words like scope

Pangasinan k has three other variants which may occurin certain positions in which the normal sound just describedmay also occur Like other stops it may be unreleased in finalposition Like t it may be replaced by a glottal stop when itoccurs as the last phoneme in a syllable followed by anothersyllable beginning with a consonant with no major pause inter-vening Furthermore when k occurs between vowels it may


18

be transformed into a fricative sound by failing to block offall the air this is particularly likely to happen where severalklsquos occur between vowels in a sequence eg in the wordmakakakansioacuten lsquofeels like singing is inclined to singrsquo where thefirst two krsquos will often flow into the vowels which follow them

k is found in words like the following sintildegko (also cinco)lsquofiversquo kaacutenen lsquofoodrsquo akaacuter lsquowalk moversquo koskoacutes lsquoshredrsquo anaacuteklsquochildrsquo maksiacutel lsquostrongrsquo maka-kaakiacutes lsquoinclined to cryrsquo

ntildeg is the nasal member of this group and is formed inthe same way as English ng in song It is found as the firstphoneme in many Pangasinan words which makes it a problemsound for many speakers of English (as English ng neveroccurs in this environment) One way to practice initial ntildeg isto say English words with intervocalic ng like singing singerand try to drop the preceding phonemes in stages until what isleft begins with ng - eg singing - inging - nging singer - inger- nger In technical works ntildeg is often written ŋ but in normalwritten Pangasinan ng or ntildeg (sometimes also ng) is used to sym-bolize this sound ntildeg will be used throughout this book enablingntildeg to be distinguished easily from n plus g and at the sametime allowing the orthography used here to remain within thebounds of conventional usage

Words containing ntildeg are typified by ntildegaacuterem lsquoafternoonrsquomantildegaacuten lsquowill eatrsquo sintildegsiacutentildeg lsquoringrsquo mantildegga lsquomangorsquo ntildegasntildegaslsquoeat corn etc without other foodrsquo

Glottal consonanth is formed by constricting the glottis in the throat the

vocal chords are not vibrated so like spt and k it is avoiceless sound It is like the English h in hope and does notoccur as the final phoneme in a word This sound is a compar-ative newcomer to Pangasinan and is found chiefly in words ofSpanish origin (where it is commonly written j) as well as a fewwords introduced from English and from other Philippine lan-guages (in these words it is usually written with the letter h)

Words containing h (are jueacuteves (hwEacutebEs or hwiacutebis)lsquoThursdayrsquo cajoacuten (also kahoacuten) lsquoboxrsquo hiacutebe lsquokind of shrimprsquohaacuteyskol lsquohigh schoolrsquo viaacuteje (byaacutehE or byaacutehi) lsquojourneyrsquo

PHONOLOGY

19

Consonant combinationsThere are a few factors bearing on the possible combina-

tions of consonants in Pangasinan which the learner needs tobe aware of These concern initial consonant clusters somemedial consonant clusters (ie groups of consonants occurringin the middle of a word) and agreement of nasals with followingconsonants especially stops

Initial consonant clusters and phonemic chIn general Pangasinan speakers tend to avoid beginning

a word with more than one consonant Even borrowed wordsare often modified to break up such combinations or reducethem to a single phoneme Thus plancha lsquoironrsquo often becomespalancha staacutembay lsquonersquoer do wellrsquo (from English lsquostand byrsquo) is-tambay and so on

To return to the word plancha it will also be noted that thereis an orthographic combination ch in this word which repre-sents a single phoneme in both English and Spanish It also rep-resents a single phoneme in the speech of many Pangasinanspeakers articulated either by placing the blade of the tongueabout mid way between the locations of English t and shand stopping the flow of air momentarily or by starting with tand very quickly bringing the blade of the tongue up near thealveolar ridge to make s To such speakers this sound is a unitand may be represented by the combination of letters ch whichare normally used in writing To other speakers however ch isa sequence of two phonemes t and s and for them a wordlike plancha would be phonemically palantsa or plantsa

In initial position there are three possibilities open wherech is concerned and different speakers will tend to make dif-ferent choices in this regard Some will use the ch sound thuspronouncing chaacute lsquotearsquo as cha and chineacutelas lsquoslippersrsquo chinEacutelas(some may replace E with i but that is a secondary consider-ation) Others will use the combination ts (t plus s) givingus tsaacute and tsinEacutelas Many speakers who regularly use tswhere ch may be found will however reduce ts to s whenthe combination appears or rather could appear initially givingrise to the forms saacute and siniacutelas


20

Considerable variations can therefore be expected in thehandling of potentially initial consonant clusters by different in-dividuals (See the section on syllabification for discussion ofinitial consonant clusters)

Medial clustersGroups of consonants occurring in the middle of a word do

not present many problems although they have relevance indetermining the boundaries of syllables (discussed in the nextsection) and can affect the form taken by several phonemes(as noted in relation to the phonemes concerned) Certain clus-tering however tend to lead to the replacement of onephoneme by another especially in the case of nasals precedingstops (discussed separately below) In a few words the medialcombination ps is transformed to ks eg nakseacutel lsquosatisfied withfoodrsquo (from peseacutel) naksiacutet lsquoshatteredrsquo (from pisiacutet) Furthermorein indigenous Pangasinan words r will become d if it occursin a cluster - eg itdaacuten lsquobe given forrsquo (from iteacuter)

Agreement of nasals with following consonantsThere is a strong tendency in Pangasinan speech for nasals

to conform to the point of articulation of following consonantsespecially when the latter is a stop Thus the nasal preceding alabial consonant is likely to be m that preceding a dental oralveolar consonant will usually be n and ntildeg is the nasal mostlikely to precede a velar consonant There are some notable ex-ceptions to this general principle even where stops are involved(eg amtaacute lsquoknowrsquo santildegpoacutet lsquoendrsquo) although even these are lsquoreg-ularizedrsquo (eg to antaacute and sampoacutet) by some speakers

Most affected by this are various prefixes ending in n Inslow speech the n is likely to be retained but in normal torapid speech it will undergo the changes described above thusmanbaacutesa (man- lsquofuture active transitiversquo plus baacutesa lsquoreadrsquo) willbecome mambaacutesa in rapid speech onpawiacutel (on- lsquofuture neu-tralrsquo pawiacutel lsquoreturnrsquo) may become ompawiacutel mangaacutewa (man-plus gawaacute lsquoworkrsquo) becomes mantildeggaacutewa inkianaacutek lsquobirthdayrsquo maybecome intildegkianaacutek These changes are only haphazardly re-flected in writing Even the infix -inm- (the past form of on-) mayappear as -imm- in some peoplesrsquos speech as in pimmawiacutel forpinmawiacutel

PHONOLOGY

21

Nasal ReplacementCertain prefixes in Pangasinan replace the consonant imme-

diately following them by a corresponding nasal according tothe principles outlined above This replacement even applies tothe glottal stop preceding an initial vowel (which doesnrsquot countin the agreement process just descibed -it simply disappears sothat eg man- plus ameacutes lsquobathersquo becomes simply manaacutemes)The glottal stop perhaps because it was once more importantin Pangasinan phonology than it is today is treated as a velarand thus replaced by a velar nasal

Some examples of this process of nasal replacement follow--the replacive part of the prefix is represented by N

maN- + kansioacuten = mantildegansioacutenmaN- + saliacutew = manaliacutewmaN- + paltoacuteg = mamaltoacutegpaN- + taacutewag = panaacutewagaN- + alaacute = antildegalaacutemaN- + piacuteso = mamiacutesopaN-hellip-aacuten + fieacutesta = pamieacutestaaacutenaN- + taacutelo = anaacutelomaN- + salapiacute = manalapiacuteinpaN- + alaacute = inpantildegalaacute

STRESS AND SYLLABIFICATIONA syllable in Pangasinan consists of a vowel either alone or

surrounded by a finite number of consonants and is affected bya single stress We may call the vowel the nucleus of the syl-lable and the attending consonants if any may be referred toas the periphery The periphery of the syllable may consist of asingle final consonant andor an initial consonant or consonantcluster

Initial consonant clustersOnly 25 (or 26 if ts is also included) combinations of con-

sonants are possible in syllable initial position in PangasinanEach of these combinations consists of two members the first ofwhich may be any of the phonemes b p t d 1 s g k h andthe second drawn from r 1 y w (and for some speakers s)Not all the members of each set are compatable with all those


22

from the other however so that the actual number of combina-tions realized is less than that mathematically possible The per-mitted combinations are shown on the chart

First memberSecondmember b p t d l s g k h

r + + + + + +l + + + +s y + + + + + + +w + + + + + + + +

SYLLABLE INITIAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS+ indicates permissible cluster indicates permitted by some speakers

Syllable typesThere are six syllable types in Pangasinan each of which

may be illustrated by a monosyllabic word

(1) V[owel] a lsquolinkerrsquo(2) C[onsonant] V ta lsquobecausersquo(3) CCV diaacute dya lsquoherersquo(4) VC ed lsquoto atrsquo(5) CVC met lsquoalsorsquo(6) CCVC treacutes lsquothreersquo

Syllabification within the wordThere are four general principles governing the syllabifi-

cation of Pangasinan words after taking into account that thecomposition of a syllable is limited to the six combinations illus-trated above

(a) A single initial or intervocalic consonant belongs to thesyllable of the vowel which follows it as does an initial con-sonant cluster

PHONOLOGY

23

(b) When two consonants which may not form an initialcluster or a consonant followed by a potential initial consonantcluster occur intervocalically the first consonant belongs to thesyllable of the preceding vowel and the remaining consonantor consonants form (part of) the periphery of the syllable of thevowel following

(c) When a potential initial cluster occurs intervocalicallythe consonants may separately become part of the syllable ofthe vowel to which each is contiguous or the first consonantmay be doubled to form the final element of the preceding syl-lable and the first element of that following

(d) When two identical vowels occur contiguously they aresometimes combined to form one long vowel the nucleus of asingle syllable

These principles are illustrated belowmakakauraacuten lsquothreatening rainrsquo = ma-ka-ka-u-ranambeteacutel lsquocoldrsquo = am-be-telcristiaacuteno kristyaacuteno lsquoChristianrsquo = kris-tyaacute-nowadiaacute wadyaacute lsquois herersquo = wad-yaacute or wad-dyaacutelooacuteb lsquowithinrsquo = lo-oacuteb or loacutebIn rapid speech all these factors may operate across word

boundaries as well as within single words

StressIn isolation all lsquofullrsquo words in Pangasinan as well as many

grammatical markers have at least one strongly stressed syl-lable (in most cases only one) The remaining syllables maybe either moderately or weakly stressed depending on the in-terplay of a number of factors the most important of which areit is hoped among those mentioned here

Firstly syllables which end in a final consonant automati-cally attract a moderate stress (which we may symbolize herewith a grave accent) so that the difference between thestrongly stressed syllable and its neighbor in a word like naacutetagravenlsquonowrsquo is less noticeable than in a word like baacutesa lsquoreadrsquo


24

Secondly there is a tendency for every alternate syllablepreceding or following a strongly stressed syllable to attractmedium stress the stress pattern on a word like kabuasaacuten kab-wasaacuten lsquomorningrsquo is thus kagravebuasaacuten while that on mansaacutesalitalsquois speakingrsquo is mansaacutesaligraveta These two tendencies (radiation ofstress and stress on a closed syllable) may neutralize each otherin a word like Pangasinaacuten panggasinaacuten which is stressed pagraven-gasinan (syllabification pagraveng-ga-si-naacuten)

Certain affixes complicate the picture by either attractingor repelling strong stress in contiguous syllables Chief amongthese are the prefix man- lsquoincomplete active transitiversquo whichis followed by a strongly stressed syllable and -en lsquoincompletepassiversquo which automatically has a moderate stress and isnormally preceded by a weakly stressed syllable (there arehowever a few word roots which resist the demands of theseaffixes) Thus man- plus ameacutes lsquobathersquo becomes manaacutemes(manaacutemegraves) in contrast to the past form nanameacutes (nagravenameacutes)while lutoacute lsquocookrsquo plus -en becomes luacutetoen (luacutetoegraven)

Added to all these factors is the strong tendency in Pan-gasinan speech to achieve a regular alternation of weakly andstrongly stressed syllables and the automatic application ofstrong stress to a syllable before a significant pause The al-ternating stress is achieved by collapsing like vowels into eachother removing stress altogether from o and i when they arefollowed by a vowel (thus converting them into w and y re-spectively) and shifting the stress on some words Such pat-terning is not consistent of course but it is common enoughto confuse any learner who expects to find stresses observedin isolated words to be preserved in the context of a sentenceOne commonplace example of this is the phrase aacutendi baacuteli lsquoitdoesnrsquot matterrsquo where the stress on andiacute lsquonorsquo is regularly dis-placed for the sake of euphony Similarly a question like tagaacuteineacuter so amiacutegom where is your friend fromrsquo may be realizedas tagaacute ineacuter swamiacutegoacutem while aacutekin et kinetkeacutet mo ak lsquowhydid you bite mersquo is very likely to appear as aacutekin eacutet kineacutetketmwaacutek

Stress contrastsMany words in Pangasinan are differentiated only by the

placement of the strong stress on the root Although the factorsmentioned above sometimes conspire to obscure such contrastthe differences are observable and important in most environ-

PHONOLOGY

25

ments in which the words (or more properly word roots) con-cerned may be found Some examples of words identical in formexcept for the placement of the major stress follow

laacuteki lsquograndfatherrsquo cf lakiacute lsquomalersquobaacutesa lsquoreadrsquo cf basaacute lsquowetrsquooacuteras lsquotimersquo cf oraacutes lsquowashrsquosaacuteli lsquotryrsquo cf saliacute lsquofootrsquobaacutelo lsquonewrsquo cf baloacute lsquowidowrsquotaacutelo lsquodefeatrsquo cf taloacute lsquothreersquoniacuteman lsquobe therersquo cf nimaacuten lsquobeforersquopaacutera lsquoequalrsquo cf paraacute lsquopreparersquoaacutemo lsquomasterrsquo cf amoacute lsquoisnrsquot itrsquoanaacutek lsquochildrsquo cf aacutenak lsquo(many) childrenrsquonaaacutewat lsquowill receiversquo cf naawaacutet lsquoreceivedrsquo

INTONATIONIntonation patterns are probably the major phonological

stumbling blocks for most people learning a new languageIt is also a difficult if not impossible task to describe suchpatterns adequately in writing without confusing the generalreader (presuming that the linguist himself is not confused)What follows here therefore is a rather cursory treatment ofPangasinan intonation Its aim is simply to state the generalprinciples and illustrate these with a few examples fromeveryday speech Hopefully once he is aware of the potential-ities in this regard the student will be in a better position toperceive imitate and to use in appropriate contexts the into-national variations he hears in the speech of the Pangasinanspeakers with whom he is in contact

One very good way of capturing intonation patterns whichone would like to practice is to persuade a friend to record ap-propriate sentences or snatches of conversation The studentcan then play these back to himself and imitate them at hisleisure It is usually wise to limit the number of repetitions ofsuch utterances on the part of onersquos informant to one or twoof each kind at any given time (hence the value of the taperecorder) It is extremely difficult for most people except fortrained actors or elocutionists to repeat the same sentence


26

over and over again as a model and remain consistent in regardto intonation Try it yourself with any English sentence and seeif you can avoid inconsistency and confusion

Characteristics of intonation patternsIntonation patterns involve meaningful variations in pitch

which usually operate over an entire phrase or sentence Evenwhen the consonants vowels and stress patterns remain un-changed the meaning of such a sequence of sounds may be ap-preciably altered by a change in intonation pattern Take for ex-ample the simple English sentence Irsquom going As a neutral state-ment it would be spoken with a medium pitch riding slightlyon the first syllable of going but dropping down rapidly duringthe articulation of the rest of the word The intonation accom-panying this interpretation of Irsquom going could be described asmedium - high - low (falling) If one were irritated about havingbeen asked repeatedly to fetch something the same sentencemight be uttered with a much higher rise in pitch on go- againfalling rapidly giving a medium - very high -low (falling) pitchsequence If one had been expecting to remain behind onemight ask Irsquom going (lsquoIrsquom going after allrsquo) starting off as inthe neutral statement but sustaining the high pitch and evenallowing the pitch to rise slightly at the end of the sentence pro-ducing a sequence medium -high -high (rising)

There are various ways in which the pitch changes de-scribed above can be symbolized but two methods have beenwidely adopted by linguists and langauge teachers One methodis to represent the pitch changes by means of numbers placedat appropriate points in the transcription of the sentence Ifnumbers are used arrows pointing upward downward orsideways are used to indicate rising falling or sustained pitchat the end of a pitch sequence in languages like English wherethis is relevant The three renditions of Irsquom going discussed inthe previous paragraph may be used here to illustrate thesetranscription systems (the numeral 1 represents the lowestlevel of pitch 2 3 4 successively higher levels)

PHONOLOGY

27

Critical pointsWithin the area covered by an intonation pattern (which will

be referred to here as a lsquophrasersquo although it may range froma single word to a moderately long sentence) there are certainpoints where changes in pitch are lsquocriticalrsquo ie at these points achange in pitch is significant for the phrase as a whole whereasslight variations between these points may have no special im-portance In English there seem to be three such critical points--the first syllable of the phrase the syllable on which the majorstress occurs and the end of the phrase The phrase usuallystarts off on a sustained pitch which rises on the stressed syl-lable and then falls away (or is sustained) until the end of thephrase where it may continue to fall or else rise or simply taperoff without falling or rising (in the latter case there is an in-dication that the sentence is not yet complete) These criticalpoints are marked in the examples above

Pangasinan while having four major levels of pitch likeEnglish differs considerably in that there are four criticalpoints and the pitch is generally retained throughout the syl-lable It does not significantly fall away or rise at the end ofthe phrase as is the case with English Thus we may mark into-nation patterns in Pangasinan with numbers alone and not wor-ry about arrows at the end of each phrase

The critical points of the phrase in Pangasinan are the be-ginning of the phrase the beginning of the second to last syl-lable and the beginning and end of the last syllable Thismeans of course that there may be a falling or rising intonationon the last syllable However in Pangasinan such a fall or riseis confined to the syllable and to the normal intonation levelsit does not noticeably continue beyond these points as is thecase with English and a final rising falling or sustained pitchdoes not have a function independent of the preceding into-national features (so that a final intonation sequence mid-midwould always be lsquosustainedrsquo in Pangasinan whereas in Englishwe could have mid-mid (rising) as in one of the interpretationsof lsquoIrsquom goingrsquo mid-mid (sustained) mid-mid (falling) and so on)Another important difference between English and Pangasinanintonation patterns is that English intonation is partly deter-mined by where the major stress falls in the phrase -- thus if lsquoIrsquoin lsquoIrsquom goingrsquo is emphasized only two critical points remain asthe beginning of the phrase is also the location of the stressedsyllable Pangasinan does not have this kind of stress system


28

Except for the extra stress on the last syllable of the phrasestress is placed on individual words but none is selected formajor emphasis One can thus determine where the criticalpoints for intonation in a Pangasinan sentence will be simply bycounting syllables This is not possible in English

The critical points in a Pangasinan phrase may be illustratedwith a question and answer which will fall within the experienceof most students of the language

2makasaliacuteta kay Panga2si3naacuten3 can speak you + mkr helliplsquoCan you speak Pangasinanrsquo

2daiseacutet 2la3baacutet2little onlylsquoJust a littlersquo

Relativity of pitchBefore leaving the more abstract side of this discussion it

perhaps should be made clear that in speaking of pitch beinghigh or low and of intonation rising or falling the referencepoint is always the individual speaker There is no absolute pitchlevel involved thus a basso profundorsquos lsquovery highrsquo pitch maybe several octaves below that of a sopranorsquos low pitch Pitchlevels are thus norms related to the quality of each speakerrsquosvoice It is therefore impossible to tell what pitch level is beingused on any particular syllable until one has heard the speakerutter a few sentences Onersquos ear very quickly attunes itself tothe range of other speakers when one is a native speaker ofthe language concerned The student of arsquonew language musthowever learn to perceive relative differences and ignore ir-relevant details --this facility will develop steadily as one is in-creasingly exposed to the langauge concerned and is able toestablish a few basic points of reference It is however unlikelyto develop fully without some conscious effort on the part of thelearner

PHONOLOGY

29

Some basic Pangasinan intonation patternsSince there are four places in a phrase where the intonation

may change to any one of four significant pitch levels thereare 256 mathematically possible different intonation patternsin Pangasinan Of course it is likely that many possible com-binations do not occur but if the possibility of breaking up asentence into a sequence of phrases each with its own into-nation pattern is taken into consideration it is clear that onecan expect considerable variation in the intonation patterns em-ployed in any sequence of speech lasting for more than a fewminutes and especially in an extended conversation

The intonation pattern used and how many sets of such pat-terns will be employed in a single sentence is dependent partlyon the speaker and partly on the circumstances surroundingthe utterance (is the sentence spoken matter-of-factly excitedlyetc) The examples given here illustrate how a native speakermight make a particular kind of statement or ask a particularkind of question in a certain context This does no more thanscratch the surface as far as the study of intonation patterns inPangasinan is concerned However even this small start shouldbe of some help to the interested student who may then gofurther on his own

A common intonation pattern in Pangasinan consists of theseries of pitch levels 2233 ie an even tone raised to high onthe last syllable

2maraboacutek diaacuted Ba2yam3baacuteng3

dusty here at BayambanglsquoItrsquos dusty in Bayambangrsquo

This pattern is often used in simple equational statementslike that above and eg

2maeacutestro si maacutema 2Peacuted3ro3

teacher mkr Mr PeterlsquoPedro is a teacherrsquo

The same statement can be used as a question with changesin the intonation pattern to signal the change in meaning as in


30

2maraboacutek diaacuted Ba3yam3bang2 lsquoIs it dusty in Bayambangrsquo

--a question promoted by simple curiosity or

2maraboacutek diaacuted Ba3yam3bang4 lsquoIs it [really] dusty in Bayambangrsquo

--where the speaker is expressing surprise at the thoughtthat his question might be answered affirmatively Both ques-tions involve a transition from one pitch level to another onthe last syllable This is not unavoidable however as it is alsopossible to alter the statement intonation by simply raising thepitch level on the penultimate syllable to 4 (very high) as in

2maeacutestro si maacutema 4Peacuted3ro3 lsquoIs Pedro a teacherrsquo

A neutral reply to such questions is likely to have an evenintonation falling on the last syllable

2on3 2mara2boacutek 2diaacute1

lsquoYes Itrsquos dusty therersquo

(Note that on lsquoyesrsquo is accompanied by rising intonation)The 2233 pattern may also be used in questions especially

if there is a lsquoquestion wordrsquo (eg ta ey) in final position

2turiacutesta ka 3ta3tourist you (question)lsquoAre you a touristrsquo

Sometimes a question may be asked in a high pitch levelwhich falls and rises again on the last syllable

3kapigaacutey in3sa2biacutem3when + mkr was --arrived + by youlsquoWhen did you arriversquo

If the reply takes the form of a complete sentence it will oftenbe broken into two intonation spans

PHONOLOGY

31

3sinma3biacute 2ak2 2nen siacutembaydid-arrive I on Sunday + mkr

3ngaacute2rem2

afternoonlsquoI arrived on Sunday afternoonrsquo

The second phrase in the last example shows the pitchsequence 2322 which is also frequently encountered in Pan-gasinan speech It is not limited to replies to questionshowever as the following example shows

2Amerikaacuteno 3ka2 yo2

American you (respectful or plural)lsquoAre you an Americanrsquo

The same intonation may be incorporated in the reply

2an3diacute3 2tagaacute Alemaacuten3ia 2ak2

no from Germany IlsquoNo Irsquom a Germanrsquo

(andiacute lsquonorsquo like on is most often accompanied by a changefrom a lower to a higher pitch)

Some other examples of this pattern are

2maoacuteng so panana3liacute2tam2

good mkr way of speaking + yourlsquoYou speak wellrsquo

2bakasyoacuten 3yo 2la2vacation your alreadylsquoAre you on vacation alreadyrsquo

If the speaker was surprised that the person spoken to wason vacation however the above question would be asked with achange in intonation pattern --the high pitch on the penultimatesyllable would be carried into the final syllable and raised onestep higher

2bakasyoacuten 3yo 3la4


32

lsquoYoursquore on vacation alreadyrsquo

The mirror image of the 2322 intonation is 3233 as in

3ineacuter so laacute2en 3mo3 where mkr will be gone by youlsquoWhere are you goingrsquo

A suitable reply to this question involving two intonationspans would be

3oacuten3la 4ak4 2dimaacuted tin3daacute2an2

will go I there at marketlsquoIrsquom going to the marketrsquo

In this reply there is a slight stress on the fact that it is thespeaker who is going to the market A completely neutral replymight feature the 3322 intonation previously illustrated in asimilar situation on the first intonation span in the sentence


The question prompting this answer could also be askedwith a higher rather than lower pitch on the penultimate syl-lable Such a pattern would give more emphasis to the actionthan the actor

3ineacuter so laacute4en 3mo3 lsquoWhere are you goingrsquo

The reply itself can be used as the basis of a question usingthe 2322 pattern for the entire sentence

2oacutenla ka dimaacuted tin3da2an2lsquoAre you going to marketrsquo

The 3233 intonation encountered in the first version of ineacuterso laacuteen mo may also occur in replies to questions for examplethe question makasaliacuteta kay Pangasinaacuten lsquocan you speak Pan-gasinanrsquo might be answered

PHONOLOGY

33

2On3 3baacutelet aliwaacuten 2ma3oacuteng3

Yes but not + lnk goodlsquoYes but not wellrsquo

A sympathetic listener might counter the last statement with

2aacutendi baacuteli ta sinaacutelim sono impot because was-tried+by you mkr

na3naacute1ral1did-learnlsquoIt doesnrsquot matter because you have been trying to

learnrsquo

--this 2311 intonation may be regarded as an emphaticvariant of the 2322 pattern often used to convey some kind ofsympathy encouragement

Another variant of the 2322 pattern simply involves the re-tention of the high pitch until the end of the sentence (ie2333)

2kapigaacuten so iakaacuter to maywhen + lnk mkr will be moved by it mkr

3jeep 3diaacute3 jeep herelsquoWhen will the jeep get herersquo

A question such as that above will almost invariably obtain anon-committal reply eg

2naaacuteni se3gu2ro2

later on probablylsquoIn a little whilersquo

A reply involving the desires or interests of the person beingquestioned is likely to involve greater use of the higher levels ofpitch For example the question

3antoacuten 3gaacute2tas2 2so labaacuteywhat + lnk milk mkr wanted


34

2so 3ey3 by you ehlsquoWhat [kind of] milk would you likersquo

is likely to elicit a reponse comparable with

3say Alpine 3ko4moacuten4

the Alpine hopefullylsquoAlpine if you have anyrsquo

Embarrassment like surprise and some kinds of self in-terest also often results in the employment of an intonationspan or series thereof with a predominance of high pitch seg-ments A sari-sari store owner caught without the brand of milkhis suki (favored customer) wants might for example reply tothe preceding statement thus

3ay3 3anggapoacutey Alpine a laacutekooh not existing + mkr hellip lnk stock

mi 4naacute3tan3

our nowlsquoOh wersquore out of Alpine at presentrsquo

ORTHOGRAPHYIn general Pangasinan is written in what English speakers

would regard as a phonetic (=phonemic) orthography Punctu-ation is the same as in English except that the use of capitalletters follows the Spanish convention whereby capitalization isconfined almost exclusively to proper names placenames andthe first word in a sentence Except as noted below the symbolused to represent a phoneme is identical with that used in thedescription of the vowels and consonants given earlier

E is represented by the letter e Some speakers who do notmake the distinction between E and i may occasionally writeE as i in certain words to bring the spelling in line with theirpronunciation eg siniacutelas for chineacutelas lsquoslippersrsquo

a and e are written a and e respectively

PHONOLOGY

35

i is written i at the end of a word it may occasionally bewritten e -- eg Ibaacuteli Ibaacutele lsquoManilarsquo baacutei baacutee lsquograndmotherrsquo

o is written o or u almost at random Words of Spanishorigin are often spelled more consistently but by no means in-variably so

w is written w in most cases some writers sporadically useo in certain words eg bituacuteoen for bituacutewen bituacuteen lsquostarrsquo (Seealso comment on y below)

y is generally written y except where it is the result of theloss of syllabic status of unstressed i in words like diaacute dyalsquoherersquo Similarly non-syllabic o (=w) is generally written ueg dueacuteg dweacuteg lsquocarabaorsquo

d 1 m n r t are written with the same symbols ie d 1m n r and t respectively (but see notes on ly and ny)

ch (which may also be ts) is written ch by most writers ofthe older generation with other people fluctuating sometimesat random between ts and ch Thus kuchilyo may be spelledkutsilyo kuchilyo kuchillo or cuchillo depending on the writerThe word achiacute or atsiacute lsquoolder woman of same generation asspeakerrsquo is often spelt atchiacute

g is generally spelled g occasionally gu before e or i espe-cially in words of Spanish origin eg guisaacutedo gisaacutedo lsquosauteedrsquo

h is spelled h or j the latter is especially common in wordsof Spanish origin eg mantiquilla mantikilya lsquobutterrsquo cajoacutenkahoacuten lsquoboxrsquo but also sometimes in indigenous words eg ac aklsquoIrsquo Also in words of Spanish origin g may represent h beforeE or i eg gigaacutentehigaacutentE lsquogiantrsquo ageacutente ahEntE lsquoagentrsquo

ly is often spelled ll eg llavelyaacutebi lsquokeyrsquony is occasionally spelled ntilde eg Doacutentildea doacutenya (honorific

title)ntildeg is written ng or ntildeg sometimes (before g or k) simply n

as in Pangasinan (Pantildeggasinaacuten) Some writers use ntildeg betweenvowels and ng elsewhere

p and b are often represented by f and v respectively inwords whose Spanish spelling contained the latter symbols egfiesta pyEsta lsquofiestarsquo vieacuternes byErnEs lsquoFridayrsquo


36

s is represented by s and also by c before i and e or z inwords of Spanish origin eg plaacuteza plaacutesa lsquoplazarsquo cociacutena kosiacutenalsquokitchenrsquo

Stress is marked only sporadically by most writers usuallyon words where a possibility of misunderstanding might oth-erwise arise (eg laacuteki lsquograndfatherrsquo lakiacute lsquomale boyrsquo) Otherwriters tend to mark stress only when it falls on a syllable otherthan the final syllable of the word while yet others may mark itonly in that position In this book primary stress is marked onall polysyllabic words irrespective of where it falls

PHONOLOGY

37

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE

38

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE

In this section the types and structure of Pangasinan wordswill be discussed and the major components of these wordsapart from the word roots themselves will be listed and de-scribed There is one question however which will not be an-swered directly lsquowhat is a wordrsquo Let us assume that entitiesexist corresponding more or less to our intuitive feeling aboutwhat constitutes a word and modify or refine the concepts wealready have by examining a variety of lsquowordsrsquo in Pangasinan

WORD ROOTS AFFIXES AND WORD CLASSESEach word in Pangasinan consists of a core or ROOT This

root may occur by itself as a word in its own right or it maybe combined with one or more AFFIXES to form a word Bothpossibilities exist for many roots while others never occur inisolation The root kan lsquoeatrsquo for example is not a word -- it isonly found with affixes as in kaacutenen lsquowill be eaten foodrsquo (kan +-en) mantildegaacuten lsquowill eat to eatrsquo (maN- + kan) On the other handthe root lako may be used as a word meaning lsquomerchandisersquoor appear in such combinations as lomalaacuteko lsquomerchantrsquo (laacuteko +R[eduplication of initial] C[onsonant and] V[owel]- + -om-) ormanlako lsquowill sellrsquo (man- + lako) We may go further and dividethe roots or the words formed from them into various lsquoclassesrsquoso that lako lsquomerchandisersquo may be called a NOUN while thecombination manlaacuteko may be classed as a VERB More will besaid about such word classes later

An affix is an element which occurs only in combination withroots or other affixes to which it is phonologically bound whichcannot itself function as a root The latter restriction is nec-essary as roots like kan occur only in combination with affixesbut are not themselves affixes In the examples given above -

39

en maN- -om- and man- are affixes of various kinds and thereduplication (RCV-) in lomalako is also a special form of affix-ation

Kinds of rootWords in Pangasinan may be SIMPLE COMPOUND OR

COMPLEX Most roots are simple -- as eg kan and lako aboveor aboacuteng lsquohousersquo asoacute lsquodogrsquo tooacute lsquomanrsquo palandeacutey lsquomountainrsquoCompound roots are formed from two simple roots producinga new word or root with a meaning somewhat different fromthat of its constituent parts eg balolakiacute lsquobachelor unmarriedyouth or young manrsquo from baloacute lsquowidow widowerrsquo and lakiacute lsquomalersquoA complex root is one which includes lsquofossilizedrsquo affixes butwhich is treated grammatically as a simple root and is notassociated directly with its constituent parts ie is regardedby most speakers of the language as an indivisible unit Ex-amples of complex roots are abalayaacuten lsquoco-parent-in-lawrsquo (whichmay originally have been derived from a root balay) marikiacutetlsquomaiden unmarried girl or young womanrsquo (from ma- lsquoadjectivalaffixrsquo plus dikiacutet lsquospots caused by liquidrsquo) and palduaacute lsquoto split intotworsquo (containing the root duaacute lsquotworsquo and another element (pal-)which currently has no special meaning of its own but occursin similar circumstances in a few other words)

Types of affixThere are several ways in which affixes may be grouped ac-

cording to which aspect of their use or structure is being dis-cussed In relationship to the root there are four kinds of affixes-PREFIXES which precede the root (like man- in manlako andmaN- in mantildegaacuten) SUFFIXES which follow the root (like -en inkaacutenen) INFIXES which precede the first vowel of the root orSTEM to which they are attached (as -om- in lomalaacuteko) andCIRCUMFIXES a combination of a suffix with a prefix or infixbut functioning as a single entity as i- hellip -an lsquonon-past bene-factiversquo in igawaaacuten lsquowill make forrsquo

In terms of their grammatical role we may regard affixesas VERBAL when they enable the word in which they appear tofunction as a verb (man- maN- -en and i- hellip -an are examplesof verbal affixes) NOMINAL when the word with which theyare associated functions as a noun (as -om-) ADJECTIVAL whenthis function is attributable to their use (as main matabaacute lsquofat


40

healthyrsquo) Those affixes which have the effect of changing thestem to which they are affixed from one word class to anothermay also be termed DERIVATIONAL The adjectival affix ma- isone such derivational affix in the example above it combineswith the noun- stem (and root) tabaacute lsquofat healthinessrsquo to producethe adjective matabaacute

Like roots affixes may also be simple or compound in theexamples above simple affixation has been employed in all buttwo cases ndash the circumfix i- hellip -an and the combination of theinfix -om- with the reduplication of the stem with which it ap-pears may both be regarded as compound affixes as they con-stitute an indivisible whole as far as their meaning and useis concerned (i- and -an taken separately for example do nothave the range of meaning and use which would enable oneto predict the meaning of the combination i- hellip -an) Affixationmay be termed complex when the combinations are simply sumsof their respective parts Thus the suffix -en and the causativeprefix pa- in the word pabantildegaten lsquowill be caused to teachrsquodo not form a circumfix pa-hellip -en but rather a combinationof causative plus passive with each unit contributing indepen-dently to the meaning of the word

StemsThe term lsquostemrsquo has been used without explanation a few

times in the preceding paragraphs A stem is simply that portionof a word which is subject to affixation Take for example theroot bantildegaacutet lsquoteachrsquo This root may form the stem to which anaffix say pa- is attached The combination pabantildegaacutet is also astem to which another affix may be attached say -in- to producepinabantildegaacutet lsquowas caused to teachrsquo If then the process of affix-ation stops we have a word ndash as pinabantildegaacutet above Some rootsbecome words directly eg aboacutentildeg lsquohousersquo whereas others mustalways pass through the stem stage like kan lsquoeatrsquo mentionedpreviously If aboacutentildeg is to be used as a verb as in manaboacutentildeglsquokeep housersquo it must also of course first become a stem towhich a verbal affix is attached

Word ClassesRather like the five vowels English speaking people along

with many others educated along traditional European lineswhere their knowledge of grammar is concerned are likely to

WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

41

have fairly set ideas about what kinds of words there are andassume that these classes are found in most other languagesas well We can make good use of some of these concepts withsome major adjustments along the way in talking about Pan-gasinan and so some of the familiar terms like noun verb ad-jective and adverb will be used in our analysis It is importanthowever to say caveat lector as there is no one to one corre-spondence between a verb in English and one in Pangasinanand what are regarded as adverbs in English are often equiv-alent to Pangasinan lsquoadjectivesrsquo Nevertheless the use of somefamiliar labels may be comforting to the student and is not en-tirely misleading

We may isolate six major classes of words in Pangasinan --particles adverbs pronouns and demonstratives nouns verbsand adjectives To these we may add another entity numeralswhich could well be divided among the last four major cat-egories mentioned above but which are more convenientlytreated together In the following pages each of these wordclasses will be discussed in turn together with the affixes withwhich each is associated The relationship of these entities toeach other in the sentence is discussed in section III of thisgrammar

PARTICLESParticles are words with a primarily grammatical function -

-they serve to mark the relationship obtaining between a wordor phrase and some other entity (another word or phrase oreven the remainder of the sentence) Although particles arealmost entirely monosyllabic and mean almost nothing outsidethe context of a phrase they are of paramount importance inthe structure of a sentence ndash without them even comparativelysimple utterances would become almost (if not completely) un-intelligible For this reason all the commonly encountered par-ticles will be listed here a feat which is not possible for most ofthe other word classes


42

Topic marking particlesThe term TOPIC is more adequately explained in Section III

It is enough to say here that it denotes the phrase which is thesubject of a sentence containing a verb and a correspondingphrase in a verbless sentence The particles marking this rela-tionship are

Personal singular intimate siPersonal plural or respectful diNon-personal singular orindefinite

imaacutey

Nonndashpersonal definite plural iraacutemayNon-personal neutral so

Phonological changesThe initial i of imaacutey and iraacutemay is often dropped almost in-

variably so when the preceding word ends in a vowel iraacutemay isoften further reduced to iraacutey raacutey (see below for more commentson this)

So regularly becomes a suffix -y when the preceding wordends in a vowel (which means that it may lsquodisappearrsquo altogetherfollowing i) si may also undergo the same transformationin that environment especially if the preceding element is apronoun When the preceding word ends in n so also becomes-y and the n is deleted from the stem concerned

Examples

Antoacutey agaacutewa to lsquoWhat did he dorsquo (antoacutey=antoacute + so)

Walaacutey taloacuten lsquoThere is some eggplantrsquo (walaacutey= walaacute + so)

Itanemaacuten koy Pedro na poacutenti lsquoIrsquoll plant the banana for Pedrorsquo(koy=ko + si)

Itaneacutem nen Pedro may poacutenti lsquoThe banana was planted byPedro Labaacutey yo kasiacute ray kaacutenen diaacute lsquoDo you like the [various]foods herersquo (ray= iraacutemay)

Walaacute ni pageacutey lsquoTherersquos still some [unhusked] ricersquo (ni=ni +so)

Kapigaacutey insabiacutem lsquoWhen was your arrivalrsquo (kapigaacutey=kapigaacuten+ so)


43

Use of topic markersThe personal topic markers precede personal nouns (ie

names of people terms for close relatives and the titles ofcertain important offices when the latter refer to a person)when the latter are (a) subjects of a verbal sentence (b) topicsor comments in an equational sentence (c) in a relationshipcross-reference to an attributive pronoun (d) preceded by apreposition (see also note ne kiacutenen below in relation to referentmarkers)

Examples (personal markers)Ibaacutek si akulaacutew ko lsquoMy wife is my companionrsquo (Topic of equationalsentence)

Si Juan so paraasoacutel lsquoJohn is the one who fetches waterrsquo(Comment in equational sentence)

Singaacute ra di taacutetay mo lsquoHe isthey are just like your fatherrsquo(topic of equational sentence)

Sinmabiacute si Rauacutel nen luacutenes lsquoRaul arrived on Mondayrsquo (subjectof verbal sentence)

Agto labaacutey so dakeacutel si Berting (not + by-him wanted mkr(topic) many mkr (personal) Berting) lsquoBerting does not want acrowdrsquo (in apposition to attributive pronoun (to=Berting)

Naksawaacuten si Bakeacutes a nananaacutep ed si Bakokoacutel

lsquoMonkey was tired out from looking for Turtlersquo (subject ofverbal sentence (si Bakeacutes) personal noun following preposition(si Bakokoacutel)

The markers imaacutey and iraacutemay (with their variants) have amore limited use They mark common nouns (ie any non-per-sonal noun with the exception of Dioacutes lsquoGodrsquo which is usually un-marked and forms with the names of Saints a class all by itself)when they are (a) subjects of verbal sentences when these occurfollowing the verb (b) topics of equational sentences or (c) inapposition to an attributive pronoun or phrase They are furtherrestricted in that they are used only when the phrase concernedis either emphasized or refers to a definite entity in this re-spect they correspond somewhat to the definite article lsquothersquo inEnglish


44

Imaacutey may be used to denote either a single entity or a smallnumber Iraacutemay always denotes a substantial number say morethan five (the exact boundary will vary from speaker to speakerand occasion to occasion) although the contracted form raymay refer simply to lsquotwo or morersquo The components of thesemarkers seem to be imaacuten lsquothatrsquo + so in the case of imaacutey andiraacute lsquoplural theyrsquo + imaacuten + so for iraacutemay However the com-posite forms function grammatically as units and are most con-veniently treated as if they were in fact indivisible Occasionallythe demonstrative itaacuten lsquothatrsquo and iyaacute lsquothisrsquo are also combinedwith so (-y) and used in the same way as imaacutey

Examples (imay iraacutemay)Diaacuted saacutebado so isabiacute to may marikiacutet (here + on Saturday mkr(topic) will-be-arrived by-her mkr (non-personal) maiden) lsquoTheyoung lady will arrive on Saturdayrsquo (apposition ndash to=marikiacutet)

Antildegaacuten na mantildegga may ogaacutew lsquoThe boy ate the mangorsquo(subject of verbal sentence)

Tagaacute ineacuter imaacutey ogaacutew lsquoWhere is the boy fromrsquo (topic of equa-tional sentence)

Inateacutey iraacutemay manoacutek mi lsquoOur chickens diedrsquo

Iteacuter mo may liacutebro lsquoGive me the book(s)rsquo (subject or verbalsentence)

Inmalageacutey iraacutey ogoacutegaw lsquoThe boys stood uprsquo (subject of verbalsentence)

Sinaliacutew da raacutemay anaacuteko may boacutembay danuacutem (was-bought by-them marker (plural) child + my marker (topic) pump + marker(attributive) water) lsquoMy children bought the water pumprsquo (ap-positive phrase ndash da=anaacuteko subject of verbal sentence ndash boacutembaydanuacutem)

Onpalargo yay jeepney ed Bugallon lsquoDoes this jeepney go di-rectly to Bugallonrsquo (subject of verbal sentence)

The marker so which is neutral both in regard to defi-niteness and plurality occurs in the following environments(a) before the topic of an equational sentence except wherethis precedes the comment or consists of a pronoun or pro-phrase or is marked by another topic marker where the topicis marked by an article the use of so is obligatory (b) before


45

the subject of a verbal sentence except where this precedes theverb or consists of one of the elements which preclude the useof so before the topic of an equational sentence and (c) as acomponent of the topic markers imaacutey iraacutemay and their variantsas mentioned above and of the articles say saacuteray etc (dis-cussed further below)

Examples (so)Siopaacutey iacuteba to (siopaacutey=siopaacute + so) lsquoWho is his companionrsquo

Agyo labaacutey so bibiacutentildegka dimaacuten (not + by-you liked mkr (topic)rice-cake there) lsquoDidnrsquot you like the rice cakes therersquo (subject ofverbal sentence)

Mareeacuten so kaaacutebontildegaacuten diaacute lsquo[Itrsquos a] quiet neighborhood herersquo(topic of equational sentence)

Asintildeggeacuter la lameacutet so panagtaneacutem lsquoPlanting time is alreadynear againrsquo (topic of equational sentence)

Ataacutelo so puacutesta mi (was-defeated mkr (topic) bet our) lsquoWe lostour betrsquo (subject of verbal sentence note that as here the fullform so may be used even where -y is also permissible)

Punasaacuten moy lamisaaacuten (will-be-cleaned-on by-you + mkr(topic) table) lsquoClean the tablersquo or lsquoYou will clean the tablersquo(subject of verbal sentence)

Say baliacuteta so nen vieacuternis labaacutet so inpakaasingeacuter na cueacutetis edbolaacuten lsquoThe news [is that] on Friday the rocket approached themoonrsquo (topic of equational sentence there are two equational sen-tences in this example one embedded in the other the sentenceas a whole consists of say baliacuteta lsquothe newsrsquo (comment) + so nenvieacuternis hellip (topic) the topic itself is also in the form of a sentencenen vieacuternis labaacutet lsquoon Friday onlyrsquo (comment) + so inpakaasingeacuterna cueacutetis hellip lsquothe approach of the rocket helliprsquo (topic)

Say ikaacutekanaacute day aroacutem ya domaraacutelos so say boacutemba yamanopsoacutep na danuacutem ed iacutelog (the is-needed by-them + mkr (ap-postive) some lnk farmers mkr (topic) the pump lnk will-suckmkr (object) water from river) lsquoWhat some of the farmers needis a pump that will draw water from the riverrsquo (appositive ndashda=domaacuteralos topic of equational sentence) (See also the noteson articles below)


46

ArticlesThe articles in Pangasinan consist of combinations of the

stem sa- the demonstratives man tan (rarely also ya) theplural marker ra and the topic marker so (in the form -y) Aswith the composite topic markers imaacutey and iraacutemay howeverthey function grammatically as units and are most convenientlytreated as such The following articles are those most frequentlyencountered

lsquothersquo neutral (space number) saylsquothersquo neutral (space) plural saacuteraylsquothersquo distant but known neutral (number) saacutemaylsquothersquo distant plural saraacutemaylsquothersquo proximate neutral (space) saacutetaylsquothersquo proximate plural saraacutetay

The forms sayay saraacuteyay lsquothe proximate to speakerrsquo arepossible but are rarely used as articles

Changes in phonological shapeThe articles saacutemay saraacutemay have alternate forms lacking

initial sndash aacutemay araacutemay The forms with and without initial sseem to be freely interchangeable in any environment

Uses of ArticlesArticles may mark the comment of an equational sentence

(as in the last two examples in the preceding section) andmay also be found preceding common nouns in other situationswhere the speaker wishes to give the noun or noun phrase con-cerned additional emphasis or stronger identification Their useis obligatory when a common noun forms the first element ofthe comment of an equational sentence when the latter is alsothe subject of a verbal sentence the remainder of which formsthe topic of the equation In phrases where their use is optionalarticles are more often encountered in written Pangasinan or informal speech than in casual conversation

ExamplesAkitongtoacuteng may ogaacutew ed saraacutemay bibiacutei lsquoThe boy was talking tothe womenrsquo


47

Say onlaacute ed Cebuacute so maiacuterap (the will-go to Cebu mkr (topic)difficult) lsquo[It is] the journeying to Cebu [which] is difficultrsquo

Say tinaacutepay so inpakaacuten to may marikiacutet ed saacutemay asoacutek (thebread mkr (topic) was-fed-with by-her mkr (appositive) maiden tothe (remote) dog + my) lsquoIt was the bread that the maiden usedfor feeding that dog of minersquo

Saacutemay apoacutek so anaacutelo (the (remote) grandchild + my mkr(topic) did-win) lsquoMy grandchild [was the one who] wonrsquo

Karaklaacuten ed saacutemay dumaacuteralos hellip lsquothe majority of the farmershelliprsquo

Maoacuteng siacuterin so manusaacuter na say panagpateacutey na bigi-bigiacutes (goodsurely mkr (topic) to-use the mkr (object) circumstances-of-killingof insects) lsquoItrsquos good to use insecticidersquo (Where no ambiguitywill result as in this example it is permissible to drop the objectmarker na before the article the example could therefore alsoread hellip panagusaacuter say panagpateacutey hellip)

Si as an articleThe marker si has some of the functions of an article One of

these its use in marking the comment of an equational sentencewhen the first element therein is a personal noun has alreadybeen mentioned and exemplified Occasionally si is also treatedas an article when the noun it precedes forms the first elementin the topic of such a sentence

ExampleSay kuaacuten-da-n san-ka-nengneng da-n on-pawaacutey ed sa-ya-n con-vencioacuten na Partiacutedo Liberaacutel so si Abogaacutedo Siacuteson (the thought +by-them + lnk the-one-who-is-looked-upon by-them + lnk will-emerge from this + lnk convention mkr (attributive) party liberalmkr (topic) mkr (personal) lawyer Sison) lsquoThe one they think ismost likely to emerge [victorious] from this Liberal Party con-vention is Attorney Sison

Attributive and object (non-focus) markersThe same set of markers is used to mark attribution of ob-

jects or actions (often translatable by lsquoofrsquo and lsquobyrsquo respectivelyin English) and in the case of non-personal nouns to mark the


48

object of the action when this is not in focus (ie when it is notthe grammatical subject of the verb ndash see the section on focusin Part III infra) The particles involved are

Personal singular nenPersonal plural or respectful diNon-personal na

Changes in phonological shapeLike so the particle na may take the form of a suffix -y

wnen the stem preceding it ends in a vowel

ExamplesManaliacutew kay kaacuterne ed tindaacutean (kay kaacuterne=ka na kaacuterne) lsquoYou willbuy meat in the marketrsquo lsquowill you helliprsquo

piacutestay inateacutey (=piacutesta na inateacutey lsquofiesta for the deadrsquo (ie lsquoAllSaints Dayrsquo)

siacutembay ntildegaacuterem (=siacutemba na ntildegaacuterem) lsquoSunday afternoonrsquo

Use of attributivenon-topic object markersAs attributives nen di and na mark the phrase denoting the

possessor of an object or the phrase which would constitute thesubject of the active form of a passive referential or other non-active verbal sentence when such phrases are not representedby attributive pronouns The particles nen and di precede per-sonal nouns while na precedes common nouns If pluralityneeds to be marked in phrases preceded by na this is done byinflecting one of the other components of the phrase (eg an ar-ticle or noun) for plurality

Examples (attribution)Ninentildegneacutentildeg nen Juan si Maria (was-looked-at mkr (atr) Juan mkr(subj) Maria) lsquoMaria was seen by Johnrsquo lsquoJohn looked atsawMariarsquo (attribution of action)

Pinaakiacutes na balolakiacute may marikiacutet (was-made-cry mkr (atr)bachelor mkr (subj) maiden) lsquoThe young man made the girl cryrsquo(attribution of action)


49

Inpesakaacuten to may kaweacutes na marikiacutet (was-washed-upon by-hermkr (subj) clothing of maiden) lsquoShe washed the girlrsquos clothesrsquo (at-tribution of possesion)

Linma kamiacute dimad aboacuteng di Juanita lsquoWe went to Juanitarsquoshousersquo (attribution of possession ndash the phrase di Juanita is used asJuanita would not normally be the sole occupant of the house diJuanita therefore has the connotation lsquoJuanita and her familyrsquo orlsquoJuanita and the othersrsquo

Nabuaacutes la so bansaacutel nen Seacutelya lsquoCeliarsquos wedding is tomorrowrsquo(attribution of possession)

Aacutemay aboacuteng so daitaacuten nen Pedro ed aysiacuteng (the house mkr(topic) will-be-sewn-in mkr (atr) Pedro to clothes) lsquoThe house iswhere Pedro will be sewing the clothesrsquo (attribution of action)

Anggapoacutey kuaacuterta nen Seacutelya (not-existing + mkr (topic) moneymkr (atr) Selya) lsquoCelia has no moneyrsquo (attribution of possession)

As markers of unfocused objects na occurs before the samekinds of phrases as in its attributive sense these phrases arehowever the grammatical objects of the sentences concernedand so occur only following the verb in verbal sentences

Examples (na marking object)Nanlutoacute si Juan na baacuteaw lsquoJohn cooked the ricersquo

Illutoaacuten nen Juan si Pedro na siraacute (will-be-cooked-for mkr (atr)Juan mkr (subj) Pedro mkr (obj) fish) lsquoJuan will cook fish forPedrorsquo (nen marks attribution na the object of the action in thissentence)

Analiacutew ak na kiacutendi lsquoI bought candyrsquo

Mangibangaacutet si Juan na anaacutek nen Seacutelya lsquoJohn will teachCeliarsquos childrsquo

Further uses of naIn its attributive role na may also mark an adverb-like rela-

tionship between an adjective and preceding verb or betweena specific temporal division and a preceding more general time-word

Examples


50

Binmatiacutek na mapleacutes si Pedro (did-run mkr (atr) forceful mkr (subj)Pedro) lsquoPedro ran stronglyrsquo

Guacutestok so manbiacutelay na andokeacutey (liked + by-me mkr (topic) to-live mkr (atr) long) lsquoI would like to live longrsquo

Onsabiacute iraacute nabuaacutes na alas doacutes (will-arrive they tomorrow mkr(atr) at two [orsquoclock]) lsquoTheyrsquoll come at two tomorrowrsquo

Onpawiacutel iraacute nabuaacutes na laacutebi lsquoTheyrsquoll return tomorroweveningrsquo

Sinmempeacutet kamiacute nen siacutembay ntildegaacuterem lsquoWe came back onSunday afternoonrsquo (Siacutembay=siacutemba + na the nen in this sentenceis not the personal marker of the same phonological shape)

Vieacuternes na panangogtoacute lsquoThursday lunchtimersquo

Similarly na may sometimes link a noun to another noun orphrase in a descriptive or adjective-like relationship

Example

Say suacuteki tayoacutey siraacute (the suacuteki our + mkr (atr) fish) lsquoOur suacuteki forfishrsquo (ie lsquoThe vendor from whom we usually buy fishrsquo

Referent markersThe referent phrase (which corresponds to a phrase de-

noting indirect object location and similar relationships inEnglish translations ndash see the appropriate section of Part III forfurther explanation) is marked by the following particles

Personal singular kiacutenen ed siPersonal plural or respect kindiacuteNon-personal ed

Phonological changesThe marker ed may become a suffix -d when the preceding

stem ends in a vowel or n in the latter case the n concernedis deleted

Examplesdimaacuted baacutenyo lsquothere in the bathroomrsquo (dimaacuted=dimaacuten + ed)


51

Linmaacuted Ibaacutele lsquo(He) went to Manilarsquo (linmaacuted= linmaacute lsquodid-gorsquo +ed)

Use of referent markersThe referent markers precede referential (including locative

and agentive) phrases when the latter occur following the verbin a verbal sentence whenever the phrase concerned is not thesubject of the sentence They also mark locative phrases inother environments in a sentence except when such a phraseoccurs as the first element in the topic or comment of the sen-tence concerned in the latter circumstances the phrase markedby ed is placed in apposition to a preceding demonstrativeThe construction demonstrative + locative phrase introducedby ed is also common in verbal sentences The benefactivemarker para is also sometimes (but not obligatorily) followedby a referent marker The personal referent markers precedepersonal nouns other nouns in a referential phrase includingindependent pronouns (but normally excluding locative demon-stratives) are marked by ed

ExamplesMangituloacuter ak na buacutero ed Bugallon lsquoIrsquoll take the fermented fish(buro) to Bugallonrsquo (location)

Akipirdonaaacuten si Bill kiacutenen Mondong lsquoBill forgave (was for-giving towards) Mondongrsquo (referent)

Labaacutey ko komoacutey akisayaacutew ed sikatoacute (wanted by-me hopefully+ mkr (topic) did-mutually-dance with her) lsquoI had hoped to dancewith herrsquo

Antoacutey itaacutewag ko ed baacutelang sakeacutey ed sikaraacute lsquoWhat will I calleach of themrsquo (to each one among them) (referentlocation)

Salaacutemat na balbaacuteleg ed invitacioacuten yo lsquoThanks very much foryour invitationrsquo (referent)

saacuteno desioacutecho ed bolaacutey eneacutero lsquoon the eighteenth (among themonth) of Januaryrsquo (location ndash ie the position of the day in re-lation to the month)

Nananaacutep si Linda na manoacutek dimaacuted hardiacuten lsquoLinda caught thechicken there in [the] gardenrsquo (appositive location)


52

Benefactive markerThe marker paacutera indicates the benefactive phrase when this

element is not the subject of a verbal sentence (this prohibitionextends to comments of equational sentences when the latterare concurrently subjects of a verbal sentence comprising thetopic phrase) As noted above paacutera may be followed optionallyby a referent marker When a referent marker is not used thephrase following paacutera must have for its first element an inde-pendent pronoun or an article (si before personal nouns if thepersonal noun requires a plural or respect marker the markerkindiacute is generally used)

ExamplesPaacutera siopaacute may roacutesas lsquoFor whom are the flowersrsquo

Analiacutew ak na kiacutendi paacutera kiacutenen Cora lsquoI bought the candy forCorarsquo

Angalaacute si Pedro na liacutebro paacutera saacutemay marikiacutet lsquoPedro got thebook for the maidenrsquo

Identificational prepositionsThe prepositions singaacute lsquolike as ifrsquo tagaacute lsquofrom (a place of

origin)rsquo dapiacutet lsquotowardsrsquo together with the benefactive markerpaacutera discussed above may be grouped together as lsquoidentifi-cational prepositionsrsquo as the phrases which they precede arefrequently the comments of equational sentences and serve toidentify the topic Dapiacutet may also form part of a locative phrasethe first member of which is ed the combination indicating thedirection in which the object concerned is or was located

ExamplesSingaacute ra di naacutenay mo (like she (topic resp) mkr (topic resp)mother your) lsquo[Itrsquos] as if she were your motherrsquo lsquoShe actsap-pears like your motherrsquo

Singaacute onpapateacutey no mansasaliacuteta (like is-dying when is-speaking) lsquo[Hersquos] like a dying man when he speaksrsquo

Aliwaacuten singaacute sikato di naacutenay mo (not + lnkr like she (ind) mkr(resp) mother your) lsquoItrsquos as if she were not your motherrsquo

Tagaacute ineacuter (=Tagaacute ineacuter oslash) lsquoWhere is he fromrsquo


53

Tagaacute iacuteneacuter saraacutemay mamarikiacutet lsquoWhere are [all] those girlsfromrsquo

Tagaacute ra Iloilo lsquoTheyrsquore from Iloilorsquo

Tagaacute America si Bill (=Tagaacute oslash America si Bill) lsquoBillrsquos fromAmericarsquo

Tagaacute ra Iloilo saraacutemay mamarikiacutet lsquoThose girls are from Iloilorsquo

Pinmeacutelnak may bituacuteen ed dapiacutet bokiacuteg lsquoThe star appeared inthe direction of the Eastrsquo

Dapiacutet diaacute so aboacuteng to lsquoHis house is somewhere around herersquo

Note from the above examples how tagaacute is always followedby a topic pronoun except when the interrogative ineacuter is em-ployed When ineacuter is not used the word order is always

tagaacute + topic pronoun + place name (+ phrase identifying entityrepresented by pronoun)

In positive sentences singaacute may be followed by a topicpronoun or by an unmarked phrase containing a noun or verbfunctioning as a noun in negative sentences however the topicpronoun is replaced by an independent pronoun (see exampleabove some further examples of sentences with singaacute appear inthe section lsquoNegating equational sentencesrsquo in Part III)

Temporal and conditional prepositions and conjunctionsThe following prepositions and conjunctions introduce

phrases denoting time or condition

anteacutes beforealaacutes at (hour of the clock)nen on in (past time)no on in when if (non-past)sanoacute next on after (non-past)saneacuten last on (past)

The conjunction anteacutes is followed by a verbal sentence thesubject of which is linked to the remainder of the sentence by a


54

ExampleLabaacutey kon onogiacutep anteacutes ak a onpawiacutel ed Manila (wanted by-me +lnk to-sleep before I (topic) lnk will-return to Manila) lsquoI want tosleep before I return to Manilarsquo

Alas occurs only before Spanish numerals indicating hoursof the clock It assumes the form alaacute before the numeral unalsquoonersquo

ExampleSinmabiacute kamiacute nimaacuten alaacutes dos ed ngarem (arrived we (excl topic)then at two in the afternoonrsquo

Nen and no form a set one denoting past time and the otherfuturity which may precede words or phrases indicating daysof the week months or subordinate verbal sentences in whichthe verb is the first element (in contrast to anteacutes above) Theydo not normally precede numerals or stand first in a main sen-tence

ExamplesMantaacutenem ak na poacutenti no siacutemba lsquoIrsquoll plant the banana on Sundayrsquo

no sakeacutey a bolaacuten in one month(rsquos time)

Labaacutey kon onogiacutep no onpawiacutel ak ed Manila lsquoI want to sleepwhen I return to Manilarsquo

Liacutenma ak ed Quiapo nen sinmabiacute ak dimaacuted Manila lsquoI went toQuiapo when I reached Manilarsquo

Sinmabiacute ak nen siacutembay ntildegaacuterem lsquoI arrived on Sunday af-ternoonrsquo

Aliwaacuten singaacute nen katantaoacuten (not + lnk like in last-year) lsquoItrsquosnot like [it was] last yearrsquo

No also links conditional phrases to the rest of the sentencein this type of construction it may appear as the first elementin a sentence


55

ExamplesSiansiacutea no maksiacutel so lamaacuten (to-be-so if strong mkr (topic) body)ie lsquoIrsquoll come if I canrsquo

Say labaacutey koy aacutentaen no antoacutey itaacutewag ko ed baacutelang sakeacutey edsikaraacute (the wanted by-me + mkr (topic) will-be-known if what +mkr (topic) will-be-called by-me to each one among them) lsquoWhatI want to know is what I should call each one of themrsquo

Tawaacuteg mo iraacute diaacute no labaacutey da (be-summoned by-you they(subj) here if liked by-them) lsquoAsk them here if they would like [tocome]

No ontaacuten walaacute met si betaacuteng da (if like-that existing too mkr(topic) share their) lsquoIn that case they have a share toorsquo

Sanoacute and saneacuten have the same temporal connotations as no andnen respectively They may occur as the first word in a sentenceand precede numerals

ExamplesSaacuteno desioacutecho ed bolaacutey eneacutero so fieacutesta mi lsquoOur fiesta will be onthe eighteenth of Janurayrsquo

Ag kamiacute onpawiacutel diaacute saacuteno saacutebado lsquoWe will not come back herenext Saturdayrsquo

Saacuteno sabaacutedo siacuterin onpawiacutel kayoacute diaacute lsquoYoursquoll come back nextSaturday thenrsquo

Saneacuten kiacutensi ed saacuteyan bolaacuten lsquo[It was] on the fifteenth of thismonthrsquo

The linker yaThe particle ya (alternating with the forms a and -n the

latter suffixed to the vowel of the preceding stem) is perhaps themost frequently encountered particle in any sequence of Pan-gasinan speech Its function is to link descriptive statementswords or phrases to the noun verb or phrase which is beingdescribed In many cases the linker has no equivalent in anEnglish translation When it links two statements however yahas the sense of the English relatives lsquowhorsquo and lsquothatrsquo The ex-amples which follow illustrate the various uses of ya and areaccompanied by notes on which elements are linked


56

ExamplesMasantoacutes a kabuasaacuten ed sikayoacute (blessed lnk morning to you (pl))lsquoGood morningrsquo (adjective + noun)

sakeacutey ya tooacute lsquoOne manrsquo (ordinal numeral + noun)

Walaacutey baacutelon kaweacutes ko lsquoI have new clothesrsquo (adjective +noun)

Walaacutey siraacute ya angkabaacuteleg lsquoThere are some fish which arequite bigrsquo (noun + adjective)

Onsiacutepot iraacutey wadiaacuten kakanaacuteyon tan amimiacutegas nen Susan (will-go they + mkr (app) existing-here + lnk relatives and friends hellip)lsquoSusanrsquos friends and relatives who are here will gorsquo (adjective tonoun phrase)

Walaacute ni ray onsabiacuten kakanaacuteyon tayoacuten nanlapoacuted Binmaacuteley (ex-isting still they + mkr (app) will-come + lnk relatives our + lnkdid-come + mkr (ref) Binmaacuteley) lsquoOur relatives who came fromBinmaley are still [due] to arriversquo (verb to noun phrase nounphrase to (remainder of) verbal sentence)

Laacutenang a wadtaacuten ed aboacuteng di Fe lsquoHersquos always there at Fersquoshousersquo (adverb to existential adjective)

Labaacutey ko aacuteyan chineacutelas lsquoI like those slippersrsquo (adjectivaldemonstrative to noun)

Aliwaacuten maoacuteng ya sinmabiacute kayoacute (not + lnk good lnk did-comeyou) lsquoItrsquos not good that you camersquo (negative adverb to adjectiveadjective to verbal sentence)

Alaacutem yay piacuteso ya papetpeacutet ko ed anaacutek yo lsquoTake the peso thatI pressed into your childrsquos handrsquo (noun to verbal sentence)

Displacement of linked phrasePronouns and certain adverbial elements frequently in-

tervene to shift the linker and the phrase which follows it to aplace in the sentence somewhat distant from the word or phraseto which it relates

ExamplesMangaacuten ak lan mangaacuten (will-eat I already + lnk will-eat) lsquoIrsquoll eatand eatrsquo (repeated verbs separated by pronoun and adverb)


57

Ngaacutelngaliacuten agkoacute labaacutey so onbangoacuten (very) -nearly + lnk neg-ative + by-me wanted mkr (topic) will-arise) lsquoI very nearly didnrsquotwant to get up this morningrsquo (intervening pronoun the negativeparticle may be more closely related to labaacutey than is the linkedphrase)

Niacutelabilaacutebi kayoacuten onlaacute ta (every night you + lnk will-go is-it)lsquoAre you going every nightrsquo (intervening pronoun)

Agniacute iraacute linmaacuten bisiacuteta mi lsquoOur visitors have not yet comersquo(bisiacuteta mi actually relates to iraacute lsquotheyrsquo which is moved to the pre-verbal position because of the negative particle ndash see section onnegative verbal sentences in Part III)

Ineacuter so nanaralaacuten mo ya manluacuteto lsquoWhere did you learn tocookrsquo (intervening pronoun)

Pinmasiaacuter kamiacute met lan amiduaacute (called-in we also already +lnk twice) lsquoWersquove been twice alreadyrsquo (intervening pronoun andadverbs)

Other ConjunctionsThe remaining conjunctive particles are

et lsquoon the other handrsquobaacutelet lsquobut howeverrsquointildegeacuten lsquobut moreoverrsquotan lsquoandrsquooacute lsquoorrsquokaniaacuten lsquoso thereforersquopiaacuten lsquoso thatrsquolapoacute lsquobecause [of]rsquo (origin)insaacuten lsquothenrsquota lsquobecausersquo (reason)baacutentildeg lsquoeven thoughrsquobaacutentildegno lsquowhenrsquodaacutepot lsquoprovided thatrsquo

Et and baacutelet may be termed lsquoadversativersquo conjunctions astheir use implies the possibility of an assertion contrary to thatmade intildegeacuten on the other hand implies the possibility of a statedifferent from that referred to but lacks the negative impli-cations of the adversative conjunctions The interrogative aacutekin


58

lsquowhyrsquo is often followed by et implying that there is some doubtas to whether the action event etc questioned should (have) orneed (have) come into being

ExamplesSay pakaliknaacutek et aglabaacutey nen Fe (the observation + my on-the-other-hand not + liked mkr (atr) Fe) lsquoFrom what I can gather heis not [really] liked by Fersquo ie lsquoit is not Fe who really likes himrsquo

Baacutelet sanoacute walaacute lay taloacutey taoacuten to yay anaacuteko insaacuten komoacutenmanyoacutegtan (but after existing already + mkr (topic) three + mkr(atr) year his the child + my then hopefully wi11-be-a-younger-child) lsquoBut hopefully the next one will arriversquo

Maliacutenis ya baacutelet malinliacutenis ni man lsquoThis is clean but that iscleaner stillrsquo

Aacutekin et kinetkeacutet mo ak lsquoWhy was I bitten by yoursquo ie lsquowhy didyou bite mersquo

Illaacuteban mo kamiacute intildegeacuten ed maoacuteges (will-be-liberated by-you we(excl) moreover from evil) lsquoBut deliver us from evilrsquo

The coordinating conjunctions tan and o join words orphrases in which both segments have equal status unlike subor-dinating conjunctions (eg ya) which subordinate one elementto another Compare for example the status of the adjectivesbaacuteleg lsquobigrsquo and amputiacute lsquowhitersquo in the phrases say baacuteleg tan am-putiacuten asoacute lsquothe big and white dogrsquo (ie the dog which is both bigand white) and say baacuteleg ya amputiacuten asoacute lsquothe big white dogrsquo(ie the white dog which is big)

When common nouns are joined by tan the first will be pre-ceded by a plural marker where appropriate and the secondmay be unmarked The first of a series of personal nouns willnormally be preceded by the marker di and the succeedingnouns by si (or di if the status of the person concerned warrantsit) When the nouns are of mixed classes an initial commonnoun may be preceded simply by a singular marker

Examplesduaacutemplo tan duaacute twenty two


59

anengneacuteng da ak di Pedro tan si Juan lsquoI was seen by Pedroand Juanrsquo (note the appositive nature of the coordinated phraseda=di Pedro hellip)

Inmuraacuten tan binmagioacute lsquoIt rained and stormedrsquo

Nauraacuten iraacutemay marikiacutet tan balolakiacute lsquoThe maiden andbachelor were caught in the rainrsquo

Onsabiacute may marikiacutet tan si Pedro no luacutenes lsquoThe girl and Pedrowill arrive on Mondayrsquo

Diaacuted laacutebi o ntildegaacuterem na desinueacuteve siacuterin so iakaacuter tayoacute lsquoWersquoll goon the evening or afternoon of the seventeenth thenrsquo

The conjunction ta lsquobecausersquo precedes phrases denotingreason It is used more extensively than its counterpart inEnglish as reason phrases are rarely transformed into simplestatements not explicitly marked as reasons Further in an-swers to questions ta is often preceded by on lsquoyesrsquo (or lsquoandirsquolsquonorsquo) to express agreement or disagreement with the explicit orimplied content of the question or the statements prompting it

In statements expressing opinion or hope ta is often em-ployed in a manner reminiscent of English lsquothatrsquo The conno-tation of reason or justification is however still present in thePangasinan phrase

ExamplesAntaacute to ta Filipiacutena lsquoShe knows because [shersquos a] Filipinarsquo

Walaacuten walaacute ta piaacuten makadagoacute iraacutey amimiacutega nen Susan (ex-isting + lnk existing because so-that can-attend mkr (topic)friends mkr (atr) Susan) lsquo[Itrsquos certainly] going to be [held] so thatSusanrsquos friends can comersquo

Sapaacute komoacuten ta makasumpaacutel na aacuteral to (may-it-be hopefullybecause can-complete mkr (obj) study his) lsquoLet it be hoped thathe can complete his studiesrsquo

lsquoAacutekin konoacute eyrsquo lsquoOn ta dimaacuten met so aboacuteng darsquo lsquoWhy wouldthat bersquo lsquoYes because their house is therersquo

Maoacuteng ta sinmabiacute kayoacute lsquoItrsquos good that you camersquo


60

The conjunctions kaniaacuten lsquoso therefore thatrsquos whyrsquo piaacuten lsquosothatrsquo insaacuten lsquothenrsquo lapoacute lsquobecausersquo daacutepot lsquoprovided thatrsquo bantildeglsquoeven thoughrsquo baacutentildegno lsquowhen wheneverrsquo are all frequently en-countered as the initial elements in a sentence In the case ofthe first three mentioned however this is merely because thefirst of the two elements they conjoin is left unstated becauseit happens to be implicit in the context of the conversation orstatement of which the lsquoeffectiversquo sentence forms part Theirlsquoproperrsquo place is between the conjoined elements the second ofwhich is subordinate to the first although the order may be re-versed sometimes for emphasis (in which case the subordinatephrase is still marked by piaacuten)

ExamplesKaniaacuten dakeacutel so bisiacuteta ya binagaaacuten da lsquoSo thatrsquos why [so] manyvisitors were invited by themrsquo

Aacutegew na Paacutesko so inkianaacutek di naacutenay ko kaniaacuten Jesuacutesa sontildegaraacuten to lsquoChristmas day is my motherrsquos birthday so thatrsquos whyher name is Jesusarsquo

Pankakaacutebaten yo la siacuterin piaacuten makapantontildegtoacutentildeg met la fansanaabalayan lsquoYou should be introducing [them] so that they cantalk [together] the parents of the couplersquo

Piaacuten makataacutewal kayoacute iteacuter ko lay samploacute lsquoSo you can bargainIrsquoll offer [the goods to you for] ten [pesos]rsquo

Insaacuten onlaacute tayoacute ed kamposanto lameacutet lsquoThen [ie after that]wersquoll go to the cemetery againrsquo

Insaacuten lakiacute ni met lsquoThen again hersquos a boyrsquo

Onbunaacutebunaacute iraacutey intaneacutem yon pisiacutepisiacutentildeg insaacuten on-buntildegaacute metiraacuten maoacutentildeg lsquoThe vegetables you planted will grow strongly thentheyrsquoll bear wellrsquo

Lapuacuted baboacutey pinateacutey toy toacuteo lsquoBecause of a pig he killed amanrsquo

Baacutentildeg so siacutelib na demoacutenio sikaacuten kieacutew met so anaacutelo lsquoEven thewiles of the devil you Oh Wood will also vanquishrsquo

Baacutentildegno asabiacute lay bolaacutey maacuteyo saacuteray totoacuteo so masayak-saacutek iraacutelapoacuted panagpiacutestay Sta Cruz de Maacuteyo lsquoWhenever the month Mayhas arrived the people are joyful because of the festival time ofSanta Cruz de Mayorsquo


61

Daacutepot no antildeggapoacutey onsabiacutesabiacuten mandeacuteral ed sarayaacuten anapaacutenna totoacuteo et onaacutebig met komoacuten so panagbilaacutey da lsquoProvided thatthere are no calamities befalling the peoplersquos source of livelihoodtheir state of living will hopefully improversquo

ADVERBSUnlike the marking particles prepositions linkers and con-

junctions adverbs do not serve to mark the relationship be-tween words and phrases or between these entities and therest of the sentence Instead they modify the meaning of wordsphrases or sentences by introducing aspectual elements liketime repetition limitation intensity or certainty or elementslike negation interrogation respect alternation identity anddesire

Negative adverbsThe negative adverb ag is usually phonologically a part of

the word which follows it although it is also often written sepa-rately and can be regarded as a unit mid-way between an affixand an independent word It may be attached directly to verbstems or to topic or attributive pronouns (the effects of this onthe arrangement of words in a sentence are discussed in thesection on negating negative sentences in Part III) The thirdperson topic pronoun takes the form a following ag (in other po-sitions it has no phonological representation simply being lsquoun-derstoodrsquo from the context) and the resulting form aga may beused in place of the negative adjective aliwaacute (qv) before thecomment of an equational sentence

ExamplesAgyoacute labaacutey so kaacutenen diaacute (not + by-you liked mkr (topic) foodhere) lsquoDonrsquot you like the food herersquo

Agkayoacute onpawiacutel diaacute sanoacute saacutebado (not + you will-return herenext Saturday) lsquoWonrsquot you come back next Saturdayrsquo

Agantaacute nen Pedro ya wadiaacute ka (not + known mkr (atr) Pedrolnk existing-here you) lsquoPedro doesnrsquot know yoursquore herersquo

Agnayaacuteri (not + can-be-brought-to-fruition) lsquoItrsquos not possiblersquo


62

Agaacute maoacuteng so pananaliacuteta to (not + it good mkr (topic) way-of-speaking his) lsquoHe does not speak wellrsquo

Interrogative adverbsThe interrogative adverbs are ta which simply indicates

that the sentence in which it appears is a question kasiacute whichmay sometimes be translated as lsquois itrsquo or lsquois it that helliprsquo andey which covers the range of such English expressions as lsquoehrsquolsquowhat about helliprsquo lsquohellip thenrsquo ey usually occurs at the end of a sen-tence ta may also occur at the end of a sentence but usuallyfollows the word or phrase which the speaker wishes to directattention towards and thus may occur at almost any point in thesentence except initially Kasiacute usually occurs at the end of thecomment of an equational sentence or immediately followingthe phrase denoting attribution of action in passive or othernon-active verbal sentences

ExamplesLabaacutey yo kasiacute so kaacutenen diaacute lsquoIs it that (ie do) you like the foodherersquo

Antoacute kasiacute iparaacutean ko (what is-it will-be-prepared by-me)lsquoWhat should I preparersquo

Pigaacutera kasiacute iparaacutean taacuten gaacutestosen (how-much is-it will-be-pre-pared by-us-two + lnk will-be-spent) lsquoHow much should we putaside to spendrsquo

Dakeacutel tay bagaaacuten mo (Many question + mkr (topic) will-be-asked by-you) lsquoWill you be inviting manyrsquo

Niacutelaacutebilaacutebi kayoacuten onla ta (every-night you + lnk will-goquestion) lsquoWill you go every nightrsquo

Akaacutebat ta la nen Inciong so kakanayon nen Cion lsquoHad In-ciong already met Cionrsquos relativesrsquo

Sikayoacute ey lsquoWhat about yoursquo

Ineacuter so nanaralaacuten to ya manluacuteto ey (Where + mkr (topic)was-learned-at by-her lnk to-cook question) lsquoWhere did she learnto cookrsquo

Antoacutey ntildegaraacuten to eyrsquo lsquoWhat is his namersquo


63

Optative adverbsThe optative adverbs are sapaacute lsquomay it be sorsquo and komoacuten

lsquohopefullyrsquo (future anticipation) To these may be added lawaacuterilsquonearly it should be sorsquo although this latter word does notalways imply hopefulness on the part of the speaker The adverbsapaacute is found most often preceding komoacuten but the latter alsooccurs alone in many contexts indicating an anticipated orwished for possibility

ExamplesGabaacutey day comuniacutestas lawaacuteri ya goloweacuten so eleccioacuten (liked by-them + mkr (topic) communists should-be lnkr will-be-disruptedmkr (subj) election) lsquoThe communists were hoping that theelection would be disruptedrsquo

Naplaacuteg konoacute lawaacuteri may anaacutek di Naacutena Maria ed kasiliaacutes da(did-fall it-seems nearly mkr (subj) child mkr (atr) Nana Mariamkr (ref) tiolet their) lsquoI think Nana Mariarsquos child nearly fell intotheir toiletrsquo

Sapaacute komoacuten ta kasiaacuten iraacutey Dioacutes (may-it-be hopefully becausewill-be-given-mercy they + mkr (atr) God) lsquoMay God bless themrsquo

Maoacuteng komoacuten no aacutegewaacutegew ya makapanlaacuteko kayoacutey siraacute (goodhopefully if daily lnk can-sell you + mkr (obj) fish) lsquoIt would begood if you were able to sell fish every dayrsquo

Onaacutebig met komoacuten so panagbilaacutey da lsquoHopefully their livingconditions will also improversquo

Adverbs of certainty and uncertaintyThe adverbs of certainty and uncertainty are manaacuteya lsquoit is

sorsquo siacuterin lsquothen in that case surelyrsquo seguacutero lsquoperhapsrsquo konoacute lsquoIthink it is said it seems indeed most probablyrsquo and palaacute lsquocer-tainlyrsquo There are no precise English equivalents of any of thesewords and their range of meaning especially in the case ofkonoacute is so great that the context in which the word appearsmust be known before an English translation can be made withany degree of accuracy


64

ExamplesSaacuteno saacutebado siacuterin onpawiacutel kayoacute diaacute ta inkianaacutek to may sakeacutey yaanaacuteko (next Saturday then will-return you here hellip) lsquoBe sure tocome back next Saturday then because one of my children ishaving a birthdayrsquo

Mabayaacuteg siacuterin so manaacutelagar na lugaacutenan a onaraacutep ed Bugallon(long then mkr (topic) will-wait-for mkr (obj) vehicle hellip) lsquoSo youhave to wait for a long time then to get a ride to Bugallonrsquo

Ay siacutegi palaacute siacuterin anaacuteko (Oh ok certainly then child + my)lsquoOh then you go ahead by all meansrsquo

Wadiaacute kayoacute manaacuteya (existing-here you it-is-so) lsquoSo yoursquoreherersquo

Nananaacutek ka la manaacuteya (did-give-birth you already it-is-so) lsquoSoyoursquove had your child alreadyrsquo

Ay angkekeacutelag manaacuteya lsquoOh [they are] certainly very smallrsquo

Baacutelon taoacuten la manaacuteya nabuaacutes lsquoTomorrow it will be New Yearalreadyrsquo

Akin konoacute ey lsquoWhy [is that] I wonderrsquo

Andiacute konoacute ta agtoacute ni pinankakaacutebat iraacute (no it-seems becausenot + by-him yet were-introduced they) lsquoIt seems not becausethey were not yet introduced by himrsquo

Labaacutey da konoacute so mikaacutebat ed saacuteray totoacuteo diaacute (wanted by-themit-seems mkr (topic) will-mutually-meet hellip) lsquoIrsquom sure they wouldlike to get to know the people herersquo

Labinduaacute iraacuten anghiacutel konoacute lsquo[Itrsquos planned that] there will betwelve angelsrsquo

Naaacuteni seguacutero (later-on probably) lsquoIn a little whilersquo

Adverbs of limitationThe adverbs of limitation are

la lsquoalready imminentlyrsquoni lsquostill yetrsquolabaacutet lsquojust onlyrsquontildegaacutelntildegaliacute lsquoalmost approaching not quite nearlyrsquobentildegaacutet lambentildegaacutet lsquoonlyrsquolambentildegaacutet lsquounrestrictedlyrsquo


65

The adverb la which is perhaps the most frequently encoun-tered adverbial element in Pangasinan speech indicates that anaction state or event has already taken place or is to be com-pleted forthwith Its opposite is ni which indicates that what isreferred to is still in the process of becoming or is otherwiseincomplete Both words may occur immediately following thephrase to which they most closely refer In the process theymay displace the linker ya as illustrated earlier

The adverb ntildegaacutelntildegaliacute indicates that a potential state of af-fairs did not quite become an actuality its counterpart is labaacutetwhich indicates that an actuality almost remained a potentialityThe latter word has however a wider meaning and may alsoindicate that a state or condition is restricted to the entity oractivity designated by the phrase which it follows The adverbsbentildegaacutet and lambentildegaacutet precede the verb phrase to which theyrefer and indicate that the action is limited to whatever is ex-plicitly stated in the sentence The combination bentildegaacutetla (oftenwritten bentildegaacutet la) on the other hand denotes a complete ab-sence of such limitations

ExamplesO kaniaacuten maoacuteng lan talagaacutey pananaliacutetam na Pangasinan (ohtherefore good already + lnkr really + mkr (topic) way-of-speaking + your of Pangasinan) lsquoOh so thatrsquos why you alreadyspeak Pangasinan really wellrsquo

Asompaacutel lay piacutestay inateacutey lsquoThe fiesta of the dead is alreadyoverrsquo

Mamuacutera la tan lsquoThatrsquos already cheaprsquo

Onlaacute kamiacute la (will-go we already) lsquoWersquore going nowrsquo

Aacutendi ni lsquoNot yetrsquo

Apuacuteyat ak ni met kalabiaacuten lsquoI was also sleepless the previousnightrsquo (ni here emphasizes the continuity of the state referred to)

Ogaacutew met ni (child also still) lsquoHersquos still a childrsquo

Say sanasawaacute et ntildegaacutelntildegaliacute agda la naalagaacuter ya paluacutetoen sokalobaacutesa (the couple however nearly not + by them able-to-waitlnk will-be-ripened mkr (subj) calabash) lsquoThe couple could hardlywait for the gourd to ripenrsquo


66

Ngaacutelngaliacuten agko labaacutey so onbangoacuten (nearly not + by-mewanted mkr (subj) will-arise) lsquoI almost didnrsquot get uprsquo

Ngaacutelngaliacute agiraacute makalinawaacute lsquoThey were almost unable tobreathersquo (ie lsquoThey could hardly breathersquo)

Daiseacutet labaacutet lsquoJust a littlersquo

Tawaacuteg yo ak labaacutet na Migueacutel (be-called by-you I just mkr (obj)Miguel) lsquoJust call me Miguelrsquo

Ipaaboacuteng yo labaacutet lsquoJust make yourselves at homersquo

Say delaacutep tan bagioacute labaacutet so antakoacutet dan mandeacuteral ed pan-bibilayaacuten da (the flood and storm only mkr (topic) feared by-them+ lnkr will-destroy mkr (ref) source-of-life their) lsquoIt is only thefloods and storms which they fear will destroy their source of sus-tenancersquo

Bentildegaacutet-bentildegaacutet ya kinabliacutet toy paltoacuteg (only (intens) lnk was-touched-lightly by-him + mkr (subj) gun) lsquoAll he did was lightlytouch [the trigger of] the gunrsquo

Say pilaacutelek day americaacutenos ya gamoraacuten so aliwaacute lambentildegaacutet yanasabiacuten naaacuteker sobulaacuten (the interest their + mkr (app) Americanslnk will-be-achieved mkr (topic) not only lnk can-be-reached +lnk can-be-proceeded mkr (subj) moon) lsquoThe Americans are inter-ested in achieving more than simply reaching and going aroundthe moonrsquo

Daacutepot no anggapoacutey onsabisabiacuten bentildegaacutetlan mandeacuteral edsaraacuteyan anapaacuten da hellip lsquoProvided that nothing happens whichwould destroy in any way their livelihood helliprsquo

Adverbs of intensity duration continuity and frequencyThe adverbs signifying intensity duration continuity and

frequency are

lalo lsquoespeciallyrsquolaacutenantildeg lsquooftenrsquolaiacutentildegen lsquoexcessively overwhelminglyrsquobaloacutet lsquo[not] at all in [no] wayrsquokariacute lsquoindeedrsquolawaacutes lsquoalwaysrsquo


67

The adverb baloacutet is found only in negative sentences itserves to intensify the negation and make it all-embracingLawaacutes has become somewhat archaic and is more likely to beencountered in written than in spoken Pangasinan The adverbkariacute serves to give emphasis to the statement in which it ap-pears while laacutelo intensifies the significance of the phrase towhich it relates Laiacutengen indicates excess and laacutenang regu-larity

ExamplesLaacutelo et anggapoacute met so malaeacutem a kuaacuterta lsquoEspecially as there isnot too much moneyrsquo

Makapaliklikeacutet ed aniaacuten lauacutet lad no walaacutey gamaacutel tan laacutelo la nosay amagamaacutel et sakeacutey ya maliacutemgas lsquoItrsquos an occasion for rejoicingat harvest time more so if there is food prepared for the workersand especially so if the one causing the food to be prepared [iethe landowner] is a generous fellowrsquo

Nagkalaacutelo et dakeacutel so agastoacutes ta naacutetan a panagta neacutem(nagkalaacutelo=most especially see note below) lsquoOur expenses [aregoing to be] exceptionally heavy now [that itrsquos] harvest timersquo

Naacutetan baacutelet ta sinmabiacute lay oraacuten tan liacutepos met la lalaiacutentildegen sopageacutey lsquo[Irsquom] now [worried] however because the rains and floodshave returned again in force [and wreaked havoc upon] the ricecroprsquo

Tan tugtugaacutey makaacutelnan laiacutenentildeg ya antildeggaacuted simbaaacuten lsquoAnd [themusic] is played extremely slowly until [they reach] the churchrsquo

Say managtuacutenog na siraacute so laacutenantildeg diaacute lsquoThe itinerant fishvendor is often herersquo ie lsquocomes here regularlyrsquo

Antildeggapoacuten baloacutet lsquoNone whateverrsquo

Agdan baloacutet ikabkabilantildegaacuten lsquoThere is nothing whatever forthem to worry aboutrsquo ie lsquothey havenrsquot a care in the worldrsquo

Laacutewas sikaacutey gaacutelgalantildegeacuten hellip lsquoYou will be honored forever helliprsquo

Ipelagaacuten mo ak la kariacute (will-be-thrown-down-for by-you I al-ready indeed) lsquoItrsquos high time you threw something down for mersquo

Other devices for indicating intensity continuity etc arepresent in the language These include affixation (eg the prefixnagka- (alternate form agka-) illustrated above with laacutelo) and


68

various forms of reduplication (eg reduplication of initial con-sonant and vowel as in lalaiacutentildegen (from laiacutentildegen) in one of theabove examples) These processes are discussed in relation toverb and adjective stems where they are developed most exten-sively in the sections devoted to verbs and adjectives infra

Adverbs of repetitionThe adverbs signifying repetition are met lsquoalso toorsquo and

lameacutet lsquoagainrsquo Both normally follow immediately the word orphrase to which they refer

ExamplesKieacuten moy kapalduaacute kieacuten ko met so kapalduaacute lsquoHalf is yours and Itoo will have halfrsquo

Ontaacuten met ed sikayoacute (like-that also to you) lsquoThe same to yoursquo

Walaacute iraacute ed tindaacutean di naacutenay Manaacuteameacutes met di taacutetay lsquoMotheris at the market Father is also bathingrsquo (met here indicates thatboth people concerned are absent for the moment)

Mantildegaacuten ak labaacutet na puacuteto insaacuten ak lameacutet onogiacutep lsquoIrsquoll just eatsome puacuteto then Irsquoll sleep againrsquo

Samaacuter yo kamiacute lameacutet lsquoStop by for us againrsquo

Sakeacutey oacuteras lameacutet so palaacutebasen insaacuten walaacutey jeepney la lameacutet(one hour again mkr (topic) will-be-passed then existing + mkr(topic) jeepney already again) lsquoAnother hour will pass before ajeepney appears againrsquo

Adverbs of distributionThe adverbs of digravestrigravebution are baacutelang lsquoeachrsquo and kapaacuteg

lsquoevery wheneverrsquo As with intensity there are a number of af-fixes and similar devices which also indicate distribution es-pecially where verbs and numerals are concerned These arediscussed in relation to the major word classes with which theyare associated

ExamplesBaacutelang sakeacutey et manaacuteral na baacutelon ugaacuteli tan kaga-gaacutewa lsquoEach onewill learn new customs and ways of doing thingsrsquo


69

Kapaacuteg aboacuteng ya pangidisalaacuten na Santa Cruz so nagsipaacuteraaacutenna kaacutekaneacuten ya ipasipoacutet ed saacuteray miraacutesal lsquoEvery house [hold]where the Holy Cross is prayed to will [likewise] prepare food toserve to those who come to prayrsquo (The affix nagsiacute- is also distrib-utive in character nagsiacuteparaaacuten means literally lsquowill each be a lo-cation of preparingrsquo)

Kapaacuteg onlaacute kayoacute hellip lsquoEvery time you come helliprsquo

Adverbs of alternationThe adverbs of alternation are dino lsquoelsersquo and antildeggaacuteno lsquoeven

if whateverrsquo The latter as can be seen from the examples is asmuch a conjunction as an adverb

ExamplesAntildeggaacuteno naonoacuter kayoacute onla kayoacute (even if will-be-late you will-come you) lsquoCome even if yoursquore latersquo

Antildeggaacuteno antoacutey kakuacutelaacutentildegan na niparaacutean et manbaacuteganmanbaga so akaninkianaacutek (even-if what + mkr (topic) inadequacyof what-could-be-prepared-for [anyone] however will-invite + lnkwill-invite mkr (subj) one-who-has-birthday) lsquoEven if he hasnothing much to offer them the one whose birthday it is will [nothesitate to] invite [as many people as possible]rsquo

hellip antildeggaacuteno laacuteen tayoacuten amiacuten iraacuten kabkaacutebat tayoacute lsquohellip even if ouracquaintances were to be visited by all of usrsquo

Walaacute met iraacutey manaacutetawag na doktoacuter o diacuteno ners lsquoThere wouldbe somebody to call a doctor or else a nursersquo

Akapaacutesen iraacuteya ed miacutesmon aboacutentildeg na akantildegariacuteta o diacuteno edsakeacutey a sokoacutentildeg na solaacuter lsquoThey are placed in the storekeeperrsquosown house or else in one corner of the lotrsquo

Adverbs of timeThe adverbs of time are naaacuteni lsquolater onrsquo nimaacuten lsquothenrsquosbquo and

siacutepor lsquosincersquo Other time words like kabuasaacuten lsquomorningrsquo naacutetanlsquonowrsquo are nouns or pro-phrases and are discussed in relationto other members of those word classes and also in Part IIIin relation to time phrases In fully formed sentences naaacuteni andnimaacuten are always followed by a phrase making explicit the timeto which they refer


70

ExamplesPinaogiacutep ko piaacuten agaacute manaacutebosaacutedo naaacuteni dimaacuted simbaaacuten lsquoI puthim to sleep so he wonrsquot misbehave later on in churchrsquo ie lsquowhilewersquore in churchrsquo

Insaacuten walaacutey baiacuteli naaacuteni no laacutebi lsquoThen therersquo11 be a dancelater on in the eveningrsquo

Aacutendi baacuteli ta onlaacute ak ed Carmeacuten naaacuteni no ntildegaacuterem

lsquoIt doesnrsquot matter because I have to go to Carmen later in theafternoonrsquo ie lsquoI have to go this afternoonrsquo

Nimaacuten labaacutet nen kabuasaacuten so insabiacute mi (then only in morningmkr (topic) was-arrived by-us) lsquoWe arrived only this morningrsquo

Sinmabiacute kamiacute nimaacuten alaacutes dos lsquoWe arrived at tworsquo (note howboth nimaacuten (past) and its counterpart naaacuteni (non-past) are oftencompletely superfluous in an English translation)

Siacutepor nen sinmabiacute ak dakeacutel lay atrabaacutejo tayoacute (since when ar-rived I much already + mkr (topic) has-been-done by us) lsquoSince Icame wersquove accomplished a lotrsquo

Adverb of respectThe adverb pa which can usually be translated by the

English word pleasersquo is used in requests directed at olderpersons or those to whom the speaker wishes to show specialcourtesy

ExamplesIpakomustaan yo ak pa ed sikaraacute (let-be-remembered by-you(resp) I please to her (resp)) lsquoPlease remember me to herrsquo (orrsquo hellipto himrsquo lsquohellip to themrsquo)

Teacutepaten tayoacute pa no ineacuter so labaacutey dan panayamaacuten (will-be-asked by-us pa if where mkr (topic) wanted by-them + Inkr will-be-living-at) lsquoPerhaps we should enquire where they would like toliversquo

Isaacutelik pay sieacutete (will-be-tried + by-me please + mkr (topic)seven) lsquoMay I try [size] sevenrsquo


71

Adverb of identityThe adverb of identity laacutemantildeg serves to closely identify the

actor or affected party respectively with an action or state italso has adversative connotations (eg that the action was per-formed despite intervening adverse circumstances) and can beapproximated in English by the combination lsquo-self hellip just thesamersquo

ExampleAacutendi baacutelin nairapaacuten no sikatoacute lamlaacutemantildeg so makaa-sawaacute ed sikatoacute(no matter + lnk beset-by-hardships if he (identificational adverbndash intensive) mkr (topic) can-marry mkr (ref) her) lsquoNever mind thehardships as long as he himself can marry her just the samersquo

Adverbs of comparisonA number of words may be linked to adjectives to indicate

degrees of comparison most of these words are however bestregarded as adjectives themselves as they function in othercontexts in the same way as any other adjective The principalexceptions seem to be laoacutet (often combined with la lsquoalreadyrsquo)which refers to a state of affairs not necessarily expressed byan adjective and the adverbs ni and nen which are used insome constructions to denote comparison of adjectives and ac-tivities The use of laoacutet lsquomore sorsquo has already been illustratedabove (see the second example in the section on adverbs of in-tensity) these special uses of ni and nen are illustrated in theexamples which follow It should be noted that in the construc-tions involving adjectives it is not really the adjectives whichare being compared but the phrases constituting the topic ofthe sentences having an adjective as the comment

ExamplesMaoacuteng ni so aysiacuteng nen say sombreacutero lsquoThe dress is better thanthe hatrsquo

Babaacuteleg ni si Carmelo nen Maria lsquoCarmelo is bigger thanMariarsquo (ni in this sentence is emphatic only ndash babaacuteleg is a redu-plicated form of baacuteleg lsquobigrsquo and already conveys the sense oflsquobiggerrsquo)


72

Aliwaacuten maoacuteng so koacutemiks nen say diaacuterio lsquoComics are notbetter than the newspaperrsquo

Maliacutenis ya baacutelet malinliacutenis ni man lsquoThis is clean but that iscleanerrsquo

Labaacutey koy mansuacutelat nen say manmakiniacutelya lsquoI like writing[better] than typingrsquo

Labaacutey toy mankoacutemis nen say manpeacutesak lsquoShersquod rather baby sitthan wash [clothes]rsquo

Adverbs and AdjectivesIt can be seen from the lsquoadverbsrsquo listed in these pages that

what are here called adverbs are mostly particles with func-tions other than those of marking coordination subordinationor the relationship of the major parts of the sentence to the verbor the sentence as a whole While many of those words haveEnglish equivalents which are traditionally at least regardedby educated English speakers as lsquoadverbsrsquo there are a greatmany English adverbs completely unrepresented by Pangasinanequivalents in this list The reason for this is that lsquoadverbrsquo hasbeen used merely as a convenient term to cover a number ofPangasinan words with certain features in common in relationto Pangasinan grammar

The Pangasinan words expressing certain relationships re-garded as adverbial in English do not belong with the lsquoadverbsrsquoalready discussed however at least as far as Pangasinan is con-cerned The same words that lsquoqualifyrsquo nouns for example mayappear unchanged and in identical constructions with verbsFor purposes of this guide these qualifier-modifiers have beencollectively termed adjectives In English there is a formal dis-tinction between words modifying verbs (eg quickly) and thosequalifying nouns (eg quick) ndash in Pangasinan there is none thesame word has both functions

PRONOUNS DEMONSTRATIVES ANDPRO-PHRASES

The term lsquopro-phrasersquo covers those words which in theframework of the sentence represent a complete phrase Ittherefore includes pronouns (which do not merely representsingle nouns but rather phrases with a noun as their core) the


73

pronominal demonstratives and a variety of other words par-ticularly interrogatives (eg words like aacutekin lsquowhyrsquo (standing fora reason phrase)) The characteristic of pro-phrases is that theyhave rather abstract connotations their meaning consisting asit were of the lowest common denominator of the phrases inwhose place they stand The significant features of the variouskinds of pro-phrases in Pangasinan are examined in this section

PronounsPronouns stand in place of noun phrases ndash in the sentence

anentildegnentildeg da ka lsquoYou were seen by themrsquo da stands for aphrase identifying the actor ndash eg na saraacutemay totoacuteo lsquoby themenrsquo while ka stands for a phrase identifying the subjectad-dressee who was seen eg si Cora lsquoCorarsquo It will be notedhowever that the pronoun ka adds some information that thephrase would not normally contain ndash it is marked for lsquopersonrsquo(addressee) and da also compulsorily contains informationoften omitted from ordinary phrases ndash it is marked for lsquonumberrsquo(plural) just as is ka (singular) In fact most pronouns in Pan-gasinan contain just four pieces of information ndash their gram-matical function and whether it also involves the additionalelement of plural number There are three Pangasinan pronounsequivalent to English lsquowersquo (or lsquous lsquoourrsquo as the case may be) ndashspeaker + hearer (dual) speaker + hearer + others (inclusive)and speaker-hearer + others (exclusive) The pronouns relatingonly to the addressee also have the element of respect linkedwith that of plurality so plural forms are also respect formswhere a single addressee is involved So also with the pronounexcluding both speaker and addressee

SubjectTopic pronounsThe set of pronouns which may function as subjects of verbal

sentences and topics of equational sentences (but not as com-ments in such sentences ndash see Part III infra) is

Speaker Addressee Plural+ ndash ndash ak lsquoIrsquondash + ndash ka lsquoYou (singular or

familiar)rsquondash ndash ndash Oslash lsquohe she itrsquo (in

combination with ag -a)


74

+ + ndash itaacute lsquowe tworsquo+ ndash + kamiacute lsquowe (exclusive)rsquo+ + + itayoacute lsquowe (inclusive)rsquo

itiacutendash + + kayoacute lsquoyou (plural or respect)rsquo

kindash ndash + iraacute lsquothey he she (respect)rsquo

The forms ki and ti indicate both familiarity and respect andare found mainly in mild requests etc

Phonological variationsThe lsquothird person singularrsquo pronoun has no phonological

form except when following the negative adverb ag- as notedabove The initial i of itaacute itayoacute itiacute and iraacute is usually droppedwhen the preceding word ends in a vowel and very often inother environments Some speakers do not use the forms withis in equational sentences When the i is dropped from iraacute ther is retained even if the preceding word ends an a consonant

ExamplesIroacuteng kayoacute tioacute lsquoSit down unclersquo

Manaacuteameacutes lsquoHeshe is bathingrsquo

Agaacute sinmabiacute lsquoHe didnrsquot arriversquo

Masansantiacuteng iraacute lsquoTheyrsquore very nicersquo

Onlaacute tayoacute la lsquoLetrsquos all go nowrsquo

Akaoleacutey ki la (happen-to-be-in-charge you already) lsquoItrsquos up toyoursquo

AttributiveNon-focus pronounsAttributive pronouns represent phrases marked by attrib-

utive markers with the exception of grammatical objects ofverbal sentences ndash ie out-of-focus actors in verbal sentencesand phrases denoting possession and other forms of attributionThey are

Speaker Addressee Plural+ ndash ndash ko lsquoby me myrsquo


75

ndash + ndash mo lsquoby you your (intimate)rsquondash ndash ndash to lsquoby him by her his

her itsrsquo+ + ndash ta lsquoby us two ourrsquo+ ndash + mi lsquoby us our (excl)rsquo+ + + tayoacute lsquoby us our (incl)rsquondash + + yo lsquoby you your (pl or

resp)rsquondash ndash + da lsquoby them their by him

his etc (resp)rsquo

Phonological changesWhen the preceding word ends in a vowel ko and mo

become affixed forms -k and -m respectively When followingsome stems ending in vowels eg amtaacute lsquoknownrsquo da may assumethe form ra because of its close phonological ties with the pre-ceding word This form of da is generally treated as an affix andwritten as part of the word concerned

Whenever ko is followed by ka or kayoacute it assumes the formta This rule does not apply where ko is not representing theactor or equivalent element in a passive or other non-active sen-tence

Order of subject and attributive pronounsWhen the actor etc in a passive or other non-active sen-

tence is represented by a pronoun the attributive pronoun con-cerned always precedes the subject pronoun if one is present inthe sentence Both attributive and subject pronouns are alwaysplaced immediately following the verb Examples of changes inthe order of phrases resulting from the use of pronouns arefound in the section on order of phrases in verbal sentences inPart III of the grammar

ExamplesAnengneacuteng da kamiacute lsquoWe were seen by themrsquo

Labaacutey to lsquo(It) is liked by himrsquo

Benegaacuten ta ka lsquoYoursquoll be left behind by mersquo ie lsquoIrsquoll be goingnowrsquo


76

Walaacutey baacutelon camisadeacutentrok (existing + mkr (topic) new + lnkshirt + my) lsquoI have a new shirtrsquo

Ibaacutek so amiacutego da lsquoMy companion is their friendrsquo

Antaraacute (known + by-them) lsquoThey knowrsquo

Agkoacute amtaacute (not + by-me known) lsquoI donrsquot knowrsquo

Independent pronounsIndependent pronouns occur as comments in equational

sentences and following prepositions including the benefactivemarker paacutera They may also occasionally substitute for a pos-sessive phrase including an attributive pronoun The inde-pendent pronouns are listed below in the same order as that inwhich subject and attributive pronouns were set out above

siaacutek lsquoI mersquosikaacute lsquoyou (intimate)rsquosikatoacute lsquohe she it him herrsquosikataacute lsquowe two us tworsquosikamiacute lsquowe us (exclusive)rsquosikatayoacute lsquowe us (inclusive)rsquosikayoacute lsquoyou (plural or respect)rsquosikaraacute lsquothey them he him she her (respect)rsquo

Interrogative pronounThe independent pronouns contain an additional member

unmarked for grammatical person but referring exclusively tohuman beings

siopaacute lsquowho whomrsquo (plural sioparaacute)

An alternative form opaacute is sometimes encountered but its useis considered somewhat brusque and the compound with si ispreferred in most circumstances When followed by the linkerya (-n) the interrogative siopaacute means lsquowhich (person)rsquo

ExamplesSiaacutek so anentildegneacutentildeg nen Pedro lsquoI[rsquom the one who] was seen byPedrorsquo

Sikaraacute di taacutetay ko lsquoHe is my fatherrsquo


77

Walaacuted siaacutek may liacutebro lsquoThe book is with mersquo ie I have thebookrsquo

Paacutera siopaacute ya lsquoFor whom [is] thisrsquo

Siopaacutey Nana Maria lsquoWhich is Nana Mariarsquo

Siopaacuten Nana Maria lsquoWhich Nana Mariarsquo

Sikatoacutey inpamatikiaacuteb dad Apollo 9 (it + mkr (topic) caused-to-be launched by-them + mkr (ref) Apollo 9) lsquoIt is [the reason] whythey launched Apollo 9rsquo

Linma kamiacute ed sikaraacute lsquoWe went to themrsquo ie lsquoto their placersquo

DemonstrativesWhere pronouns are marked for inclusion or exclusion of

speaker and addressee demonstratives are marked for thespatial or temporal relationship obtaining between the speakerand addressee and the phrase they represent (or in the caseof demonstratives used adjectivally the phrase which theyqualify)

Basic demonstrativesThe basic demonstratives may occur as topics of equational

sentences subjects of verbal sentences and as objects in activeverbal sentences from which the subject has been shifted toform a comment phrase in an equational sentence of which theremainder of the verbal sentence forms the topic The basicdemonstratives are

NearSpeaker

NearAddressee

+ ndash iyaacute lsquothisrsquoiraacuteya lsquothesersquo

ndash + itaacuten lsquothat (near you)rsquoiraacutetan lsquothose (near you)rsquo

ndash ndash imaacuten lsquothat (yonder)rsquoiraacuteman lsquothose (yonder)rsquo

Phonological changesThe initial i of all these forms is often dropped especially

when the preceding word ends in a vowel


78

Basic demonstratives as adjectives or topic markers

The combination of basic demonstratives with so to formtopic marking particles has been discussed above under theheading of the latter Occasionally basic demonstratives mayalso be used in an adjectival sense linked to a following noun ornoun phrase by ya (-n)

ExamplesLiacutebro tan lsquoThatrsquos [a] bookrsquo

Sikatoacute so analiacutew imaacuten lsquoHe [is the one who] bought thatrsquo(object of active sentence)

Akaacuten mo ya lsquoThis was eaten by yoursquo (subject of passive sen-tence)

yan aboacutentildeg mi (this + lnk house our) lsquothis house of oursrsquo

Locative demonstrativesThe locative demonstratives represent a phrase indicating

location in space and occasionally also in time They are oftenfollowed appositively by the locative phrase for which they actas substitutes Unlike basic demonstratives locative demonstra-tives do not have plural forms The locative demonstratives are

diaacute lsquoherersquoditaacuten lsquothere (near addressee)rsquodimaacuten lsquothere (yonder)rsquo

ExamplesNananaacutep si Pedro na manoacutek dimaacuted hardiacuten lsquoPedro caught thechicken there in the gardenrsquo (dimaacuted= dimaacuten ed)

Antildeggapoacutey makalabaacutes diaacute (not-existing + mkr (topic) can-passhere) lsquoNo one can get through (or should trespass) herersquo

Diaacuted saacutebado so isabiacute to may ogaacutew lsquoThe boy will be arrivingon Saturdayrsquo ie lsquothis Saturdayrsquo

Sikatoacutey inmogiacutep ditaacuten lsquoHe [was the one who] slept therersquo


79

Combination of locative demonstratives and existentialadjective

The locative demonstratives may combine with the exis-tential adjective stem wa to form existential adjectives of lo-cation

wadiaacute lsquoexisting herersquowadmaacuten lsquoexisting yonderrsquowadtaacuten lsquoexisting there (near speaker)rsquo

ExamplesAmtak ya wadiaacute ka lsquoI know that yoursquore herersquo

Antoacutey wadtaacuten ed buacuteksot mo eyrsquo lsquoWhat [do you] have there inyour basketrsquo

Existential demonstrativesThe existential demonstratives form the comment phrase of

the equational sentences in which they occur They are normallyused to indicate something which is visible to either the speakeror addressee The forms concerned are

Niacutea lsquo[is] herersquoNiacutetan lsquo[is] there (near addressee)rsquoNiacuteman lsquo[is] yonderrsquo

ExamplesNiacutea so kaacutenen mo lsquoHerersquos your foodrsquo

Niacuteman so kieacuten mo lsquoYourrsquos is over therersquo

Niacuteman si Miguel ed sokoacuteng lsquoMiguel is over there in thecornerrsquo

Independent demonstrativesThe independent demonstratives may form the comment of

an equational sentence or occur following the marker ed iden-tifying the spatial relationship between the comment (or in thelatter case the phrase substituted for) and the speaker or ad-dressee They may also be used adjectivally linked to the phrasequalified by ya The independent demonstratives are


80

saacuteya lsquothisrsquosaraacuteya lsquothesersquosaacutetan lsquothat (near addressee)rsquosaraacutetan lsquothose (near addressee)rsquosaacuteman lsquothat (yonder)rsquosaraacuteman lsquothose (yonder)rsquo

Phonological changesThe initial s of these stems may be dropped in any envi-

ronment No change in meaning is involved The marker so doesnot normally assume the form -y following independent demon-stratives

Components of independent demonstratives and articlesThe independent demonstratives consist of the lsquoprefixrsquo sa

followed by a demonstrative stem with the plural marker raintervening in the plural forms The form sa was noted abovein connection with articles of which it forms a primary com-ponent together with the bound form of so (-y) and wherespace or plurality is to be indicatedsbquo demonstrative andor theplural marker raacute When a particle follows an independentdemonstrative or a single noun preceded by an article thecomponents of the demonstrative or article concerned may berearranged with the particle intervening between sa and theremainder of the compound as saniacutetan from saacutetan ni sabaacuteletso tooacute from say tooacute baacutelet Such decomposition of articles and in-dependent demonstratives is not encountered often but may beemployed for reasons of style emphasis etc

ExamplesSaacuteya so aboacutentildeg da lsquoThis is their housersquo

Nanalaskuaacutetro la ed saacutetan lsquoItrsquos four orsquoclock at thatrsquo ie lsquowhenthat takes placersquo

Nanlapuaacuten yo ed saacutetan ey lsquoDid you come from that [place]rsquo

Manlaacutepud saacuteman ya aacutegew na binyaacuteg aacutemay ogaacutew taacutewagen toiraacutemay antildeganaacutek ed sikatoacute so niacutenontildeg tan niacutenantildeg lsquoFrom that day ofbaptism the child will call those who sponsored him ldquoninontildegrdquo andldquoninantildegrdquorsquo

Saraacuteyan mamarikiacutet lsquothose maidensrsquo


81

Independent pronouns and demonstrative stemsThe third person independent pronouns may sometimes

combine with demonstrative stems and function as independentdemonstrative pronouns but referring only to inanimate ob-jects or states conditions etc

ExampleSikatoacuteya so labaacutey ko lsquoThis [is what] I likersquo

Demonstratives of similarityThe demonstratives of similarity are adverb-like elements

which may occur before referential phrases they may also con-stitute the comment phrase of an equational sentence Thesedemonstratives are

onyaacute lsquolike thisrsquoontaacuten lsquolike that (near or affecting addressee)rsquoonmaacuten lsquolike that (distant)rsquo

ExamplesOnyaacute so ginawaacute to aliwaacuten ontaacuten lsquoWhat he did was like this notlike thatrsquo

Ontaacuten siacuterin makapaacutennenentildegneacutentildeg iraacuten amiacuten ed saacuteyan begtaacute(like-that surely can-be-seeing they + lnk all at this + lnk get-to-gether) lsquoIn that way everyone gets to see each other on such anoccasionrsquo

Talagaacuten ontaacuten so ugaacuteli na Pangasinaacutense lsquoThe custom of thePangasinan people is really like thatrsquo

Ontaacuten met ed sikaacute lsquoThe same to yoursquo

Pro-phrases of timeThe temporal pro-phrases are kapigaacuten lsquowhenrsquo and naacutetan

lsquonow todayrsquo Like other interrogative pro-phrases kapigaacuten isusually encountered as the topic of an equational sentence

ExamplesKapigaacutey isabiacute yo ey lsquoWhen did you arriversquo


82

Kapigaacuten so labaacutey mon iakaacuter ey lsquoWhen would you like to gorsquo

Mataacutelag lay angkabaacuteleg na siraacute naacutetan lsquoThe larger fish arescarce nowrsquo

Paacutenon naacutetan ey (how now eh) lsquoWhat happens nowrsquo lsquoWhatwill wethey do nowrsquo etc

Antoacutey aacutegew naacutetan lsquoWhat is the day todayrsquo

Interrogative pro-phrasesA number of interrogative pro-phrases have been discussed

above under other headings Those yet to be dealt with and thetypes of phrase they substitute for are

ineacuter lsquowherersquo (locative phrases)antoacute lsquowhatrsquo (phrase with non-personal noun as

nucleus)opaacute lsquowhat (person)rsquo (phrase with personal noun as

nucleus)diacutenan lsquowhichrsquo (phrase modified by adjective or

identified by demonstrative)aacutekin lsquowhyrsquo (reason phrases)paacutenon lsquohowrsquo (phrase or sentence constituting

explanation)Pigaacute lsquohow many how muchrsquo (numeral or phrase with

noun of quantity as nucleus or modified byadjective of quantity)

All of these words typically form the comment phrase of anequational sentence As noted earlier opaacute is not often usedgenerally being supplanted by the independent pronoun siopaacuteThe pro-numeral pigaacute may be inflected for multiplicity by af-fixing -ra pigaacutera lsquohow many (items)rsquo Pigaacute may also be affixedwith any of the affixes which are associated with numeral stemsThese are discussed and exemplified in the section on numeralsinfra

Ineacuter is sometimes used in a non-interrogative sense pre-ceded by no lsquoifrsquo to indicate an unknown present or future lo-cation

Antoacute lsquowhatrsquo is sometimes phonologically bound to a fol-lowing demonstrative stem as in the word antoacutetan lsquowhatrsquosthatrsquo The resulting meaning is simply a combination of the


83

meanings of the interrogative and the demonstrative con-cerned except in idioms like antildeggaacuten antoacutetan (throughoutwhatrsquos that) lsquovery much indeedrsquo lsquoanything at allrsquo

ExamplesTagaacute ineacuter ka lsquoWhere are you fromrsquo

Ineacuter so pantildeganaacuten nen Pedro may mansaacutenas lsquoWhere doesPedro eat the applesrsquo

No ineacuter so pateyaacuten mo ditaacuten so pateyaacuten ko lsquoWhere you diethere I shall diersquo

Antoacutey gustom ya inumeacuten lsquoWhat would you like to drinkrsquo

Antoacutey ntildegaraacuten mo lsquoWhat is your namersquo (some speakersprefer siopaacute to antoacute here)

Labaacutey mi antildeggaacuten antoacutetan lsquoI like everything (of that kind)without reservationrsquo

Diacutenan so labaacutey yo lsquoWhich do you wantrsquo

Aacutekin et wadiaacute ka lameacutet lsquoWhy are you here againrsquo

Antoacuten gaacutetas so labaacutey yo ey lsquoWhat [kind of] milk do you wantrsquo

Aacutekin agmakasabiacute may ajeacutenti diaacute ed sikayoacute lsquoWhy canrsquot theagent come here to yoursquo

Paacutenon kaatageacutey may salomaacutegi lsquoHow high is the tamarind(tree)rsquo

Paacutenoy bilbilaacutey naacutetan ey lsquoHowrsquos life now ehrsquo ie lsquoHow arethingsrsquo

Panoacuten tayoacuten mibaiacuteli et antildeggapoacutey kapariacuteja tayoacute lsquoHow will wedance when we have no partnersrsquo

Pigaacutey oacuteltimo yo ey lsquoHow much is your last (price)rsquo ie lsquohelliplowest pricersquo

Pigaacutey bolaacuten to la si Berting lsquoHow many months [old] isBerting alreadyrsquo

Pigaacuteray inanaacutek mod binyaacuteg ey lsquoHow many godchildren doyou haversquo (inanaacutek ed binyaacuteg= lsquogodchildrsquo)


84

NOUNSSemantically as many generations of school children have

learned nouns are names of people places things and qual-ities In Pangasinan nouns may be distinguished from otherword classes by certain formal qualities basic nouns may beinflected for multiplicity but not for time or intensity Derivednouns may retain the latter features but this is a result of theirtransference from one word-class to another through the use ofa derivative affix As a class nouns may be preceded by articlesand form the center of an attributive construction with adjec-tives pronouns or other nouns they may also be marked astopics of equational sentences subjects of verbal sentences aswell as forming the nucleus of the actor object referent bene-factive agent time and other phrases in verbal sentences andthe comment of an equational sentence

Structure of noun stemsNouns may be grouped structurally into two classes ndash basic

nouns and derived nouns

Basic nounsBasic nouns consist of an unaffixed root they may be either

simple (ie irreducible to any smaller non-phonological en-tities) or compound Compound nouns are composed of tworoots fused into one and operating as a unit

ExamplesSimple basic nouns are asoacute lsquodogrsquo ogaacutew lsquochildrsquo anaacutek lsquooff-

springrsquo ermeacuten lsquosorrowrsquo amiacutego lsquofriendrsquo baacuteley lsquotownrsquo bilaacutey lsquolifersquoCompound basic nouns are rarely encountered the most

common one is probably baloacutelakiacute lsquobachelorrsquo (cf baloacute lsquowidowerrsquo+ lakiacute lsquomalersquo)

Derived nounsDerived nouns consist of a stem often verb or adjective

stem to which have been added one or more derivative affixesas for example inasiacuten lsquomarinated fish saucersquo from -in- plus asiacutenlsquosaltrsquo mangasawaacute lsquoa person about to be marriedrsquo from maN-


85

plus asawaacute lsquospousersquo pomepesaacutek lsquowasherwomanrsquo from -om- pluspepesaacutek lsquois washingrsquo and kaatageacutey lsquoheightrsquo from ka- plus atageacuteylsquohighrsquo Further examples of derived nouns are given below inthe list of noun-deriving affixes

Grammatical categories of nounsNouns are divided into two main categories grammatically

-- personal nouns and common nouns This division is reflectedin the grammar by the use of personal markers with personalnouns and a different set of markers with common nouns ashas been noted in the section on markers above

Personal nouns consist of proper names and certain kinshipterms (eg akulaacutew lsquoold woman wifersquo inaacute lsquomotherrsquo amaacutelsquofatherrsquo taacutetay lsquofatherrsquo naacutenay lsquomotherrsquo baacutei lsquograndmotherrsquo laacutekilsquograndfatherrsquo asawaacute lsquospousersquo) as well as a few titles of im-portant offices when these are used as terms of reference forthe holder thereof (eg jueacutez lsquojudgersquo paacuteri lsquopriestrsquo)

All other nouns are common nouns Within the group ofcommon nouns however other grammatically relevant cate-gories appear The most important of these are time nouns (egsaacutebado lsquoSaturdayrsquo ugtoacute lsquonoonrsquo ntildegaacuterem lsquoafternoonrsquo) abstractnouns (eg ermeacuten lsquosorrowrsquo) nouns of space or position (egpegleacutey lsquomiddlersquo beneacuteg lsquobackrsquo taacutepew lsquotoprsquo) other groupingsof nouns are also evident for certain purposes ndash nouns repre-senting monetary units (eg piacuteso lsquopesorsquo salapiacute lsquofifty centavosrsquo)may be affixed distributively with maN- lsquoapiecersquo for examplewhile many body parts and nouns whose denotata are closelyassociated with the person have plurals formed by the affix ka-hellip-an rather than by reduplication of the stem These major andminor groupings are illustrated in reference to the nominal af-fixes listed later in this section

Plurality (multiplicity) in nounsSimple plurality is not generally indicated except by means

of numerals (eg duaacuteran tooacute (two + lnk man) lsquotwo menrsquo Theplural forms therefore indicate many objects ndash more than two orthree ndash the exact boundary will vary from speaker to speakerThe method of indicating such multiple plurality is dependenton the noun stem itself Basically there are three processes ndashstress shift reduplication of part of the stem and affixationndash two of which may be combined in some cases Which par-


86

ticular method is employed with a given stem is generally hardto determine by general rules although a few such rules arestated below for most stems it is necessary to learn the pluralform by experience

Agreement of articles demonstrative adjectives verbs andnouns

Where plural inflections are concerned a demonstrative ad-jective article or marker must be inflected for plurality when itis in construction with a plural noun ndash eg sarayan totooacute (these+ lnk men) lsquothese menrsquo in other circumstances plurality if itis to be indicated at all may be a feature only of the article ormarker preceding the noun in the noun phrase (eg saraacutemay tooacute(the (there) man) lsquothe men (there)rsquo iraacutemay tooacute (mkr (pl) man)lsquothe menrsquo When a verb is inflected for plurality of action atleast the article marking an apposed subject or the marker pre-ceding a post-verbal subject must be marked for plurality (egnaniacuteinoacutem iraacutemay tooacute (did-multiply-drink mkr (pl) man) lsquothe menwere (all) drinking (frequently)rsquo saraacutey tooacute so naniacuteinoacutem diaacute (the(pl) man mkr (topic) did-multiply-drink here) lsquoThe men weredrinking hellip herersquo

Devices for indicating plurality in nouns

Shift in stressSome nouns are pluralized by shifting the stress from the

last to the first syllable of the root In most of these nouns aportion of the root is also reduplicated Only a few nouns belongto this group the majority of which are kinship terms

Examplesanaacutek lsquochild (offspring) aacutenak lsquochildrenrsquo

ogaacutew lsquochildrsquo agoacutegaw lsquochildrenrsquoagiacute lsquoyounger brother etcrsquo agaacutegi lsquoyounger brothers etcrsquotooacute lsquoman personrsquo totooacute lsquomen personsrsquopoliacutes lsquopolicemanrsquo popoacutelis lsquopolicemenrsquodueacuteg lsquocarabaorsquo dereacuteweg lsquocarabaosrsquo


87

Reduplication of first consonant and following vowelQuite a number of nouns form their plural reduplicating the

first consonant and following vowel (usually but not always thefirst two phonemes in the stem) there does not seem to be anyother special feature shared by these nouns

Examplesamiacutego lsquofriendrsquo amimiacutego lsquofriendsrsquo

amiacutega lsquofemale friendrsquo amimiacutega lsquofemale friendsrsquokanaacuteyon lsquorelativersquo kakanaacuteyon lsquorelativesrsquokuacuteya lsquoolder brother or man of same generationrsquo kukuacuteya

lsquoolder brother etcrsquomaeacutestro lsquoteacherrsquo mamaeacutestro lsquoteachersrsquodalikaacuten lsquoclay stoversquo daralikaacuten lsquoclay stovesrsquoliacutebro lsquobookrsquo 1i1iacutebro lsquobooksrsquonioacuteg lsquococonutrsquo ninioacuteg lsquococonutsrsquoplaacuteto lsquoplatersquo paplaacuteto lsquoplatesrsquolaacuteta lsquocanrsquo lalaacuteta lsquocansrsquobaacuteso lsquoglassrsquo babaacuteso lsquoglassesrsquoloacutepot lsquoragrsquo loloacutepot lsquoragsrsquoroacutesas lsquoflowerrsquo roroacutesas lsquoflowersrsquobaacutelbas lsquobeardrsquo babaacutelbas lsquobeardsrsquo

Reduplication of initial (C)VCAnother large group of nouns are pluralized by reduplication

of the initial consonant (if any) and the following vowel and con-sonant While these words have little semantic similarity mostof them are either two-syllable words with either medial con-sonant clusters or final consonants (or both) or else have morethan two syllables

Examplesbaliacuteta lsquonewsrsquo balbaliacuteta


88

baacuteley lsquotownrsquo balbaacuteleypaltoacuteg lsquogunrsquo palpaltoacutegkaacutebat lsquoacquaintancersquo kabkaacutebatsondaacutelo lsquosoldierrsquo sonsondaacutelokandiacutentildeg lsquogoatrsquo kankandiacutentildegbigoacuteti lsquobasketrsquo bigbigoacutetiluacutepa lsquofacersquo lupluacutepabaacuterrio baacuteryo lsquowardrsquo barbaacuterrioaacutetentildeg lsquoparentrsquo ataacutetentildegatchiacute lsquoolder sister or woman of same generationrsquo achatchiacutebaacuteka lsquocow bullrsquo bakbaacutekasakloacuter lsquohorn (of animal)rsquo saksakloacutertaklaacutey lsquoarmrsquo taktaklaacutey

Reduplication of initial (C)VCVAnother group of nouns including many denoting objects

or animals having close connections with the domestic unit aswell as the words for fingers and toes have plural forms withreduplication of the initial consonant if any and the followingvowel consonant and vowel These words are mostly two syl-labled with the structure (C)VCV(C)

Examplesasoacute lsquodogrsquo asoacuteasoacute

pusaacute lsquocatrsquo pusaacutepusaacuteotoacutet lsquomouse ratrsquo otoacuteotoacutetateacutep lsquoroofrsquo ateacutepateacuteplusoacuter lsquocuprsquo lusoacutelusoacutersantildegaacute lsquobranchrsquo santildegaacutesantildegaacuteaniacuteno lsquoshadowrsquo aniacuteaniacutenobakeacutes lsquomonkeyrsquo bakeacutebakeacutesmanoacutek lsquochickenrsquo manoacutemanoacutek


89

bantildegaacute lsquowater jarrsquo bantildegaacutebantildegaacutelusoacutek lsquoabdomenrsquo lusoacutelusoacutekpisiacutentildeg lsquovegetablersquo pisiacutepisiacutentildegbaraacutentildeg lsquobolorsquo baraacutebaraacutentildegkaweacutes lsquodressrsquo kaweacutekaweacutestamuroacute lsquoforefingerrsquo tamutamuroacutepantildegaacutendo lsquomiddle fingerrsquo pantildegaacutepantildegaacutendopantildegaacutensi lsquoring fingerrsquo pantildegaacutepantildegaacutensikikiacutentildeg lsquolittle fingerrsquo kikiacutekikiacutentildeggameacutet lsquofingerrsquo gameacutegameacutet

Affixation with -(e)sMany nouns derived from Spanish (and also from English)

form plurals with -es following a consonant and -s following avowel Sometimes the stem of the word is also reduplicated al-though this is not essential

Examplespapeacutel lsquopaperrsquo papeacuteles

senadoacuter lsquosenatorrsquo senadoacuteresliacuteder lsquoleaderrsquo liacutederesamiacutego lsquofriendrsquo amimiacutegoscobradoacuter lsquocollectorrsquo cobradoacuteresjueacutez hwEacutes lsquojudgersquo jueacutecesturiacutesta lsquotouristrsquo turiacutestas

Affixation with ka-hellip-aacutenThe affix ka-hellip-aacuten indicates among other things generality

and in this sense may also serve as a plural affix for certainnouns most of which indicate body parts or objects closely con-nected with the person When affixed with ka-hellip-an stress onthe root is normally shifted to the penultimate syllable in rootsnormally carrying stress on the final syllable


90

Examplesaboacutentildeg lsquohousersquo kaaacutebontildegaacuten lsquohouses group of housesrsquo

mataacute lsquoeyersquo kamaacutetaaacutensaliacute lsquofootrsquo kasaacuteliaacutenkutuacute lsquolousersquo kakuacutetuaacuteneleacutentildeg lsquonosersquo kaeacutelentildegaacutendapaacuten lsquo(sole of) footrsquo kadaacutepanaacutenbatoacute lsquostonersquo kabaacutetoaacutenlayaacuteg lsquoearrsquo kalaacuteyagaacutenaacutetentildeg lsquoparentrsquo kaaacutetentildegaacuten (also ataacutetentildeg)kukuacute lsquonailrsquo kakuaacuten (root reduced to one syllable)limaacute lsquohandrsquo kaliacutemaaacuten

Affixes associated with noun stemsIt is convenient to divide the affixes associated with noun

stems (apart from the plural formatives already discussed) intotwo main groups those which are affixed to nouns and thosewhich are affixed to other parts of speech to transform theminto nouns We may call these affixes lsquonominalrsquo and lsquonominal-izingrsquo respectively The affixes concerned are listedalphabetically under the appropriate heading together with anexplanation and examples of the nouns formed through theiruse

Nominal affixesReduplication of initial CVC- or whole root lsquofigure of toyhelliprsquo

eg toacuteotoacuteo (tooacute lsquomanrsquo ndash note stress shift) lsquofigure of a manrsquo ogaacute-wogaacutew (ogaacutew lsquochildrsquo) lsquofigure of a childrsquo aboacutentildegaacutebontildeg (lsquoaboacutentildeglsquohousersquo) toy housersquo kabkabaacuteyo (kabaacuteyo lsquohorsersquo) lsquotoy horsersquolamlami-(lamisaacutean lsquotab1ersquo) lsquotoy tablersquo saacutean

Akan- denotes ownership (is a variant of makan- qv) egakaninkianaacutek (inkianaacutek lsquobirthdayrsquo) one who is having abirthdayrsquo


91

-In- frequentative with time nouns (whole stem is repeatedexcept with days of the week) eg binolaacutenboacute1an (bolaacuten lsquomonthrsquo)lsquomonthly every monthrsquo kinaacutebuakaacutebuasaacuten (kabuasaacuten lsquomorningrsquo)lsquoevery morningrsquo inaacutegewaacutegew (aacutegew lsquodayrsquo) lsquodailyrsquo jinueacuteves(jueacuteves lsquoThursdayrsquo) lsquoevery Thursdayrsquo sinaacutebado (saacutebado lsquoSat-urdayrsquo) lsquoevery Saturdayrsquo form ni- eg nilaacutebilaacutebi Before l -in-takes the lsquonightly every nightrsquo

Inkaacute- occurs with noun stems and also nominalizes ad-jective stems indicating lsquothings or activities pertaining to a paststatersquo (cf ka- in the sense of lsquopertaining to a non-past statersquondash see below) Examples are inkamasikeacuten (masikeacuten lsquoold manrsquo)lsquoold agersquo inkaakulaacutew (akulaacutew lsquoold womanrsquo) lsquoold agersquo inkaogaacutew(ogaacutew lsquochildrsquo) lsquo(things of) childhoodrsquo inkamarikiacutet (marikiacutetlsquomaidenrsquo) lsquo(eg joys of) maidenhoodrsquo inkaata-geacutey (atageacutey lsquohighrsquo)lsquoheightrsquo inkadioacutes (Dioacutes lsquoGodrsquo) lsquodivinityrsquo

Ka- (plural kaka-) lsquoperson or thing proximate to person etcreferred torsquo ndash most often encountered with nouns of locationbut not exclusively so eg kaaraacutep (araacutep lsquofrontrsquo) lsquoone in frontrsquokabeneacuteg (beneacuteg lsquoback lsquoone back to back with helliprsquo kaaacutebay (aacutebaylsquoside proximityrsquo) lsquoone near beside neighboring neighborrsquo

Ka- (pertaining to at that stagersquo (where a past state is con-cerned the prefix inka- is used as above) eg kaatageacutey (atageacuteylsquohighrsquo) lsquoheightrsquo kaogaacutew lsquochildhoodrsquo kasakiacutet (sakiacutet lsquoill healthrsquo)lsquo(state of) sicknessrsquo As with inka- this affix also acts as a nomi-nalizing affix with certain adjective stems

Ka-hellip-an with nouns denoting state or condition and certainverb and adjective stems with similar semantic componentslsquosource ofrsquo eg kaermenaacuten (ermeacuten lsquosorrowrsquo) lsquocause of sorrowrsquokaabaacutelaaacuten (abaacutela lsquobusy occupiedrsquo) lsquocause of delayrsquo kalintildeguanaacuten(lintildeguaacuten lsquounmindfulrsquo) lsquocause of forgetting or unmindfulnessrsquokaambaacutegelan (ambaacutegel lsquocrazyrsquo) lsquocause of lunacyrsquo

Ka-hellip-aacuten with certain other nouns lsquoassociated withrsquo eg ka-baleyaacuten (baacuterley lsquotownrsquo) lsquoperson from the isipaacuten (isiacutep lsquomindrsquo)lsquovoice same town or provincersquo kaisipaacuten opinionrsquo

Ka- + CVC- hellip -aacuten with nouns of location lsquoat the very spotrsquoeg kapegpegleyaacuten lsquoright in the middlersquo katagtageyaacuten lsquoat thehighest pointrsquo kaluyluyagaacuten (luyaacuteg lsquoprovincersquo) lsquowithin theprovincersquo


92

Kada- frequentative with certain nouns of time (equivalentto -in- above) eg kadaogtoacute lsquoevery noonrsquo kadakabuasaacuten lsquoeverymorningrsquo

Magin- lsquoabout to or intending to attain a statersquo eg magin-doctoacuter lsquoone about to be a doctorrsquo studying to be a doctorrsquo thisaffix is more restricted in use than the affixes maN- and man-which are similar in meaning but more freely combinable withother nouns magin- seems to be used only with a few nouns in-dicating professions as doctor in the above example abogaacutedolsquolawyerrsquo and dentiacutesta lsquodentistrsquo

Makan- ownership eg makankieacuten (kieacuten lsquothingrsquo) lsquoownerrsquomakanmanoacutek (manoacutek lsquochickenrsquo) lsquoowner of chicken(s)rsquo makan-poacutenti (poacutenti lsquobananarsquo) lsquoowner of banana(s)rsquo

MaN- distributive with nouns representing monetary unitseg mamiacuteso lsquoone peso apiecersquo mamiacutentintildeg (biacutentintildeg lsquotwenty-fivecentavosrsquo) lsquofifty centavos apiecersquo

MaN- man- lsquoone about to bersquo eg mandoctoacuter lsquoone about tobe a doctorrsquo mantildegaboacutentildeg (aboacutentildeg lsquohousersquo) lsquoone about to put upa housersquo mantildegatulantildegaacuten (katuacutelantildegaacuten lsquo(onersquos) parents-in-lawrsquo)lsquoone about to become a child-in-law (ie about to get married)rsquomantildeganaacutek lsquoone asked to be a sponsor at baptism wedding etcrsquomantildegasawa (asawaacute lsquospousersquo) lsquoabout to be marriedrsquo

PaN-hellip-an with nouns denoting special occasions ndash lsquothatwhich is necessary or useful for the occasionrsquo eg pamaskoan(pasko lsquoChristmasrsquo) lsquosomething (usually food) for celebratingChristmas withrsquo

Pinagka- lsquoserving asrsquo eg pinagkabaacuteso (baacuteso lsquoglassrsquo) lsquosome-thing serving as a glassrsquo pinagkadintildegdiacutentildeg (dintildegdiacutentildeg lsquowallrsquo)lsquosomething serving as a wall [eg a screen]rsquo pinagkaduacutelsi (duacutelsilsquosweetrsquo) lsquosomething serving as a dessertrsquo pinagkabaaacutew (baaacutewlsquocooked ricersquo) lsquosomething serving as rice [eg bread corn]rsquo

San- unity (dual more than two san- + (C)V- eg sanamaacute(amaacute lsquofatherrsquo) lsquofather and childrsquo sanaamaacute lsquofather and childrenrsquosaninaacute (inaacute lsquomotherrsquo) lsquomother and childrsquo saniinaacute lsquohellip andchildrenrsquo sankaaacutero (kaaacutero lsquofriendrsquo) lsquotwo friends a couplersquosankaaro lsquoseveral friendsrsquo sanlaacuteki lsquohellip and grandchildrenrsquosanbaacutei (baacutei lsquograndmotherrsquo) grandmother and grandchildrsquo san-babaacutei lsquohellip and grandchildrenrsquo


93

Sanka- proximity self-containedness eg sankaa- kwaacutel(akwaacutel lsquolaprsquo) lsquosomething right on onersquos laprsquo sankaaacutebay lsquosome-thing stuck on one or right by onersquos sidersquo sankakamoacutet (kamoacutetlsquohandfulrsquo) lsquoexactly one handfulrsquo

Nominalizing affixes(C)V- + -en or -an (with stress usually shifted to ultimate

syllable of unaffixed verb stem) denotes objects intended foror about to be involved in the action denoted by the verbeg gagawaacuteen (gawaacute lsquodo makersquo) lsquosomething to dorsquo lolotoacuteen(lotoacute lsquocookrsquo) lsquosomething to cookrsquo pepesaacutekan (pesaacutek lsquowashrsquo)lsquowashingrsquo totogtoacutegen (togtoacuteg lsquoplay musical instrumentrsquo) lsquosome-thing to be playedrsquo iinoacutemen (inoacutem lsquodrinkrsquo) lsquosomething to drinkrsquobibinyaacutegan (binyaacuteg lsquobaptizersquo) lsquosomeone elegible for baptism orabout to be baptizedrsquo kakaloacuteten (kaloacutet lsquoto roastrsquo) lsquosomething forroasting [eg corn too mature to be boiled]rsquo

Akai-hellip-an ndash see ki-hellip-an below-An with verb stems indicates object on or location in which

activity is performed (also occurs with same meaning with afew noun stems) eg dasaacutelan (dasaacutel lsquoto prayrsquo) lsquoprayer bookrsquoanapaacuten (anaacutep lsquoto seek make a livingrsquo) lsquosource of livelihoodrsquokansioacutenan (kansioacuten lsquoto singrsquo) lsquosinging contestrsquo bintildeggoaacuten(biacutentildeggo lsquobingorsquo) lsquobingo parlorrsquo balsaacutekan (balsaacutek lsquocount withbeadsrsquo) lsquorosary beadsrsquo

-In- with verb stems and occasionally noun stems denoteslsquosomething having undergone the process indicated by the verb(or noun)rsquo eg pinaoacuter (paoacuter lsquoto make nipa into roofingrsquo) lsquonipathatchrsquo inaacutero (aacutero lsquoto loversquo) lsquobeloved sweetheartrsquo pinalsaacute(palsaacute lsquoto creatersquo) lsquocreaturersquo inasiacuten (asiacuten lsquosaltrsquo) lsquosauce madefrom marinated fishrsquo

Inka- see nominal affixesInki- with verb stems indicates lsquothe way the process was

performedrsquo (non-past form is kindash see below) eg inkisuacutelat lsquotheway something was writtenrsquo inkiboacuterda lsquothe way it was embroi-deredrsquo ndash maoacutentildeg so inkiboacuterda na ntildegaraacuten mo ed dantildeganaacuten (goodmkr way- was-embroidered of name your on pillow) lsquothe em-broidery of your name on the pillow was well donersquo With theroot anaacutek (lsquochild to bear a childrsquo inki- forms the word inkianaacuteklsquobirthdayrsquo

Ka- (with adjective stems) see nominal affixes


94

Ka- with verb stems indicates (a) another party involved inthe action at the time spoken of (cf ka-hellip-aacuten below) eg ka-totontildegtoacutentildeg (tontildegtoacutentildeg lsquoconversersquo) lsquothe one being spoken torsquo (b)the event in relation to those involved in it eg kapapawaacutey(pawaacutey lsquoemergersquo) lsquothe time when (eg a congregation or au-dience) emergersquo (c) the occurrence of the event itself egkasoacutempal lsquowhen (it) is finishedrsquo

Ka-hellip-aacuten (with adjectives) see also nominal affixesKa-hellipaacuten with adjectives denoting qualities or states of life

signifies abstraction eg kaogesaacuten (ogeacutes lsquoevilrsquo) lsquo(the state ofbeing) evilrsquo kapobreaacuten (poacutebre lsquopoorrsquo) lsquopovertyrsquo kayamanaacuten(yaacuteman lsquohaving lsquogoodnessrsquo wealthrsquo) wealth kamaontildegaacuten (maoacutentildeglsquogoo kaabigaacuten (aacutebig lsquogoodrsquo) lsquosufficiencyrsquo

Ka-hellip-aacuten with verb stems indicates persons or objects nor-mally associated with an action eg kapilpiliacutetan (piacutelit lsquohaveobligationsrsquo) lsquoobligations things which must be donersquo katra-baacutejoaacuten (trabaacutejo lsquoworkrsquo) lsquoworkmatesrsquo kagawaaacuten (gawaacute lsquoto makersquo)lsquotoolsrsquo kabasaaacuten (baacutesa lsquoto readrsquo) lsquowhat one likes to readrsquokaelekaacuten (eleacutek lsquoto laughrsquo) lsquosomething to laugh aboutrsquo

Ki- with verb stems denotes the way something will be or isto be done (non-past counterpart of inki-) eg kisuacutelat lsquothe wayit is to be writtenrsquo kiboacuterda lsquothe way it will be embroideredrsquo

Ki- + CV- + shift of stress to penultimate syllable of verbstem ki- + reduplication of entire verb stem Both these for-matives denote great or excessive activity eg kibabaacutetik ki-batiacutekbaacutetik (batiacutek lsquorunrsquo) lsquoexcessive runningrsquo ndash say kibabaacutetik nenLisa ed asoacute so akapeliyan to (the much-running of Lisa with dogmkr circumstance-of-happening-to-be-sprained by-her) lsquoLisarsquosrunning too much with the dog was responsible for her sprainrsquokiloloacutekso kiloksoacuteloacutekso (loksoacute lsquojumprsquo) lsquogreat amount of jumpingaboutrsquo

Ki-hellip-an (past form akai-hellip-an) with verb stems ndash meaningseems to vary from manner eg kiakaraacuten (akaacuter lsquomoversquo) lsquowayof doing something outcomersquo to location eg kitatakaacuten (tataacuteklsquopublishrsquo) lsquowhere something was publishedrsquo

Manag- manaN- ndash these affixes indicate the performer of anaction connected with his occupation (cf -om- below) eg man-agtoacutenog (toacutenog lsquoto go from house to housersquo) lsquoitinerant vendorrsquo


95

managkaritoacuten (karitoacuten lsquoto cartrsquo) lsquoone who sells wares loadedon a carabao cartrsquo manamalsaacute (palsaacute lsquoto creatersquo) lsquothe Creatorrsquomanamianaacutek (pianaacutek lsquoassist at deliveryrsquo) lsquomidwifersquo

Mantildega- with adjective roots having an abundance of thequality concerned eg mantildegagaacutena (gaacutena lsquobeing prettyrsquo) lsquoprettyamong the prettiestrsquo mangaogeacutes lsquobad among the badrsquo mantilde-garoacutenontildeg (doacutenontildeg lsquogood qualitiesrsquo) lsquobest of the bestrsquo This affixseems to function as a nominalizing and intensifying re-placement of the adjectival formative ma- qv

-Om- + CV- (stress on penultimate syllable) with verb rootsdenotes one who performs the action professionally egpomepeacutesak (pesaacutek lsquoto washrsquo) lsquowasherwomanrsquo domaacuteralos (daloacuteslsquoto farmrsquo) lsquofarmerrsquo lomalaacuteko (laacuteko lsquoto sellrsquo) lsquomerchant vendorrsquosomasaacuteliw (saliacutew lsquoto buyrsquo) (professional) buyerrsquo lomalaacutentildegoy(lantildegoacutey lsquoto swimrsquo) lsquoswimmer (eg athlete)rsquo domaraacuteet (daacuteet lsquotosewrsquo) lsquodressmakerrsquo

Paka- with verb stems signifies abilities or qualities notdirectly under the individualrsquos control eg pakanentildegneacutentildeg(nentildegneacutentildeg lsquoto seersquo) lsquoeyesightrsquo pakananaacutem (nanaacutem lsquoto tastersquo)lsquo(onersquos) taste (in food etc)rsquo

Panag- panaN- panantildegi- nominalizing verb stems indi-cating the occasion or circumstances under which the actionis or was performed The three affixes replace or correspondto the active verbal affixes man- maN- and mangi- respectively(qv) Examples are panag-dasaacutel (dasaacutel lsquoto prayrsquo) (circum-stances of) prayingrsquo ndash (Dapod) panagdasaacutel na inaacute to maoacutentildegmet si Pedro (Because-of) praying of mother his good also mkrPedro) lsquoThrough the prayers of his mother Pedro is good againrsquopanagsiraacute (siraacute lsquoto eat meat or fishrsquo) lsquo(circumstances of) eatingrsquondash Panagsiraacute na karniacute binmaacuteleg si Pedro (eating of meat mkr(topic) became-big mkr Pedro) lsquoEating meat made Pedro growrsquopanagtaneacutem (taneacutem lsquoto plantrsquo) lsquoplanting seasonrsquo panagpasaloacuteg(pasaloacuteg lsquocause to waterrsquo) lsquotime for watering (plants)rsquopanantildegaacutesi (kaacutesi lsquomercyrsquo) lsquo(occasion of) mercyrsquo ndash Panantildegaacutesi Dioacutesmatabaacute met (mercy [of] God healthy also) lsquoThrough the mercyof God hersquos healthy too itrsquos Godrsquos mercy that hersquos healthy toorsquopanantildegaacuten (kan lsquoto eatrsquo) lsquo(circumstances of) eating pananaliacuteta(saliacuteta lsquospeakrsquo) lsquo(circumstances ndash eg way of) speakingrsquopanantildegipataacutewal (pataacutewal lsquocause to bargainrsquo) lsquo(way circum-stances of) bargainingrsquo Note that the lsquoinstrumentalrsquo conno-


96

tations of some of these combinations with panag- etc is afeature of English translation and not directly implied by thePangasinan affix

Para- applied to verb stems lsquoone responsible forrsquo egparaasoacutel (asoacutel lsquofetch waterrsquo) lsquoone responsible for fetchingwaterrsquo parasuacuterat lsquoone responsible for writingrsquo paraliacutenis (liacutenislsquoto cleanrsquo) lsquoone responsible for cleaningrsquo This affix is not usedhowever to indicate a regular occupation in such cases -om-(qv) is employed

Pi- affixed to verb stems (only the modal affix pa- may in-tervene between pi- and the root) implies a reciprocal or mutualrelationship between the parties in the action one of whommay be in a subordinate or disadvantageous relationship tothe other When not preceded by other affixes pi acts as anoun formative indicating an action sought desired etc fromor involving a third party with the power to bring it aboutExamples pikaacutesi (kaacutesi lsquomercyrsquo) lsquomercy soughtrsquo pida-saacutel (dasaacutellsquoprayrsquo) lsquoprayer made to or forrsquo piraacutewat (daacutewat lsquofavorrsquo) lsquofavorsought (from)rsquo ndash Antoacutey piraacutewat tayoacute ed Dioacutes ya katawaacuten naacutetaney (what + mkr favor-sought our from God lnk almighty noweh) lsquoWhat favor should we seek from God at this timersquo

Multiple classification of word rootsJust as in English where lsquogoodrsquo can be an adjective (lsquoa good

boyrsquo) or a noun (lsquogood and evilrsquo) and lsquorunrsquo a noun (lsquohe made onerunrsquo) or a verb (lsquorun rabbit runrsquo) many basic nouns in Pan-gasinan have forms identical with verbs and to a lesser extentadjectives to the members of which latter parts of speech thenouns concerned are also obviously semantically related It isnecessary therefore to distinguish between the concept of rootand that of part of speech Part of speech is determined byhow a word is used in relation to other words ndash in the case oflsquobasicrsquo words (ie unaffixed roots) those with a wide variety ofuses may belong to several parts of speech Their classificationat any particular time depends on the paradigm in which theyhappen to be found ndash their classification in abstract terms isbased on the paradigms within which they may function

Many words of course belong to only one part of speechand it is through comparing the most versatile roots with theleast versatile that we can come up with some kind of classifi-cation which is both useful for the student and relevant to the


97

structure of the language Through the process of derivationhowever almost any word may change class so when a par-ticular root is said to be a verb a noun or an adjective whatis really meant is that it is basically a verb noun or adjectivebut may become transformed to another part of speech whenaffixed with appropriate derivational affixes

To give just a few examples the following words are basi-cally nouns bakeacutes lsquomonkeyrsquo bakokoacutel lsquoturtlersquo espiacuteritu lsquospiritrsquogriacutepo lsquofaucetrsquo conveacutento lsquorectoryrsquo masiteacutera lsquoflower potrsquo sakloacuterlsquohorn of animalrsquo word roots which are basically verb stems arekoroacutentildeg lsquocrawlrsquo ntildegodnoacuter lsquofall on onersquos face la lsquoto come or gorsquokan lsquoto eatrsquo friacuteto lsquoto fryrsquo poteacuter lsquoto cutrsquo inuacutem lsquoto drinkrsquo basicadjectives include daiseacutet lsquofewrsquo konteacutento lsquocontentrsquo baacuteleg lsquobigrsquomelaacuteg lsquosmallrsquo tiacutentildegit lsquotinyrsquo word roots which may function aseither noun or verb stems are baacuteka lsquohead of cattle to use cattleas work animalsrsquo eyeacutey protest to demonstratersquo likeacutet lsquojoy to behappyrsquo liacuteko lsquocurve to veerrsquo ponaacutes lsquoto wipe sponge bathrsquo puacutestalsquobet to place a betrsquo remeacute-dio lsquoremedy to curersquo

The semantic content of the root plays an important role indetermining the potential use of a word root although it is onlywhen the root is actually used that this potentiality is realizedand a classification can be made Thus simple names of objectsare likely to be mainly nouns (but cf baacuteka above) words de-noting processes are likely to be verbs and if the process islikely to be lsquonamedrsquo they will often function as nouns as well(cf examples above) words with descriptive content are likelyto be adjectives Where naming activity andor description areentangled so to speak there is a greater likelihood of a rootbelonging to more than one word class than when one of thesecomponents is dominant

Non-productive affixesThere are a number of affixes encountered in Pangasinan

nouns which may be regarded as lsquonon-productiversquo ie they arelsquofossilizedrsquo in the words in which they are found and not nor-mally used with other words but still retain some apparentmeaning Some of these affixes are the result of a word inflectedas a verb or adjective having come to be used as eg a nounwithout having undergone regular derivational affixationOthers are importations from Spanish and are found on a smallnumber of words most of which however are of fairly frequentoccurrence in speech or writing One of these the plural for-


98

mative -(e)s has already been dealt with above a represen-tative selection of the remaining commonly encountered Span-ish-derived nominal affixes is given below

-a feminine termination ndash eg amiacutega lsquofemale friendrsquo maeacutestralsquofemale teacherrsquo kapareacuteja lsquofemale partnerrsquo doctoacutera lsquofemalephysicianrsquo (cf -o below)

-aacutedo -ada similar in meaning to English suffix -ate egabogaacutedo lsquolawyer (ie advocate)rsquo delegaacutedo lsquodelegatersquo estaacutedolsquostatersquo also an adjective formative similar to English -ed somelsquoadjectivesrsquo formed in this manner are now nouns ndash eg em-pleaacutedo lsquoemployee (employed)rsquo diputaacutedo lsquodeputy (deputed)rsquoentablaacutedo lsquostage platform from which speeches are given etc

-adoacuter similar to English -or -ador signifying person chargedwith performing action etc eg cobradoacuter lsquocollectorrsquo embajadoacuterlsquoambassadorrsquo gobernadoacuter lsquogovernorrsquo

-aacuteno -aacutena (f) affixed to place names signifies lsquonative ornational ofrsquo ndash eg Americaacuteno lsquoAmericanrsquo Americaacutena lsquoAmericanwomanrsquo Illocaacuteno lsquoperson whose ancestors were natives of theIllocos regionrsquo

-eacutentildeo -Eacutenyo entildea (f) affixed to place names signifies personcoming from that place Pampangeacutentildeo lsquoperson from Pampangaprovincersquo Caviteacutentildeo lsquoperson from Cavitersquo Manilentildea lsquowomanfrom Manilarsquo (This affix retains some measure of productivity)

-[en]se this back formation from the plural form of the Latinaffix -ensis lsquoperson fromrsquo is commonly used to indicate a personfrom Pangasinan especially a Pangasinan-speaking personPangasinaacutense (pl Panga- sinaacutenses)

-(e)riaacute indicates location much the same as -ery in Englishlsquoeateryrsquo etc eg pansiteriaacute lsquorestaurant (ie place where pansitis made)rsquo panaderiaacute lsquobakeryrsquo (Spanish pan lsquobreadrsquo) funerariaacutelsquofuneral parlorrsquo Speakers with some knowledge of Spanish willusually stress the i as in Spanish giving eg pansiteriacutea

-eacutero -eacutera (f) like English -er -ier etc eg ingenieacutero in-hEnyEacutero lsquoengineerrsquo cajeacutero lsquocashierrsquo labandeacutera lsquolaundrywomanrsquo carteacutero lsquomail manrsquo (Spanish cartaacute lsquoletterrsquo) cusineacuterocusineacutera lsquocookrsquo (kusiacutena lsquokitchenrsquo) cf also maeacutestro maeacutestralsquoteacherrsquo miniacutestro lsquoministerrsquo

-iacutello -iacutelyo diminutive eg ganchiacutello lsquocrocheting hookrsquo(Spanish gancho lsquohookrsquo)


99

-iacutesmo like English -ism eg comuniacutesmo lsquocommunismrsquoprotestantiacutesmo lsquoprotestantismrsquo

-iacutesta (m or f) like English -ist eg turiacutesta lsquotouristrsquo co-muniacutesta lsquocommunistrsquo especialiacutesta lsquospecialistrsquo

-iacuteto -iacuteta diminutive eg platiacuteto lsquosmall platersquo (plato lsquoplatersquo)cuchariacuteta lsquosmall spoonrsquo (cuchaacutera lsquospoonrsquo)

-meacutento like English -ment eg documeacutento lsquodocumentrsquo de-partameacutento lsquodepartmentrsquo

-o masculine termination eg maeacutestro lsquomale teacherrsquo amiacutegolsquomale friendrsquo although the termination -o is somewhere alsoused to denote mixed sexes very often Pangasinan speakers willuse stems inflected with both terminations to convey this ideaeg amimiacutegas tan amimiacutegos to lsquohis friendsrsquo ndash literally lsquohis femalefriends and male friendsrsquo

-oacuten large size eg cucharoacuten lsquobig serving spoonrsquo karitoacutenlsquocart pulled by carabaorsquo

-(c)ioacuten like the corresponding English affixes ending in -ion eg revolucion lsquorevolutionrsquo inbitasioacuten lsquoinvitationrsquo estacioacutenlsquostationrsquo eleccioacuten ElEksyoacuten lsquoelectionrsquo educacioacuten lsquoeducationrsquoocupacioacuten lsquooccupationrsquo oracioacuten lsquo(time for saying) the angelusrsquo(cf lsquoorationrsquo)

ADJECTIVESAdjectives are descriptive elements which are linked to the

nouns verbs or phrases which they modify by the linker yathey may also form the comment phrase of an equational sen-tence They are formally distinguishable from nouns in thatunlike the latter adjectives may be inflected for intensity (in-cluding lsquocomparisonrsquo) Adjectives may be separated from verbsin that whereas verbs are inflected for tense and aspect thesecategories of inflection are not found with adjective stems

Structure of adjective stemsLike nouns adjectives may be either basic or derived While

basic adjectives certainly account for a good proportion of themost freuqently used adjectives in Pangasinan speech and


100

writing the great majority of adjectival forms are derivationalin origin with the prefixes an- ma- and to a lesser extent a- ac-counting for most of them

ExamplesBasic adjectives include baacutelo lsquonewrsquo dakeacutel lsquomanyrsquo daiseacutet

lsquofewrsquo tiacutengit lsquotinyrsquo melaacuteg lsquosmallrsquo baacuteleg lsquobigrsquo kalaacuteg lsquosmallrsquosbquo guaacutepolsquohandsomersquo

Derived adjectives are amputiacute (an- + putiacute lsquofairnessrsquo) lsquofairbeautifulrsquo masamiacutet (ma- + samiacutet lsquosweetnessrsquo) lsquosweetrsquo am-balangaacute lsquoredrsquo andekeacutet lsquoblackrsquo atageacutey (a- + tageacutey lsquoheightrsquo) lsquotallhighrsquo makuliacute lsquoindustriousrsquo (many more examples are given inthe list of derivational affixes below)

Constructions involving adjectivesThe use of the linker ya in conjoining an adjective and a

noun or verb has already been illustrated in the section on par-ticles (above) as has the use of adjectives in lsquocomparativersquo con-structions marked by particles ni and nen Three other typesof construction will be briefly discussed here ndash phrases con-taining several adjectives adjectives followed by attributivephrases and the use of certain adjectives to mark the lsquosuperla-tiversquo degree of comparison

Phrases containing several adjectivesThere is almost complete freedom in the ordering of a se-

quence of a noun qualified by more than one adjective all of theelements involved are simply linked together by ya Thus lsquomynew gold watchrsquo may be expressed in several ways

(a) reloacute-k ya balitoacutek ya baacutelowatch + my lnk gold lnk new

(b) balitoacutek ya baacutelo-n reloacute-k(c) baacutelo-n balitoacutek ya reloacute-k(d) reloacute-k ya baacutelo-n balitoacutek(e) baacutelo-n reloacute-k ya balitoacutek(f) balitoacutek ya reloacute-k ya baacutelo


101

The main difference between one sequence and another issimply one of importance ndash the items are arranged in a de-scending order of importance

When it is desired to give equal importance to two featuresrather than to subordinate one to the other the adjectives con-cerned may be conjoined with tan lsquoandrsquo as in these examples

(a) say asoacute ya mantoglep tan matakkeacutenthe dog lnk sleepy and oldlsquoThe sleepy old dog ndash ie the dog which is both old

and sleepyrsquo(b) say mantoglep ya matakkeacuten ya asoacute

lsquoThe sleepy old dog (as in (a))rsquo(c) duaacutera-n magaacutena tan atatageacutey ya marikiacutet

two + lnk beautiful and tall lnk maiden lsquoTwo pretty andtall maidensrsquo

Adjectives followed by attributive phrasesAdjectives may be followed by an attributive phrase (or ref-

erential phrase if a pronoun is to be used) to form the commentof an equational sentence to signify a relationship between thetopic and adjective holding true for the entity denoted by thenucleus of the referential or attributive phrase

ExamplesMasamiacutet nen Pedro so basiacute (sweet mkr (atr) Pedro mkr (topic)can-liquor) lsquoBasiacute (cane liquor) is palatable to Pedrorsquo

Matabantildeg nen Laacuteki so pisiacutentildeg (bland mkr (atr) grandfathermkr (topic) vegetable) lsquoGrandfather finds vegetables tastelessrsquo

Maasiacuten ed siaacutek so agamaacutentildeg (salty mkr (ref) mkr (topic) salted-shrimp-sauce) lsquoAgamaacuteng is [rather] salty for mersquo

lsquoSuperlativersquo adjectivesExpressions equivalent to those formed in English by the

use of lsquoveryrsquo or lsquomostrsquo in construction with an adjective maybe formed in Pangasinan by means of intensifying affixes (dis-cussed in the next section below) or by means of a numberof lsquoSuperlativersquo adjectives linked to the other adjective con-cerned by ya In English translation these superlative adjec-


102

tives appear as adverbs but in Pangasinan they are used in thesame way as any other adjective in the sense this term has beendefined for Pangasinan above The most commonly encounteredof this group of adjectives are alabaacutes lsquoexcessively more thansufficientrsquo mapalaacutelo lsquoespeciallyrsquo kagoacutet lsquoveryrsquo tuaacute lsquotrue trulyrsquotuacuteloy lsquocontinuousrsquo

Examplesalabaacutes a maogeacutes maogeacutes a alabaacutes lsquovery evilrsquo

mapalaacutelon maruacutenontildeg lsquovery industriousrsquo

baacuteleg ya kagoacutet lsquovery bigrsquo

masantiacutentildeg a tuaacute lsquovery nicersquo

masiglaacutet a tuacuteloy lsquoalways prompt very promptrsquo

(Note that the translation lsquoveryrsquo could be replaced by lsquomostrsquoor by the literal meaning of the superlative adjective (as given inthe preceding paragraph) in each of these cases)

Affixes of intensity and diminutionThe affixes which are applied to both basic and derived ad-

jectives (ie those which are non-derivational in character) in-dicate either intensity or diminution These affixes are listedand illustrated below

Reduplication of part of word root is employed to indicaterelative degrees of intensity The amount of the root redupli-cated varies from one word to another and cannot be ascer-tained simply by taking the phonological structure of the wordinto account However there are two degrees of intensityroughly corresponding to lsquocomparativersquo and lsquosuperlativersquo inIndo-European languages which may be expressed by redupli-cating a smaller and larger segment respectively of the wordroot in the adjective stem The minimal reduplication is ac-companied by stress on the penultimate syllable of the wordand indicates the comparative or lesser degree of intensity thereduplication of a larger segment of the same root retainingthe normal intrinsic stress indicates the superlative or greaterdegree of intensity as shown in the following pairs of examplesamputiacute lsquobeautifulrsquo amput- puacuteti lsquomore beautifulrsquo amputiacuteputiacutelsquovery beautifulrsquo andekeacutet lsquoblackrsquo andekdeacuteket lsquoblankerrsquo andekeacutet-dekeacutet lsquovery blackrsquo ambalantildegaacute lsquoredrsquo ambalbalaacutentildega lsquoredderrsquo am-


103

balbalaacutentildega lsquovery redrsquo (note only the stress is changed in thiscase) melaacuteg lsquosmallrsquo melmelaacuteg lsquosmallerrsquosbquo melaacutemelaacuteg lsquoverysmallrsquo baacuteleg lsquobigrsquo babaacuteleg lsquobiggerrsquo balbaacuteleg lsquovery bigrsquo Wherethe first vowel in the word root has been deleted reduplicationwill involve the derivational affix as mapleacutes lsquofastrsquo (root peleacutes)mapmapleacutes maksiacutel lsquostrongrsquo (root kasiacutel) makmaksiacutel

antildegkaacute- [=an- (derivational affix) + ka- (nominalizing affix]also functions as an intensifying affix as in antildegkabaacuteleg lsquolargersquo(baacuteleg lsquobigrsquo) antildegkalimpeacutek lsquowell roundedrsquo (limpeacutek lsquoroundrsquo)antildegkasantiacutentildeg lsquoreally nicersquo (masantiacutentildeg lsquonicersquo) antildegkaruacutenontildeglsquoreally intelligentrsquo (maruacutenontildeg intelligent skilledrsquo)

-g- + CV- of root indicates diminution as in dagdaiseacutet lsquoquitefewrsquo (daiseacutet lsquofewrsquo) maragdaloacutes lsquoquite cleanrsquo (maraloacutes lsquoclean(eg free of weeds)rsquo) tugtuaacute lsquoquite truersquo (tuaacute lsquotruersquo) marag-dakeacutep lsquoquite nicersquo (marakeacutep lsquonicersquo)

-iacuteto -iacuteta (from Spanish with Spanish-derived adjectivesonly) diminutive eg guapiacuteto (m) lsquohandsomersquo guapiacuteta (f)lsquopretty (said eg of a small child) (guaacutepo (m) lsquohandsomersquo guaacutepa(f) lsquobeautifulrsquo)

manka- (distributive form mankaka-) intensifying affixsbquo as inmankamaoacutentildeg lsquoof greatest goodrsquo ndash manka-maoacutentildeg ya gawa lsquogoodworksrsquo mankaogeacutes lsquomost evilrsquo mankakarutaacutek lsquovery dirty ndash iedirtied all over with dirt widely distributedrsquo mankakaliacutenis lsquoverycleanrsquo

sanka-hellip-an affixed to adjective root or in some cases stemaffixed with ma- indicates intensity and exclusiveness as insankasantintildegaacuten lsquonicest of allrsquo (masantiacutentildeg lsquonicersquo) mankaganaaacutenlsquomost beautifulrsquo (magaacutena lsquobeautifulrsquo) sankapantildeguloaacuten lsquofirstbornrsquo (panguacutelo lsquofirst born childrsquo) sankabondayaacuten lsquofussiestrsquosankakoliaacuten lsquomost industriousrsquo sankabaacutelegaacuten lsquobiggestrsquo sanka-masamitaacuten lsquosweetestrsquo (masamiacutet lsquosweetrsquo) sankale-mekaacuten lsquosoftestof allrsquo

Derivational affixesThe affixes which transform noun and verb stems are listed

below


104

a- forms adjectives from certain word roots eg atageacuteylsquotallrsquo arawiacute lsquofarrsquo from the roots tageacutey and dawiacute respectively Thepassive potential verbal affix a- (qv) also often has an lsquoadjec-tivalrsquo sense but is not equivalent to the adjectival a- exemplifiedabove

-aacutedo -aacuteda an adjective formative in some words of Spanishorigin eg evaporaacuteda lsquoevaporatedrsquo areglaacutedo lsquosatisfactory okayrsquo(from areacutegla areglaacuter lsquoto arrangersquo) cuadraacutedo lsquosquarersquo malasaacutedolsquohalf cookedrsquo

aki- + (C)V- (also maki- ki- + (C)v-) with noun stems ndash lsquofullofrsquo eg makiaasweacutek lsquofull of smokersquo (asweacutek lsquosmokersquo) makirir-intildegoacutet lsquofull of messrsquo (dintildegoacutet lsquomessrsquo)

an- adjective derivative often with the implication of aninherent quality (in contrast with ma- qv although the twoaffixes are rarely applicable to the same stem) as in antakoacutetlsquotimidrsquo (cf matakoacutet lsquoafraidrsquo takoacutet lsquofearrsquo) ambalantildegaacute lsquoredrsquoantildegkelaacuteg lsquosmallrsquo andekeacutet lsquoblackrsquo andukeacutey lsquolongrsquo amputiacute lsquowhitefairrsquo ambasaacute lsquowetrsquo (note that the n assimi-lates to the point ofarticulation nearest to that of the following consonant)

-in- + CV- with noun stems ndash lsquoimitating acting like pre-tending to bersquo eg binabakeacutes lsquoacting like a monkeyrsquo (bakeacuteslsquomonkeyrsquo) binabaiacute lsquoacting like a girlrsquo (biiacute lsquofemale girlrsquo) bin-ababoacutey lsquoacting like a pigrsquo binabaacutestos lsquoacting uncouthlyrsquo (baacutestoslsquoindecent expression of disgustrsquo) linalakiacute lsquoacting like a boyrsquo(lakiacute lsquomale boyrsquo)

kapan- (kapani- with same meaning may also be used withcertain stems) with verb stems ndash lsquonewlyrsquo eg kapananaacutek ka-panianaacutek lsquonewly bornrsquo (anaacutek lsquooffspring be bornrsquo) kapanlutoacutelsquonewly cookedrsquo kapangawaacute lsquonewly madersquo kapanpiacutenta lsquonewlypaintedrsquo kapantaneacutem kapani-taneacutem lsquonewly plantedrsquo ndash abagoacutetmay kapantaneacutem ya kala-mansiacutek (was-uprooted mkr (topic)newly-planted lnkr kalamansi + my) lsquomy newly planted kala-mansi tree was uprootedrsquo

ki- with nouns ndash lsquofull ofrsquo (=aki- qv) eg kibabasaacute lsquoall wetrsquo(basaacute lsquowetnessrsquo)

ma- with noun or verb stems acts as adjective formativeoften implying an acquired or non-intrinsic characteristic orquality as in maaacutebig lsquogoodrsquo masamiacutet lsquosweetrsquosbquo mabaiacutentildeg lsquoshyrsquo(cf ambaiacutentildeg lsquoashamed masamiacutet lsquosweetrsquo inhibited by respectrsquo)matakoacutet lsquoafraidrsquo(cfantakoacutet lsquotimidrsquo) maruksaacute lsquocruelrsquo magaacutena


105

lsquobeautiful prettyrsquo maganoacute lsquoshortlyrsquo (ganoacute lsquoproximatersquo) makdeacutellsquothick (growth)rsquo (kereacutel lsquobe full of people objects etcrsquo) Withnouns denoting objects as against qualities ma- often has theconnotation lsquoinfested withrsquo as in maa-geacuteyet lsquoinfested with mos-quitosrsquo (ageacuteyet lsquomosquitorsquo) maasiacuten lsquo(excessively) saltyrsquo (asiacutenlsquosaltrsquo) maraboacutek lsquo(excessively) dusty (air) full of dustrsquo (daboacuteklsquodustrsquo) Ma- is also used occasionally with basic adjectives asin marakeacutel lsquomanyrsquo (dakeacutel lsquomany muchrsquo) maaacutegom lsquovery greedyrsquo(aacutegom lsquogreedyrsquo) again with something of an intensive-distrib-utive connotation as with the noun stems in the preceding setof examples

magka- signifies approximation especially with nouns oftime (cf magkaka- below) as in magkaogtoacute lsquoalmost noonrsquo ndashmagkaogtoacute lay aacutegew lsquothe sun is almost at its zenithrsquo magkalabilsquoalmost nightrsquo

magkaka- signifies appearance to the senses as inmagkakaalaacutek lsquosmells like liquorrsquo (alaacutek lsquoliquorrsquo) magkakaaacutegewlsquosmells like the sun ndash eg said of a child playing in the sunfor a long time)rsquo magkakasar-diacutenas lsquosmells like sardinesrsquomagkakaantildegloacute lsquoseems like sour milkrsquo

maiacute + CV- with verb stems signifies habituation as inmaiacutelilikeacutet lsquoalways happyrsquo (likeacutet lsquobe happyrsquo) maiacuteeermeacuten lsquosen-timentalrsquo (ermeacuten lsquobe sorrowfulrsquo) maiacuteaakiacutes lsquocry babyishrsquo (akiacuteslsquocryrsquo) maiacuteeeleacutek lsquoalways laughingrsquo

makapa- with certain verb stems acts as an intensive adjec-tival affix implying a subjective state or quality as in makapa-likeacutet lsquoagreeablersquo makapasawaacute lsquoboringrsquo

maki- + CV- forms distributive-intensive adjectives fromcertain noun stems (=aki- qv above) as makiaasweacutek lsquofull ofsmokersquo

mala- forms adjectives of similarity or equivalence fromnoun stems as malakawayaacuten lsquolike bamboorsquo (kawayaacutenlsquobamboorsquo) malaiknoacutel lsquolike an egg ndash ie about to ripen (eg amango or other fruit)rsquo malama-niacute lsquolike peanutsrsquo maladagaacutet lsquolikean oceanrsquo malailoacuteg lsquolike a riverrsquo

man- forms adjectives from certain verb stems eg man-togleacutep lsquosleepyrsquo (togleacutep lsquoto drowsersquo) manlalaoacutek lsquomixed upscrambledrsquo (laoacutek lsquoto blendrsquo) maneleacutek lsquolaughingrsquo (eleacutek lsquotolaughrsquo)


106

mapa- an intensifying affix which indicates a quality imposedfrom an external source in contrast with mapaN- (qv below)as in mapaaacutero lsquomuch lovedrsquo mapagaacutelantildeg lsquomuch respectedrsquo ma-patoloacutek lsquomuch ordered about (ie obedient in response to fre-quent orders)rsquo mapaatageacutey lsquoexaltedrsquo

mapaN- an intensifying affix indicating an intrinsic or in-herent quality as in mapantildegaacutero lsquolovingrsquo (aacutero lsquoto loversquo) ma-pantildegaacutelantildeg (gaacutelantildeg lsquorespect respectfulrsquo) mapanoloacutek lsquohelpfulobedient from choicersquo (toloacutek lsquoto obeyrsquo) mapantildegatageacutey lsquoveryhaughtyrsquo (atageacutey lsquohighrsquo) mapantildegombabaacute lsquonot showy humblersquo

na- acts as an adjective formative with a few verb and alsoadjective stems as naogiacutep lsquoasleeprsquo (ogiacutep lsquoto sleeprsquo) naambaacutegellsquocrazedrsquo (ambaacutegel lsquocrazyrsquo) This affix is not the same as the non-past potential passive verbal affix na- (qv) although the lattermay be used to form words with descriptive connotations

nan- acts as an adjectival formative with some noun stemsindicating possession of the quality or object denoted by thestem concerned as in nancocoacutea lsquocontaining cocoarsquo

pa- + reduplicated root forms adjectives of proximity fromcertain verb stems as with paanaacutekanaacutek lsquoabout to give birthrsquo(anaacutek lsquobear a childrsquo)

sanka- forms frequentative adjectives from verb stemssbquo egsankaebaacute lsquoconstantly carriedrsquo ndash sankaebaacute si Juanito lsquoJuanitorsquosalways being carriedrsquo sankasak-baacutet lsquoalways carrying on theshoulderrsquo samkaakwaacutel lsquoalways on onersquos laprsquo the adjectiveformed by this affix may be followed by an attributive phrase de-noting the performer of the action indicated by the verb stemeg sankaebaacutem si Juanito lsquoyoursquore always carrying Juanitorsquo

sinan- with noun stems denotes completeness and similarityeg sinampuacuteso lsquoheart-shaped- (puacuteso lsquoheartrsquo)

Existential adjectivesThe existential adjectives are walaacute lsquoexistingrsquo and anggapoacute

lsquonot existingrsquo They are often used to express a state of affairswhich would be conveyed by the verb lsquohaversquo in English ndash egWalaacutey iacutebam (existing + mkr companion + your) lsquoDo you have acompanionrsquo Anggapoacutey libroacutek (not-existing + mkr book + my)lsquoI donrsquot have a bookrsquo These adjectives appear almost invariablyas comments of equational sentences Further examples follow


107

ExamplesWalaacutey bisiacuteta mi (existing + mkr (topic) visitor our) lsquoWe have vis-itorsrsquo

Antaacutek ya anggapoacute ra diaacute (known + by-me lnkr not-existingthey here) lsquoI know that theyrsquore not herersquo

Walaacute lay sakeacutey bolaacuten mi atchiacute (existing already + mkr (topic)one month our older-sister) lsquoItrsquos been one month now [eg thatwersquove been like this] atchiacutersquo

Walaacute ni siacuterin nabuaacutes lsquoIs there still [something] tomorrowrsquo

Anggapoacute lay oacutenla diaacute ed kamposaacutento nabuaacutes na ngaacuterem (not-existing already + mkr (topic) will-go here to cemetery tomorrowmkr (atr) afternoon) lsquoNo one will be going to the cemetery anymore tomorrow afternoonrsquo

Combinations with locative demonstrativesThe existential adjective root wa appears in the combina-

tions wadiaacute wadmaacuten and wadtaacutensbquo which are illustrated in thesection devoted to locational demonstratives above

VERBS

Characteristics of verbs

AspectVerbs are characterized by their compatability with tense-

aspect affixes Each action or state is designated as actual orpotential real or unreal complete or incomplete by means ofthese affixes Tense is determined by means of formal contrastbetween a pair of affixes identical except for the dimension ofcompleteness these affixes can be described as lsquopastrsquo and lsquonon-pastrsquo in their time connotations although it is actually the as-pectual element of completeness contrasting with its absencewhich determines this tense-like property When that memberof a set of affixes which is marked for incompleteness is fol-lowed by a reduplication of the initial consonant and vowel(and often the following consonant where this forms part ofthe initial syllable) of the verb stem the reality of the action isalso established completed actions are automatically lsquorealrsquo at


108

least hypothetically so Thus the contrasting set of affixes on-(actual incomplete) -inm- (actual complete) may be used withappropriate verb stems to produce contrasts like the followingoninoacutem lsquo(he) will drinkrsquo [actual incomplete unreal] oniinoacutemlsquo(he) is drinkingrsquo [actual incomplete real] inminoacutem lsquo(he) wasdrinking ndash he drankrsquo [actual complete real] onbatiacutek lsquohe willrunrsquo onbabatiacutek lsquohe is runningrsquo biacutenmatiacutek lsquohe ranrsquo

Where no contrasting pair is found the affix may be re-garded as lsquoneutralrsquo in tense from an English speakerrsquos point ofview in the Pangasinan system as interpreted above howeverit will signify a completed (although not necessarily past) orincomplete state or action as for example makasaliacuteta lsquoableto speakrsquo [potential real complete] makakaoraacuten lsquothreateningrainrsquo [potential real incomplete]

In addition to the aspectual elements mentioned abovewhich are characteristic of all verbal affixes individual affixesor sets of affixes may also mark such aspectual features as mu-tuality intensity diminution frequency and distribution

TransitivityTransitivity (the involvement of an object or goal of the

action) is marked explicitly or implicitly by certain affixes (egthe active affixes mantildegi-and maN- respectively passive affixesare all explicitly transitive) while others are neutral in thisregard (eg the active affixes on- and aka-)

ModeThere are four modes (or moods) marked by Pangasinan

affixes ndash indicative (where no special presumptions are madeabout the intent or otherwise of the actor) involuntary in-tentive and imperative Where the latter mode is marked itspresence is indicated by the absence of affixation (see thesection on imperative sentences in Part III infra) Sentenceswith verbs inflected for imperative mode may be paralleledby constructions using verbs with affixes marked for differentkinds of modality


109

FocusFocus is the relationship holding between the verb and its

subject There are six categories of focus one of which ismarked in all verbal affixes ndash active (where (the phrase indi-cating) the initiator of the action (if any) is subject) passive(where the goal or object is subject) referential (where the lo-cation or locale of the action is subject) bene-factive (where thebeneficiary is subject) agentive (where the action is performedby a third party represented by the subject phrase at the in-stigation of the actor but not as a corrollary of grammaticalcausation (see voice below)) or instrumental (where that withwhich the action is performed is represented by the subjectphrase) Further discussion together with many examples ofthe different kinds of focus is found in the relevant section ofPart III

VoicePangasinan verb stems are marked as causative by the af-

fixation of the causative prefix pa- immediately preceding theword root or as direct by the absence of pa- The causativevoice indicates that the actor has caused the action to bebrought about either by or on himself or by means of thesubject of the sentence Examples of causative sentences aregiven and discussed in relation to the corresponding directvoice sentences in the section on focus in Part III qv The directvoice indicates simply that the relationship between the verband phrases standing in construction with it (subject objectetc) is not the result of causation (the element of causation inagent-focus sentences is logical not grammatical)

Verbal AffixesWith the exception of some uses of on- and its completed

action counterpart -inm- all verbal affixes may be regarded asnon-derivational ie the stems to which they are applied areby definition verb stems They are therefore included below ina single list Those affixes followed by an asterisk enclosed inparentheses -()-are further illustrated in use by sets of exer-cises in the appropriate section on focus in Part III (keys to theexercises are included in Appendix II)

The following special abbreviations are used to indicate themodal aspectual and other features marked by the affixes


110

Mode Int [entive] Inv [oluntary] Ind [icative] Imp[erative] (if mode is not stated the affixis to be regarded as indicative)

Transitivity Impl [icitly] Expl [icitly] Tr [ansitive]Neu[tral] (indicated for active affixesonly)

Focus Act[ive] Pas[sive] Ref[erential]Ben[efactive] Ag[entive] Ins[trumental]

Aspect Mut[ual involvement] Intens[ive]Freq[uentative] Dist[tributive] Dim[inutive] Pot[ential ndash if not designated aspotential aspect affix is automaticallyactual] Real [ ndash if not designated as realaffix is automatically unreal in theabsence of additional contrary affixation]Com[plete ndash if not characterized thusaffix is considered as incomplete aspect(Inc)] Where an affix is a member of apair one complete and the otherincomplete the entry for one will containa cross-reference to the other in squarebrackets following the citation of the affixbeing discussed ndash eg on- [Com -inm-]-inm- Com [Inc on-]

Voice Caus[ative ndash if not designated causative affixis automatically in the direct voice in theabsence of causative affixation to thestem of the verb concerned]

oslash- Imp Act Neu Eg alagaacuter kayoacute (wait you(pl)) lsquowaitrsquo alageacutey ka (stand you) lsquostanduprsquo iroacutentildeg ka lsquosit downrsquo looacutep kayoacutersquo(come) inrsquo ogiacutep ka la (sleep you already)lsquogo to sleep nowrsquo

oslash- Imp Pas Eg tepeacutet mo iraacute diaacute no labaacutey da(be-asked (Imp) by-you they here if likedby-them) lsquoAsk them [to come] here if theywould like torsquo taacutewag mo iraacute (be-calledby-you they) lsquocall themrsquo piliacutem hellip lsquochoosehelliprsquo alaacutem hellip (be-obtained by-you) lsquogetrsquopakaacuten mo may ogaacutew lsquofeed the boyrsquonentildegneacutentildeg mo lsquolookrsquo


111

Reduplication of initial (C)V- of root (or first syllable of poly-syllabic roots) in presence of affix marked for Inc aspect lsquocon-tinuousrsquo action ie Real Inc eg mantildegakaacuten (maN- + CV- +kan lsquoeatrsquo) lsquoisare eatingrsquo manpaspasiaacuter (man- + CVC- + pasiaacuterlsquogo aroundrsquo) lsquoisare going aroundrsquo maneacuteebaacute (man- + V- + ebaacutelsquocarryrsquo) lsquoisare carryingrsquo tataacutewagen (CV- + taacutewag lsquocallrsquo + -en)lsquoisare being calledrsquo

Reduplication of whole root in presence of affix marked forInc aspect esp man- Dist uncontrolled activity eg manbaacutesalsquo(will) readrsquo manbaacutesabaacutesa lsquoreading anything and everythingrsquomanpasiaacuter lsquo(will) go aroundrsquo manpasiaacuterpasiaacuter lsquogoing around allover the place with no special destination in mind etcrsquo

a- Pot Real Com [Inc na-] Pas Ind () Eg akaacutebat lsquowasable to be metrsquo ndash Akaacutebat ko may amiacutego yon makuliacute lsquoI wasable to meet (lit was able to be met by me) your industriousfriendrsquo adelaacutep lsquowas floodedrsquo (ie the possibility of flooding hadbecome a reality) ndash Adelaacutep ya amiacuten so pageacutey mi lsquoOur rice wasall floodedrsquo

A-hellip-an Pot Real Com [Inc na-hellip-an] Ref () Eg Abayaraacutenmi mamiacuteso (was-paid-for by-us peso-apiece) lsquoWe paid a pesoapiece [for what we bought]rsquo Akaacutebataacuten nen Flora ya niloacutekoday Bill (became-acquaint-ed-with by Flora hellip) lsquoFlora knew thatthey had tricked Billrsquo

ag- negative particle (not a verbal affix although mayappear as a clitic before an affixed verb stem ndash eg agnayaacuteri (ag+ na- + yaacuteri lsquocompletersquo lsquocannotrsquo)

aka- Real Com [Inc paka-] Act Neu Inv () Can oftenbe translated by English lsquohappened torsquo Eg Walaacutey betaacuteng danagaacute akaonlaacute ed baacutensal yo (existing + mkr (topic) share their+ lnk not happened-to-go to wedding your) lsquoThere is a sharefor those who didnrsquot go to your wedding (ie for those whosefailure to attend was not of their own volition)rsquo Akaoleacutey kila (happened-to-be-incharge you already) lsquoYoursquore the one todecidersquo Akanentildegneacutentildeg iraacutey aroacutem a tooacute lsquoThey happened to seesomeone (ie they saw someone by chance)rsquo

aka-hellip-an Real Com [Inc paka-hellip-an] Ref Inv () The lo-cation of the action is normally placed in an equational (andtherefore emphatic) relationship with the rest of the sentencewhen this affix is used whether or not the phrase denoting lo-cation is also the subject of the verbal sentence Eg Dimaacutedaboacutentildeg so akanentildegnentildegaacuten ko ed saacutemay retraacuteto (dimaacuted aboacutentildeg


112

lsquothere in the housersquo = subject) lsquoIt was in the house that I saw(happened to see) the photographrsquo Diaacuted siacutelontildeg na lamisaaacuten soakaanapaacuten ko may tiacutentildeggal (may tiacutentildeggal lsquo(the) ten centavosrsquo =subject) lsquoIt was under the table that I happened to find the ten-centavo piecersquo

aki- Mut Real Com [Inc mi-] Act Neu () Used for activ-ities in which two or more people participate on an equal basis(see also note on pi- below) Eg akimiacutesa lsquowent to massrsquo ak-ilaacuteban lsquofought (each other)rsquo akisayaacutew lsquodancedrsquo ndash labaacutey ko komoacuteyakisayaacutew ed sikatoacute lsquoI would have liked to have danced with herrsquo

aki-hellip-an Mut Real Com [Inc mi-hellip-an] Act Neu This affixseems to serve to throw additional emphasis on the action itself(as compared with aki-) but the actor remains the subject of thesentence Eg Nimaacuten nen kabuasaacuten a akipirdonaaacuten si Bill kiacutenenMondontildeg lsquoIt was in the morning that Bill forgave Mondongrsquo

ama- Caus (aN- + pa- but functions as a unit) Real Com[Inc mama-] Act Impl Tr Int Indicates successful completionof action Eg Amataneacutem ak na maiacutes lsquoI planted the corn (iecaused it to be planted)rsquo (actor performed action himself) Ama-pataneacutem ak na maiacutes lsquoI had the corn planted (ie caused itsbeing caused to be planted)rsquo (actor had someone else do theaction) Amapatikiaacuteb so Estaacutedos Uniacutedos na sakeacutey ya cueacutetis(tikiaacuteb lsquoto flyrsquo patikiaacuteb lsquoto cause to fly eg launch a rocketrsquo)lsquoThe United States has successfully launched a rocketrsquo

aN- Real Com [Inc maN-] Act Impl Tr Ind () (See entryfor maN- for further notes) Eg antildegaacuten lsquoatersquo (kan lsquoto eatrsquo) ndashAntildegaacuten ak na kaacutenen to lsquoI ate his foodrsquo) antildegalaacute lsquogotrsquo (ala lsquogetrsquo)analiacutew lsquoboughtrsquo (saliacutew lsquobuyrsquo) -an Inc [Com nan- hellip -an + pi-] Ref With pi- affixed to verb stem referent = other party orparties involved in the action apart from actor Eg piolopaacutenlsquo(will) be accompanied byrsquo pinentildegnentildegaacuten lsquo(will) be seen byrsquo

-an Inc [Com -in- hellip -an] Ref () The referent may be anevent ndash Illaloaacuten mi so isabiacute da (expected by-us mkr (subj) will-be-arrived by them) lsquoWe are awaiting their arrivalrsquo an accessoryto the action Si Linda so piolopaacuten ko (mkr Linda mkr (topic)will-be-mutually-gone-together-with by-me) lsquoIrsquoll be going withLindarsquo an accessory which appears as an lsquoobjectrsquo in Englishtranslation Labaacutey kon pinentildegnentildegaacuten naacutetan si Susi (wanted by-me + lnk will-mutually-see-(with) today mkr (subj) Susi) lsquoI wantto see Susi todayrsquo Location Si Pedro tanemaacuten toy poacutenti imaacuteyjardiacuten nen Juan (mkr Pedro will-be-planted-at by-him + mkr


113

(obj) banana mkr (subj) garden of Juan) lsquoPedro will plant ba-nanas in Juanrsquos gardenrsquo Often the location-referent is placedin an equational (comment) relationship to the rest of the sen-tence as in Aacutemay aboacutentildeg so daitaacuten nen Pedro ed aacuteysintildeg (thehouse mkr (topic) sewed-at by Pedro to clothes) lsquoThe houseis where Pedro makes clothesrsquo With some stems may also in-dicate manner Deenaacuten mo pay mantildegaacuten na sopas (deenaacuten lsquowill-be-quiet-inrsquo) lsquoPlease eat your soup quietlyrsquo

aN-hellip- an Real Com [Inc paN-hellip-an] Ref () The referentis the location of the action Iner so antildeganaacuten nen Pedro (wheremkr (topic) did-eat-at by Pedro) lsquoWhere did Pedro eatrsquo

angi- Real Com [Inc mangi-] Act Expl Tr () EgAntildegibantildegaacutet si Juan na ogaacutew lsquoJohn taught the boyrsquo antildegituacutekdollsquodonatedrsquo antildegitoacutelor lsquotookrsquo

angi-hellip-an Real Com [Inc pangi-hellip-an] Ref Referent-subject may be location Say masiteacutera so antildegitanemaacuten koyapaacuteyas (antildegitanemaacuten lsquodid-plant-inrsquo) lsquoThe flower pot was whereI planted the papayarsquo Or accessory Tukaacute so antildegilutoaacuten toy siraacute(vinegar mkr (topic) did-cook-in by-him + mkr (obj) fish) lsquoHecooked the fish in vinegarrsquo

-en Inc [Com -in-] Pas () Eg baacutesaen lsquowill be readrsquopaoacutegipen lsquowill be put to sleeprsquo (stress on syllable preceding -enis usually displaced as in preceding example with paogiacutep lsquocauseto sleeprsquo + -en) taacutewagen lsquowill be calledrsquo -en is also often used insentences with imperative force Eg Taacutewagen moy Pedro (will-be-called by-you + mkr (subj) Pedro) lsquo(You) call Pedrorsquo Withaddition of reduplication of the verb stem it is also used to in-dicate Real aspect to form sentences with the force of negativeimperative force Eg Agmo tataacutewagen si Pedro (not + by-youwill-be-called mkr (subj) Pedro) lsquoDonrsquot call Pedrorsquo (See alsosection on affixes associated with numerals infra and notes onin-sbquo below)

i- Inc [Com in-] Pas Int () Eg itaneacutem lsquowill be plantedrsquoilutoacute lsquowill be cookedrsquo isuacutelat lsquowill be writtenrsquo Like -en i- mayalso be used in sentences with imperative force eg itapeacutew modkahoacuten (will-be-put-atop [it] by-you + on box) lsquoPut it on top ofthe boxrsquo agyo la ibabagaacute si Pedro (not + by-you already being-invited mkr (subj) Pedro) lsquoDonrsquot invite Pedrorsquo often used withverbs denoting motion and comparable with active affix on- to


114

mark event (with unexpressed subject) eg isabiacute da ([it] will-be-arrived by-them) lsquotheir arrival (when) they arriversquo (cf onsabiacuteiraacute lsquothey will arriversquo) (See also notes on in- below)

i-hellip-aacuten Inc [Com in-hellip-aacuten] Ben () Eg itdaacuten lsquowill be givenforrsquo itanemaacuten lsquowill be planted forrsquo ialaaacuten lsquowill be got forrsquoisaliwaacuten lsquowill be bought forrsquo ndash Isaliwaacuten to tayoacutey pisiacutentildeg (will-be-bought-for by-him we + mkr (obj) vegetable) lsquoHersquoll buy veg-etables for usrsquo

in- Real Com [Inc i-] Pas Int () With many stems theuse of in- (or i-) on the one hand or -in-sbquo-en on the other islsquonormalrsquo in the sense that one affix is used more or less exclu-sively However there are also a number of stems where theaffixes are used contrastively and the selection of a particularaffix is made in terms of this contrast rather than simply byconvention ndash as eg inpaltoacuteg lsquowas firedrsquo cf pinaltoacuteg lsquowas shotrsquoinbaacutesa lsquowas read (rather than eg sung)rsquo cf binaacutesa lsquowas read(no assumptions made about alternatives)rsquo insuacutelat lsquowas written(rather than eg read)rsquo cf sinuacutelat lsquowas writtenrsquo inlaacuteko lsquowas sold(under some kind of compulsion ndash had to be sold)rsquo cf nilaacuteko lsquowassold (freely)rsquo

-in- Real Com [Inc -en] Pas () Eg binaacutesa lsquowas readrsquosinuacutelat lsquowas writtenrsquo tinaacutewag lsquowas calledrsquo ndash see notes on in-above for comments on contrast between -in- -en (indicative)and in- i- (Intentive)

in-hellip-an Real Com [Inc i-hellip-an] Ben () Eg insaliwaacuten lsquowasbought forrsquo ingawaaacuten lsquowas done forrsquo inpesakaacuten lsquowas launderedforrsquo

-in an intensive affix which seems to be associated only withthe passive verb stem 1abaacutey as in labaacuteyin yo kasiacute hellip lsquoDo you(really) like helliprsquo

-in-hellip-an Real Com [Inc -an] Ref () Referent may beevent ndash inilaloaacuten mi so isabiacute da (was-expected by-us mkr (topic)will-be-arrived by-them) lsquoWe were awaiting their (as yet un-realized) arrivalrsquo accessory ndash pinakaacutebataacuten nen Linda saacuteraykakanaacuteyonto (were-caused-to-know by Linda the (pl) relativesher) lsquoLinda informed her relativesrsquo or location ndash tinanemaacuten toypoacutenti imay hardiacuten lsquowas-planted-in by-him + mkr (obj) bananamkr (subj) gardenrsquo lsquoHe planted bananas in the gardenrsquo


115

-inm- Real Com [Inc on-] Act Neu () Eg linma lsquowentrsquobinmaacuteleg lsquobecame big grew uprsquo sinmabiacute lsquoarrivedrsquo pinmawiacutellsquoreturnedrsquo (See on- for further notes)

inpai- Caus Real Com [Inc pai-] Ag Int Eg inpaibantildegaacutetlsquocaused to instructrsquo ndash Inpaibantildegaacutet koy Juan ed si Milo ya on-sayaacutew (was-caused-to-instruct by-me + mkr (subj) Juan mkr(ref) mkr (personal) Milo lnk will-dance) lsquoI let Juan teach Milohow to dancersquo

inpama- Caus (= inpaN- + pa-) Real Com [Inc pama-] InsInt Focuses attention on reason circumstances or responsi-bility for action eg Sikatoacutey inpamatikiaacuteb dad Apollo 9 (It +mkr (topic) was-caused-to-fly-with by-them + mkr (ref) Apollo9)

lsquoThat is why they launched Apollo 9rsquoipaN- see paN-ipan- see pan-ipantildegi- see pantildegi-inpaN- Real Com [Inc paN-] Ins Eg inpantildegan lsquowas-eaten-

withrsquo (kan lsquoeatrsquo)sbquo impantildegalaacute lsquowas-gotten-withrsquo (alaacute lsquoto getrsquo)(Seen paN- for further notes)

inpaN- Real Com [Inc paN-] Pas Used in infinitive sense ndashSee pan- for further notes

inpan- Real Com [Inc pan-] Ins Int () Eg inpanpesaacuteklsquowas laundered (in such a manner)rsquo inpankiwaacutel lsquowas stirredwithrsquo (See pan- for further notes)

inpan- Real Com [Inc pan-] Pas Int Used in infinitivesensendash See pan- below

inpantildegi- Real Com [Inc pantildegi-] Ins () Eg inpantildegibantildegaacutetlsquowas taught (In such a way)rsquo inpantildegipawiacutel lsquomeans of returningrsquo(See pantildegi- for further notes)

impantildegi- Real Com [Inc pantildegi-] Pas Used in infinitivesense ndash See pan- below

magsi- Dist Inc [Com nagsi-] Act Eg Magsikaacutenta kayoacutelsquoEach of you singrsquo Magsisaliacuteta iraacute lsquoThey will each speakrsquo


116

magsi-hellip-an Mut Dist Inc [Com nagsi-hellip-an] Act Indicatesthat action will or should be performed by each actor in turnrsquoEg Magsikantaaacuten kayoacute lsquoYou should each sing in turnrsquoMagsitepetaacuten iraacute lsquoThey will each ask in turnrsquo

maka- Pot Real Com Act () Affixed directly to verb stem(root or to root to which pa- or pi- has been affixed) indicatessimple ability or potential Eg makasaliacuteta lsquocan make utter-ancesrsquo makasoacutempal lsquocan finishrsquo makaboacuteto lsquocan votersquomakapiameacutes lsquocan bathe togetherrsquo (ameacutes lsquobathersquo) when followedby pan- (qv) implies qualification competence etc eg maka-pansaliacuteta lsquoable to speak coherentlyrsquo (saliacuteta lsquospeakrsquo) maka-panboacuteto lsquoqualified to votersquo

makaka- Pot Real Inc Act () Indicates tendency egMakakaoraacuten ni met lsquoItrsquos threatening rainrsquo makakaaacuteral lsquolikes tolearn is inclined to learnrsquo makakatrabaacutejo lsquois inclined to workrsquo

makapan- see maka-mama- Caus Incl [Com ama-] Act Impl Tr Int Eg ma-

mataneacutem lsquowill plant (cause to be planted) mamapasaliacutew lsquowill letbuy (cause to be caused to be bought)rsquo

man- Inc [Com] man-] Act Impl Tr Int () Usually requiresstress on following syllable eg manaacutemes (ameacutes lsquobathersquo) lsquo(will)take a bathrsquo manloacuteto (lotoacute lsquocookrsquo) lsquo(will) cookrsquo In contrast tomaN- (qv) appears to indicate deliberate action eg manpaacuteltoglsquohuntrsquo as against mamaltoacuteg lsquoshoot (spontaneously)rsquo or actiondone to oneself as against the same action done to others par-ticularly with regard to clothing etc eg mankaacutewes lsquoto dressoneselfrsquo mantildegaweacutes lsquoto dress anotherrsquo (see maN- for furthercomparisons)

man- DistFreq Inc [Com man-] Act Ind Applied to stemsnormally inflected with on- implies plurality of action andusually actors eg oninoacutem lsquowill drinkrsquo maniacutenom lsquo(many) willdrink (frequently)rsquo onabeacutet lsquowill meetrsquo manaacutebet lsquo(many) willmeetrsquo onasoacutel lsquowill fetch waterrsquo manaacutesol lsquofetch water fre-quentlyrsquo (note attraction of stress to following syllable as innon-distributive use of man- described in preceding entry) Seealso section on affixes associated with numerals

man- + CVC- Dim Inc [Com nan- + CVC-] Act Eg man-dokdokoacutel lsquolie down for a whilersquo (dokoacutel lsquolie downrsquo) cf ondorokoacutellsquois lying downrsquo mandorokoacutel lsquoare will be severally lying downrsquo


117

maN- Inc [Com aN-] Act Impl Tr () Eg mantildegaacuten lsquowilleatrsquo (kan lsquoeatrsquo) mantildegansioacuten lsquowill singrsquo (kansioacuten lsquosingrsquo) Indicatesspontaneous or outward directed action with certain stems incontrast to man- eg mamaltoacuteg lsquowill shootrsquo manpaacuteltog lsquowillhuntrsquo mantildegawiacutet lsquowill bring (someone) alongrsquo manaacutewit lsquocarrywith onersquo mantildegalaacute lsquogetrsquo manala lsquotakersquo mamiacutetay lsquohangsomeonersquo manbiacutetay lsquohang oneselfrsquo (See also entry for maN- insection on nominalizing affixes above)

man-hellip-an Mut Inc [Com nan-hellip-an] Act Impl Tr Eg Man-aaroaacuten kayoacute lsquoLove each otherrsquo

mantildegi- Inc [Com atildengi-] Act Expl Tr () Frequently con-trasts with on- and man- in the direction of definite transitivityof action eg onpawiacutel lsquowill return ie come backrsquo mantildegipawiacutellsquowill return somethingrsquo manbaacutentildegaacutet lsquowill teachrsquo ndash Manbantildegaacutet siJuan diaacuted Bayambantildeg lsquoJuan will teach in Bayambangrsquo man-gibantildegaacutet lsquowill teach (someone)rsquo ndash mangibantildegaacutet si Juan na ogaacutewlsquoJohn will teach the boyrsquo mansuacutelat lsquowill writersquo mantildegisuacutelat lsquowillwrite somethingrsquo manpelaacuteg lsquodrop (eg a letter into a postbox)rsquomantildegipelaacuteg lsquothrow downrsquo

mi- Mut Inc [Com aki-] Act () Implies e-quality of partic-ipants (cf pi-) Eg Misayaacutew ad ed sikatoacute lsquoIrsquoll dance with herrsquoLabaacutey to mikaacutebat ed saacuteray amimiga nen Susan nabuaacutes (likedby-him will-mutually-meet mkr (ref) the (pl) friends of Susantomorrow) lsquoHersquod like to meet with Susanrsquos friends tomorrowrsquomimiacutesa lsquogo to massrsquo mitindaacutean lsquogo to marketrsquo

mi-hellip-an Mut Inc [Com aki-hellip-an] Act () Similar in forceto mi- but places additional emphasis on action Eg Labay tomisulataacuten ed sikaacute (liked by-him will-mutually-write with you)lsquoHersquod like to exchange letters with yoursquo

na- Pot Real Inc [Com a-] Pas () Implies that action willdefinitely take place ie that the potentiality will be realizedeg natrabaacutejo lsquowill be able to be accomplished (of work)rsquo ndash Dakeacutelni natrabaacutejo tayoacute lsquoWersquoll get a lot done yetrsquo napasabiacute lsquowouldbe caused to arriversquo ndash Illaloaacuten mo napasabiacutem iraacute (will-be-ex-pected by-you would-be-caused-to-arrive + by-you they) lsquoYoursquollbe awaiting their arrivalrsquo

Na- Inc [Com na- + CC or (C) + unstressed Vowel] PasInv () Vowel of following syllable is stressed when not pre-ceded and followed by a consonant eg naaacutewit (root = awiacutet)lsquowill happen to be obtained or takenrsquo naaacutewat (root = awaacutet) lsquowillhappen to be receivedrsquo nabuaacutel (root = buaacutel) lsquowill happen to


118

be uprootedrsquo napisiacutet lsquowill happen to get brokenrsquo napeseacutel lsquowillhappen to be satisfied with foodrsquo nakeacutena (keacutena) lsquowill happen tobe shotrsquo

na- Com [Inc na- (preceding entry)] Pas Inv () Whenfollowing vowel is bounded by consonants it is deleted as inthe following examples naksiacutet (root = pisiacutet) lsquobroken shatteredrsquonakseacutel (peseacutel) lsquo(was) satisfied with foodrsquo naacutekna (keacutena) lsquoshotrsquoother stems are unaltered eg naawiacutet (awiacutet) lsquohappened to betaken or obtained) naawaacutet (awaacutet) lsquoreceivedrsquo nabuaacutel (buaacutel) lsquohap-pened to be uprootedrsquo

na-hellip-an Pot Real Inc [Com a-hellip-an] Ref () Referent isusually accessory to action eg nakargaaacuten lsquowill be filled with(ie will be able to be filled with)rsquo Nakargaaacuten na bueacuter itaacuteybotiacutelya (will-be-able-to-be-fillead-with mkr (obj) sand mkr (subj)bottle) lsquoThe bottle will be filled with sandrsquo naanusaacuten lsquowill (beable to) be put up withrsquo ndash Naanusaacuten mi iraacutetan (will-be-able-to-be-put-up-with by-us those) lsquoWersquoll be able to put up with that (litthose will be able to put up with by us)rsquo Nabayaran mi mamiacutesolsquoWill pay one peso for eachrsquo

na-hellip-an Inc [Com na-hellip-an with vowel deletion] Ret Inv() Eg narentildegelaacuten (dentildegeacutel lsquohearrsquo) lsquowill be heard aboutrsquonaabutaacuten (aacutebot lsquoreachrsquo) lsquowill be reached or caught up withrsquo

na-hellip-an Com [Inc na-hellip-an] Re Inv First vowel in cir-cumfixed stem is deleted eg nantildegelań (dentildegeacutel) lsquoheard aboutrsquonaksawaacuten (kesaacutew) lsquotired fatiguedrsquo nakbetaacuten (kebet) lsquowithereddried uprsquo naacutebotan (abot) lsquoreachedrsquo

nagsi- Dist Real Com [Inc magsi-] Act () Eg Nagsikaacutentakamiacute lsquoWe each sangrsquo

nai- Real Com Pas Actor has responsibility for action asin eg Naibaliacutetak nen linma itayoacute dimaacuten (let-be-known+ by-mewhen did-go we there) lsquoIrsquom the one who was supposed to giveout the news (about) when we went therersquo

naka-hellip-an Pot Real Com Re Subject denotes source ofstate eg nakaliintildegaacuten lsquoawakenedrsquo ndash Nakaliintildegaacuten nen Pedro sotooacutel na asoacute (was-awakened-through mkr (atr) Pedro mkr (subj)bark of dog) lsquoPedro was awakened by the dogrsquos bark ndash thedogrsquos bark woke Pedrorsquo Nakatiacuteponaacuten lsquoable to be earnedrsquo ndashNakatiacuteponaacuten to so panlaacuteko toy kaacutenen (able-to-be-earned by-her mkr (subj) by-means-of-selling by-her+mkr (obj) cake lsquoShe


119

earns by selling cakesrsquo nakanentildegnentildegaacuten lsquoable to see atrsquoNakanentildegnentildegaacuten na maoacutentildeg ya liacutebro so librariaacute lsquo(One) can seegood books at (because of) the libraryrsquo

nan- Real Com [Inc man-] Act Impl Tr Int () Egnanameacutes lsquobathedrsquo nanagtoacute lsquocarried on the headrsquo nangawaacutelsquomadersquo ndash see also nan- adjective derivational affixes and nan-numeral affixes

nan-hellip-an Mut Real Com [Inc man-hellip-an] Act Impl TrEg nannentildegnentildegaacuten lsquosaw one anotherrsquo ndash Abayaacuteg agkamiacute nan-nentildegnentildegaacuten (long not-we did-mutually-see) lsquoItrsquos a long timesince we saw each otherrsquo

nan-hellip-an Real Com [Inc -an + pi-] Ref With pi- affixed toverb stem acts as a referential affix (referent = party other thanactor engaged in action) Eg nanpigalawaacuten lsquowas played withrsquo ndashSi Juanita so nanpigalawaacuten to ed Manila (mkr (pers) Juanita mkr(topic) was-played-with by-her in Manila) lsquoJuanita was the oneshe played with in Manilarsquo

nan-hellip-an Real Com [Inc pan-hellip-an] Ref Int () Referentis almost invariably location eg nanaralaacuten lsquowas learned atndash Ineacuter so nanaralaacuten mo ya manluacuteto (where mkr (topic) was-learned-at by-you lnkr will (=to) cook) lsquoWhere did you learn tocookrsquo nangaacutewaaacuten lsquowas made atrsquo

ni- Real Com Pas Impl Tr Int Implies absence of outsidepressures (cf i- in-) and also connotes purposiveness (asagainst simple intent) eg niacutela lsquowas gone to (for some reason)rsquo ndashSiopaacutey niacutelam (who + mkr (topic) was-gone-to + by-you) lsquowho didyou go torsquo Niacutelak si kompaacuterek (was-gone-to + by-me mkr (subj)compadre) lsquoI went to my compadrersquo nisuacutelat lsquowritten aboutrsquoniacutelako lsquomightshouldcould sellrsquo ndash Aacutendi baacuteli ta walaacute ni pageacuteyya niacutelaacuteko yo lsquoIt doesnrsquot matter because there is still rice thatyou could sellrsquo ninbantilde-gat lsquowas taught purposivelyrsquo ndash Nibantildegaacutetkamiacuten maoacutentildeg dimaacuted Peace Corps lsquoWe were (really) taught wellin the Peace Corpsrsquo ninoacutenot lsquowas thought (for some reason) ndashNinoacutenot mi ya walaacutey betaacutentildeg da (was-thought by-us lnk existing+ mkr (topic) share their) lsquoWe had some reason to think thatthere would be a share for themrsquo

ni-hellip-an Real Com Ben Int () Eg nidaitaacuten lsquobe sewn forrsquonibasaaacuten lsquobe read forrsquo ndash Nibasaaacuten mo ak na istoacuteria lsquoCould youread me a storyrsquo


120

on- Inc [Com -inm-] Act Neu Ind () Eg oninoacutem lsquo(will)drinkrsquo onlaacute lsquo(will) gorsquo onsabiacute lsquo(will) arriversquo with noun andadjective stems may be used as a derivative affix signifyinglsquoto becomersquo ndash eg onbuacutentildega lsquo(will begin to) bear fruitrsquo (buacutentildegalsquofruitrsquo) onlamoacutet lsquo(will begin to) grow rootsrsquo (lamoacutet lsquorootrsquo) on-baacuteleg lsquo(will) become big grow uprsquo (baacuteleg lsquobigrsquo) May be usedwith imperative force with stems with which it is normally asso-ciated in active indicative constructions eg oniroacutentildeg lsquositrsquo onlaacutelsquogocomersquo ndash onlaacute kayoacute (will-go-you (pl) lsquogorsquo (or lsquocomersquo) Withreduplication of initial (C)V- of verb stem may indicate dimi-nutive or accretive aspect (cf man- + CVC-) as onbebeteacutel solaacutebi lsquothe night is getting cold(er)rsquo onpepetaacutentildeg lsquogetting hot(ter)rsquoonlilikeacutey lsquogetting short(er) (eg the day)rsquo

pa- () Voice affix (causative) occurring immediately beforeroot and compatible with most verbal affixes eg pinaogiacutep (-in-+ pa- + ogiacutep lsquowas caused to sleeprsquo mantildegipabantildegaacutet (mantildegi- +pa- + bantildegaacutet) lsquowill cause to teachrsquo pabaacutentildegaten lsquowill be causedto be taughtrsquo manpatoacutelontildeg lsquowill make (someone) assistrsquo Mayalso occur without further affixation with some verb-stems theresultant form having the same meaning as one affixed with in-eg papetpeacutet lsquocaused to be placed in the palm of the handrsquo ndashAlaacutem yay piacuteso ya papetpeacutet ko ed anaacutek yo lsquoTake the peso that I(caused to be) enfolded in your childrsquos palm)rsquo (See also ama-inpama- inpai- mama- pai- pama- elsewhere in this list andmakapa- mapa- in the list of adjective derivative affixes above)

pagsi-hellip-an Mut Dist Inc [Com nagsi-hellip-an] Act =magsi-hellip-an qv

pai- Caus Inc [Com inpai-] Ag Int Eg Paisaliacuteta toy Feed si Mila (will-be-caused-to-speak by-him + mkr (subj) Fe mkr(ref) mkr (pers) Mila) lsquoHersquoll let Fe speak to Milarsquo

paka- Inc [Com aka-] Act Neu Inv Eg pakaliiacutentildeg lsquo(will)happen to wake uprsquo (cf paka- in list of nominalizing affixesabove)

paka-hellip-an Inc [Com aka-hellip-an] Ref Inv () Referent maybe state eg Say apileacutey ya saliacute to so agtoacute pakaalageyaacuten (Thewas-sprained lnk foot his mkr (topic) not + by-him could-happen-to-be-walked) lsquoHe cannot walk because he sprained hisfootrsquo source eg Say raacutedio so pakapinentildegnentildegaacuten na baliacutetanaacutegewaacutegew (the radio mkr (topic) will-happen-to-be-mutually-seen mkr (obj) news + lnk daily) lsquoThe daily news is made known


121

through the radiorsquo or location eg Ineacuter so pakanentildegnentildegaacuten koed sikayo (where mkr (topic) will-happen-to-be-seen by-me mkr(ref) you) lsquoWhere would I be able to see yoursquo

pama- Caus (=paN- + pa-) Inc [C inpama-] Ins Int Egpamatikiaacuteb lsquowill be caused to fly (ie will be launched)rsquo (Refer-ent=reason circumstances etc)

paN- (also ipan-) Inc [Com inpaN-] Ins (parallels active affixmaN-) lsquoInstrumentrsquo may range from a physical means of accom-plishing something eg Banuiacutet so pantildegalaacute nen Pedro na siraacute(fishook mkr (topic) will-be-obtained-with by Pedro mkr (obj)fish) lsquoPedro will get the fish with a hookrsquo a supplementary foodhelping one eat a main dish eg Ipantildegaacuten koy puacuteto ed dinalaaacuten(will-be-eaten-with by-me + mkr (subj) puto mkr (ref) dinalaaacuten)lsquoIrsquoll eat dinalaan with putorsquo to an animate agent eg Inpantilde-galaacuteb toy bakeacutes ed nioacuteg lsquoHe used the monkey to climb the treersquo

paN- Inc [Com inpaN-] Pas ndash in infinitive sense See pan-(passive infinitive) for notes and examples

pan- (also ipan-) Inc [Com inpan-] Inc Int () lsquoInstrumentrsquovaries as noted above in regard to paN- eg Ipansiraacute toy bantildegosed pisintildeg (will-be-eat-en-with by-him + mkr (subj) milk-fish mkr(ref) vegetables) lsquoHersquoll use the milk fish for eating with veg-etablesrsquo Antoacutey pantaneacutem nen Pedro na poacutenti (What will-be-planted-with by Pedro mkr (obj) banana) lsquoWhat will Pedro plantthe banana withrsquo Instrumental pan- is also often used in anlsquoinfinitiversquo sense (somewhat differently from passive pan- qvbelow) eg Maoacutentildeg a panbaacutesa may sileacutew (good lnk will-read-with mkr (subj) light) lsquoThe light is good to read byrsquo similarlypandaiacutet lsquoto sew withrsquo pansuacutelat lsquoto write withrsquo pantaneacutem lsquotoplant withrsquo

pan- Inc [Com inpan-] Pas Int Used to produce lsquoinfinitiversquoconstructions eg pansayaacutew lsquo(how) to dancersquo ndash Manpatoacutelontildegak ed si Juan so pansayaacutew nen Milo lsquoIrsquoll let Juan help Milo todancersquo or to denote the imminent occurrence of an event egKapigaacutey pantaneacutem nen Pedro na poacutenti lsquoWhen will Pedro plant(when is he going to plant) the bananarsquo panbaacutesa lsquo(going) toreadrsquo cf similar uses of paN- ndash pantildegaacuten lsquo(going) to eatrsquo pantilde-gansioacuten lsquo(going) to sing)rsquo Also in an infinitive sense (but withoutsignificance as far as focus is concerned) pan- may occur incombination with other affixes as eg makapanboto lsquoable to


122

votersquo (see makapan- above cf also similar use of pangi- ineg pakapantildegiobolaacuten (paka-hellip-an + pantildegi- + obol) lsquoWhere tosharpen (something)rsquo)

paN-hellip-an Inc [Com aN-hellip-an] Ref () Referent = sourceor location eg pantildeganaacuten (kan lsquoeatrsquo) lsquowill-be-eaten-atrsquo ndash Inerso pantildeganaacuten nen Pedro (where mkr (topic) will-be-eaten-at byPedro) lsquowhere is Pedro going to eatrsquo pantildegalaaacuten (ala lsquogetrsquo) lsquowillbe obtained atrsquo panaliwaacuten (saliacutew lsquobuyrsquo) lsquowill be bought atrsquo

pan-hellip-an Inc [Com nan-hellip-an] Ref Int () Referent usuallylocation sometimes in sense of lsquosourcersquo ndash eg pansaacuteliwaacuten lsquowillbe bought at ie source of supplyrsquo also eg panaacutenapaacuten lsquowill besource or place of earning a living panbaacutesaaacuten lsquowill be read atrsquopansulataacuten lsquowill be written atrsquo panlaacutekoaacuten lsquowill be sold atrsquo Syl-lable following pan- is normally stressed (cf man-)

pan-hellip-en Inc [Com pinan-] Ag The action is performed bythe subject under the influence of but not directly for the persondenoted by the attributive phrase as eg pansiacuteraen (siraacute lsquoeatmeat or fishrsquo) lsquowill be let eatrsquo ndash Pansiacuteraen ko la ray lechoacuten (will-be-let-eat by-me already they + mkr (obj) lechoacuteh) lsquoIrsquoll let themeat lechon (eg instead of giving them gifts)rsquo panpoacuteteren (poteacuterlsquocutrsquo) lsquomake cutrsquo ndash Panpoacuteteren to tayo ni na kieacutew da lsquoWe will bemade by him to cut their woodrsquo Note that stress is normally onsyllable following pan-

pantildegi- (also ipantildegi-) Inc [Com inpantildegi-] Ins Expl Tr Int() Probably the least frequently encountered instrumental affix(although in lsquoinfinitiversquo sense (see entry below) is morecommon) Eg pantildegitilaacutek lsquowill-be-left-throughrsquo ndash Pantildegitilaacutek ko siJuan na belaacutes lsquoIrsquoll have Juan leave the ricersquo

pantildegi- Inc [Com pantildegi-] Pas Expl Tr Int () Used in lsquoin-finitiversquo sense or to denote imminent action in which case theaffix can often be interpreted as equivalent to English lsquogoingtorsquo especially in reference to time phrases which may form thesubject of the sentences concerned Eg Naaacuteni so pantildegilotoacute mina adotildebon aacutewiten mi ed picnic (later-on mkr (topic) going-to-be-cooked by-us mkr (obj) adobo + lnk will-be-brought by-us topicnic) lsquoPresently wersquo11 cook the adobo which wersquo11 bring tothe picniclater on wersquore going to cook the adobo helliprsquo See alsoentry for pan- (passive infinitive)

pantildegi-hellip-an Inc [Com antildegi-hellip-an] Ref () Referent may belocation direction or accessory Eg pantildegibatikaacuten (batiacutek lsquorunrsquo)lsquowill be rushed torsquo ndash Diaacuted ospitaacutel so pantildegibatikaacuten da may ogaacutew


123

(there + at hospital mkr (topic) will-be-rushed-to by-them mkr(subj) child) lsquoTheyrsquoll rush the child to the hospitalrsquo (may ogaacutewis accessorysubject) pangisino-paacuten lsquowill-be-kept-inrsquo ndash Dimadkahoacuten so pangisiacutenopaacuten to na siraacute lsquoHersquoll keep the fish in a boxrsquo(there-in box mkr (topic) will-be-kept-in by-him mkr (obj) fish)(dimad kahoacuten is locationsubject na siraacute object)

pi- Aspectual affix indicating mutuality sometimes with con-notation of superiorinferior relationship between parties in-volved This affix occurs immediately before verb stem and iscompatible with several other affixes (but not those alreadyindicating mutuality) Eg makapitontildegtoacutentildeg lsquocan talk togetherrsquondash Labaacutey di taacutetay ko so makapitontildegtoacutentildeg kindiacute Mama Lucio lsquoMyfather would like to be able to talk with mama Luciorsquomakapiameacutes lsquocan bathe togetherrsquo ndash Makapiameacutes tayo diacutemaacutenlsquoWe can all bathe together therersquo piolopaacuten lsquowill be accom-paniedrsquo nanpigalawaacuten lsquowas played withrsquo See also pi- in sectionon nomi-nalizing affixes

pinan- Real Com [Inc pan-hellip-en] Ag The agentsubject per-forms action under influence of person denoted in attributivephrase but not necessarily directly for the latterrsquos benefit ndasheg Pinanpateacutey ko si Pedro na manoacutek (will-be-let-kill by-me mkr(subj) mkr (obj) chicken) lsquoIrsquoll get Pedro to kill the chickenrsquo

Unaffixed passive verb stemsApart from imperative forms marked by zero affixation (see

list of verbal affixes above) there are four commonly encoun-tered verb stems which may function without affixes These arethe verbs antaacute (alsa amtaacute) lsquoknownrsquo aacutentildegan lsquothoughtrsquo labaacutey (alsogabaacutey) lsquoliked wanted and guacutesto lsquoliked wantedrsquo (the latter isa lsquoborrowingrsquo from Spanish) All are marked for direct voiceactual real and complete aspect passive focus and indicativemode

ExamplesAgko antaacute (not + by-me known) lsquoI donrsquot knowrsquo

Amtaacutek so onlantildegoacutey (known + by-me mkr (subj) will-swim) lsquoIknow (how) to swimrsquo

Amtaacute nen Pedro ya wadiaacute ka lsquoPedro knows that yoursquore herersquo(or lsquoknew you were herersquo)


124

Aacutentildegan ko malikelikeacutet si Nilo ta lakiacute so inmonaacuten ahaacutek to(thought by-me intensely-happy mkr Nilo because male mkr(topic) first + lnk child his) lsquoI think Nilo must be very happy thathis first child is a boyrsquo

Dinmaloacutes kayoacute aacutentildegan ko (did-harvest you thought by-me) lsquoIthink you harvestedrsquo (ie lsquoyou harvestedrsquo (ie lsquoyou harvesteddidnrsquot yoursquo)

Agda guacutesto so onsayaacutew iraacutemay marikiacutet (not + by-them likedmkr (topic) to-dance mkr (subj pl) maiden) lsquoThe girls donrsquot wantto dancersquo

Antoacutey guacutestom lsquoWhat would you likersquo

Labaacutey ko mikaacutebat kiacutenen Miguel lsquoIrsquod like to meet Miguelrsquo

Agtoacute gabaacutey nen Flora ya bantildegataacuten nen Nilo si Bill ya man-boacutelantildeg (not + by-her wanted mkr (atr) Flora lnk will-be-taughtmkr (atr) Nilo mkr (subj) Bill lnk will-go-cockfighting) lsquoFloradidnrsquot want Nilo to introduce Bill to cockfightingrsquo

Unaffixed verb stems denoting activity itselfIn constructions with adjectives verb stems may sometimes

appear unaffixed as the nucleus of a topic phrase with the ad-jective constituting the comment phrase of the equational sen-tence concerned In such cases the actor is represented by anattributive phrase or pronoun

ExamplesMasamiacutet so tontildegtoacutentildeg da (sweet mkr (topic) con-versed by-them)lsquoTheir conversation is engrossingrsquo

Makapasawaacute so saliacuteta nen Pedro (boring mkr (topic) spokenby Pedro) lsquoPedrorsquos speech (ie what he is saying) is boringrsquo

Maruacutenontildeg so gawaacute na ogaacutew (skilled mkr (topic) worked bychild) lsquoThe childrsquos work (ie what he is doing) is skillfulrsquo


125

Phonological changes in verb and adjective roots

Stress shiftsIt has been noted in relation to certain affixes that the stress

on the stems to which they are affixed may be shifted in theirpresence ndash thus for example -en normally shifts an immedi-ately preceding strong stress back one syllable so eg ameacutes +-en becomes ameacutesen lotoacute + -en appears as loacutetoen etc whileman- normally requires strong stress on the immediately fol-lowing syllable eg man- + ameacutes = manaacutemes man- + lotoacute =manloacuteto and -an normally attracts strong stress to itself asin eg nentildegneacutentildeg + -an = nentildegnentildegaacuten anaacutek + nan-hellip-an +nananakaacuten etc

Vowel deletionIn addition to the phenomenon of stress shift however there

is another change undergone by some verb stems in certain en-vironments This consists of the loss of the first or last vowelin the root ndash usually an unstressed vowel in a root with thephonological composition CVCV(C) (which becomes CCV(C) )or (C)VCVC (which becomes (C)VCC [+ suffix with initial V])In such circumstances a further change sometimes takes placewhen the deletion of the vowel leaves a sequence ps ndash pis likely to be replaced by k giving a new sequence ksWhen the consonant sequence after vowel deletion is Cr ris regularly replaced by d giving a new sequence Cd Voweldeletion takes place regularly with stems affixed by the invol-untary mode affix na- (Actual Real Complete Passive ndash not na-(Potential Incomplete) ) where the first vowel in stems withthe shape CVCV(C) is deleted and with na-hellip-an (Involuntary)where even root initial vowels may disappear and sporadicallywith other affixes Examples follow

na- + peseacutel = nakseacutel lsquosatisfied with foodrsquona + pisiacutet = naksiacutet lsquoshatteredrsquona- hellip -an + aacutebot = naacutebotan lsquocaught up with reachedrsquona- hellip -an + dentildegeacutel = nantildegelaacuten lsquoheard aboutrsquoma- + biliacute = mabliacute lsquoexpensiversquoma- + kereacutel = makdeacutel lsquothick (growth)rsquo


126

ka- hellip -an + baacuteleg = kabalgaacuten lsquolargestrsquopaka- + almoacute = pakaacutelmo lsquomight findrsquoin-hellip -an + iter = initdaacuten lsquogiven torsquoa- + genaacutep = agnaacutep lsquorealrsquopa- + letaacutew = paltaacutew lsquocook by floatingrsquopa- + lesaacute = palsaacute lsquocreatersquo

NUMERALS

Basic NumeralsTwo distinct sets of numerals are used by Pangasinan

speakers one derived from Spanish and the other indigenousto the Pangasinan language (ie of Malayo-Polynesian origin)While the Spanish-derived numerals are commonly used in sit-uations arising from the assimilation of Western practices (egtelling the time in hours) and the lsquoindigenousrsquo numerals areemployed in situations less closely associated with Hispanic orWestern innovations the two sets are by no means mutually ex-clusive ndash in quoting prices for example numerals from either orboth sets may be used

Spanish-derived numerals

Cardinal numeralsThe basic set of Spanish-derived cardinal numerals is as

follows (orthographic e in these words is phonemically E)

uacuteno uacutena lsquoonersquo desisaiacutes lsquosixteenrsquodos lsquotwo desisieacutete lsquoseventeenrsquotres lsquothreersquo desioacutecho lsquoeighteenrsquokuaacutetro lsquofourrsquo desinueacuteve lsquonineteenrsquosiacutentildegko lsquofiversquo baiacutente lsquotwentyrsquosaiacutes seiacutes lsquosixrsquo treacutenta lsquothirtyrsquosieacutete lsquosevenrsquo kuareacutenta lsquofortyrsquooacutecho lsquoeightrsquo sintildegkueacutenta lsquofiftyrsquonueacuteve lsquoninersquo saiseacutenta

seiseacutentalsquosixtyrsquo

dieacutes lsquotenrsquo seteacutenta lsquoseventyrsquo


127

oacutense lsquoelevenrsquo ocheacutenta lsquoeightyrsquodoacutese lsquotwelversquo noveacutenta lsquoninetyrsquotreacutese lsquothirteenrsquo cieacutento lsquohundredrsquokatoacuterse lsquofourteenrsquo mil lsquothousandrsquokiacutense lsquofifteenrsquo milioacuten lsquomillionrsquo

Numerals from 1 to 9 follow baiacutente lsquotwentyrsquo without anylinker the numerals representing the decades 30-90 incl areseparated from a following unit numeral by y (Spanish lsquoandrsquo)ndash eg baiacutente siacutentildegko lsquotwenty -fiversquo treacutentay oacutecho lsquothirty eightrsquoNumerals for hundreds from 200-900 are formed by precedingcieacutentos lsquohundredsrsquo by the appropriate ordinal numeral eg doscieacutentos dosyEacutentos lsquotwo hundredrsquo nueve cieacutentos lsquoninehundredrsquo except for 500 which retains the standard Spanishform quinieacutentos kinyEacutentos

Spanish-derived numerals are commonly used in telling thetime (see note accompanying example below) giving telephonenumbers street addresses and in quoting prices Pangasinannumerals are also often used in the latter capacity

Spanish-derived ordinal numeralsThe Spanish-derived ordinal numerals in common use are

primeacutero or onaacute (the latter affixed with -an on-(non-past) or -inm-(past)) lsquofirstrsquo seguacutendo lsquosecondrsquo terceacutero lsquothirdrsquo cuaacuterto lsquofourthrsquoquiacutento kiacutento lsquofifthrsquo seacutexto seacutesto lsquosixthrsquo seacuteptimo lsquoseventhrsquo

Spanish-derived ordinal numerals are normally used inregard to congressional districts and similar geographical or po-litical divisions in the case of the numerals for lsquofirst (in order)rsquoSpanish-derived forms have completely replaced those derivedfrom indigenous sources

ExamplesPigaacute ya ey Treacutentay siacutentildegko labat lsquoHow much is thisrsquo lsquoThirty five[centavos] onlyrsquo

Alaacutes dos ed ntildegaacuterem so isabiacute yo diaacute (at two in the afternoonmkr (topic) will-be-arrived by-you here) lsquoYoursquoll get here at twoin the afternoonrsquo (Numerals denoting time of the clock are pre-ceded by the clitic alaacutes (in the case of uacutena lsquoonersquo ndash alaacute) and are


128

not normally followed by any other numeral the Spanish phrasey meacutedia denotes lsquohalf pastrsquo eg alaacutes doacutes y meacutedia lsquohalf past tworsquo ndashmore precise distinctions are not normally made)

miacutel nueacuteve cieacutentos saiseacutentay nueacuteve lsquo1969rsquo

dos dos sieacutete nueacuteve lsquo(Telephone number) 2279rsquo

Pangasinan numeralsThe forms comprising the indigenous series of numerals are

derived from the following roots

sakeacutey isaacute lsquoonersquo waloacute lsquoeightrsquoduaacute lsquotworsquo siaacutem lsquoninersquotaloacute lsquothreersquo poacutelo lsquodecadersquoapaacutet lsquofourrsquo lasoacutes lsquohundredrsquolimaacute lsquofiversquo liboacute lsquothousandrsquoaneacutem lsquosixrsquo Pigaacute lsquohow manyrsquopitoacute lsquosevenrsquo labiacuten lsquo-teenrsquo

Ordinal numeralsThe simple ordinal numerals from 1-9 consist simply of the

forms listed above The formation of the remaining numerals isillustrated below

samploacute (isaacute + -n+ poacutelo)

lsquotenrsquo

labinsakeacutey lsquoelevenrsquolabinduaacute lsquotwelversquolabintaloacute lsquothirteenrsquo helliplabinsiaacutem lsquonineteenrsquoduaacutemplo (dua +-n + poacutelo)

lsquotwentyrsquo

duaacutemplo tansakeacutey

lsquotwenty onersquo

taloacutemplo lsquothirtyrsquoapataacuteplo (apaacutet +-n + poacutelo)

lsquofortyrsquo

limaacutemplo lsquofiftyrsquoanemaacuteplo lsquosixtyrsquopitoacutemplo lsquoseventyrsquowaloacutemplo lsquoeightyrsquosiamaacuteplo lsquoninetyrsquo


129

sanlasoacutes (isaacute + -n+ lasoacutes)

lsquoone hundredrsquo

sanlasoacutes tansakeacutey

lsquoone hundred and onersquo

sanlasoacutes tanpitoacutemplo tan duaacute

lsquo172

duaacutenlasoacutes (duaacute +-n + lasoacutes)

lsquotwo hundredrsquo

taloacutenlasoacutes (taloacute +-n + lasoacutes)

lsquothree hundredrsquo

apatalasoacutes (apat+ a + lasos)

lsquofour hundredrsquo

sanliboacute ( isaacute + -n+ liboacute)

lsquoone thousandrsquo

samploacuten liboacute lsquoten thousandrsquosanlasoacutes a liboacute lsquoone hundred thousandrsquosakeacutey milioacuten lsquoone millionrsquo (note combination of

indigenous and Spanish elements here)

Use of simple ordinal numeralsIndigenous numerals may be used as nouns when they are

not combined with the various numeral affixes described inthe next section In such cases however the numerals almostalways refer to a unit (eg price) rather than to individual items(eg so many objects) When used adjectivally (ie in referenceto an explicitly stated entity) the phrase denoting the entity re-ferred to is preceded by the numeral itself with or without thepinker a following in the case of sakeacutey lsquoonersquo and apaacutet lsquofourrsquo orthe numeral plus -y in the case of duaacute lsquotworsquo taloacute lsquothreersquo andlimaacute lsquofiversquo as well as pigaacute lsquohow manyrsquo With numerals from sixto ten and also the individuated interrogative pigaacutera lsquohow manyitemsrsquo) the linker -n is used to link the numeral which has beensuffixed with the individuating affix -ira (see below) to the fol-lowing phrase Where individuality is strongly marked simpleordinal numerals from two to ten are usually replaced by thecorresponding individuated forms

ExamplesIbagaacute yo lay limaacute (will-be-asked by-you already mkr (subj) five)lsquoAsk five centavos or pesos (when bargaining for something)rsquo


130

Pigaacutey simba yo lan mantatrabaacutejo diaacute ndash Wala lay duaacutey siacutembami (how many weeks your already + lnk working here ndash existingalready mkr (topic) two mkr (atr) week our) lsquoHow many weekshave you been working here nowrsquo ndash lsquoWersquove been here two weeksalreadyrsquo

Walaacute lay anemiacuteran bolaacuten mi lsquoWersquove been in this state for sixmonthsrsquo

sakeacutey ya tooacute lsquoone manrsquo duaacuteran tooacute lsquotwo menrsquo

apaacutet bolaacuten lsquofour monthsrsquo

Complex numeralsBasic numerals may be combined with a number of numeral

affixes to form noun verb or adjective stems having numeralforce Some of the more important sets are illustrated belowfollowed by an alphabetical listing of the affixes associated withnumerals It should be noted that in some semantic sets the af-fixes vary with certain numerals that the forms involving thenumeral lsquoonersquo are often highly irregular and that in certain setsthe numeral roots undergo vowel deletion and other morpho-phonemic changes

Individuated numeralsduaacutera lsquotwo (individual items)rsquo

taloacutera lsquothree (indiv)rsquo

apateraacute lsquofour (indiv)rsquo

limaacutera lsquofive (indiv)rsquo

anemiraacute lsquosix (indiv)rsquo

pitoacutera lsquoseven (indiv)rsquo

waloacutera lsquoeight (indiv)rsquo

siamiraacute lsquonine (indiv)rsquo

samploacutera lsquoten (indiv)rsquo

pigaacutera lsquohow many (individual items)rsquo

Distributive numeralssansakeacutey lsquoone eachrsquo


131

sanderuaacute lsquotwo eachrsquo

santatloacute lsquothree eachrsquo

saneacutepat lsquofour eachrsquo

sanliliacutema lsquofive eachrsquo

sanaacutenem lsquosix eachrsquo

sampipiacuteto lsquoseven eachrsquo

sanwawaacutelo lsquoeight eachrsquo

sansiacutesiam tigsiasiacuteam lsquonine eachrsquo

sansamploacutera toacutentildeggal samploacutera lsquoten eachrsquo

sanlalabinsakeacutey toacutentildeggal labinsakeacutey lsquoeleven eachrsquo

santaloacutemplo toacutentildeggal taloacutemplo lsquothirty eachrsquo

sampipiacutega lsquohow much each how many eachrsquo

Frequentative numerals -- cardinalmaminsaacuten lsquooncersquo

mamiduaacute lsquotwicersquo

mamitloacute lsquothricersquo

mamiacutepat lsquofour timesrsquo

maminlimaacute lsquofive timesrsquo

mamiacutenem lsquosix timesrsquo

maminpitoacute lsquoseven timesrsquo

maminwaloacute lsquoeight timesrsquo

maminsiaacutem lsquonine timesrsquo

maminsaacutemplo lsquoten timesrsquo

maminlabinsakeacutey lsquoeleven timesrsquo

mamiacutenpiga lsquohow many timesrsquo

(also aminsaacuten amiduaacute etc -- see amin- mamin-in list below)

Frequentative numerals -- ordinalkasiaacute lsquothe first timersquo


132

piacutedua lsquothe second timersquo

piacutetlo lsquothe third timersquo

piacutepat lsquothe fourth timersquo

piacutenlimaacute lsquothe fifth timersquo

piacutenem lsquothe sixth timersquo

pinpitoacute lsquothe seventh timersquo

pinwaloacute lsquothe eighth timersquo

pinsiaacutem lsquothe ninth timersquo

pinpoacutelo lsquothe tenth timersquo

piacutenlabinsakeacutey lsquothe eleventh timersquo

kapigaacute lsquowhich timersquo

Numerals of limitationsaksakeacutey lsquoone onlyrsquo

duaacutegduaacutera lsquotwo onlyrsquo

taltaloacutera lsquothree onlyrsquo

apaacutetpatiacutera lsquofour onlyrsquo

litlimaacutera lsquofive onlyrsquo

aneacutemnemiacutera lsquosix onlyrsquo

piacutetpitoacutera lsquoseven onlyrsquo

waacutelwaloacutera lsquoeight onlyrsquo

siasiamiacutera lsquonine onlyrsquo

satsamploacutera lsquoten only

latlabinsakeacutey lablabinsakeacutey lsquoeleven onlyrsquo

Numeral of group distributionsakeacutey sakeacutey sansasakeacutey lsquoone by onersquo(Remaining numerals in this series are identical in form with

the distributive listed above -- sanderuaacute lsquotwo by tworsquo santaacutetatloacutelsquothree by threersquo etc)


133

Ordinal numeralsprimeacutero onaacutean ononaacute (non-past) inmonaacute (past) lsquofirstrsquo

mikaduaacute komaduaacute lsquosecondrsquomikaacutetlo komaacutetlo lsquothirdrsquomikaacutepat komaacutepat lsquofourthrsquomikalimaacute komalimaacute lsquofifthrsquomikaneacutem komaacutenem lsquosixthrsquomikapitoacute komapitoacute lsquoseventhrsquomikawaloacute komawaloacute lsquoeighthrsquomikasiaacutem komasiaacutem lsquoninthrsquoikasamploacute komasaacutemplo lsquotenthrsquoikalabinsakeacutey komalabinsakeacutey lsquoeleventhrsquo

Fractional numeralskapalduacutea lsquohalfrsquo

kakatloacute lsquothird (part)rsquo

kakaacutepat lsquofourth (part)rsquo

kakalimaacute lsquofifth (part)rsquo

kakaacutenem lsquosixth (part)rsquo

kakapitoacute lsquoseventh (part)rsquo

kakawaloacute lsquoeighth (part)rsquo

Affixes associated with numeral stems(-)CVC- where stem has phonemic shape (V)CVChellip CVV-

where shape is CVVhellip plus -(i)ra with numerals from 2 to9 indicates limitation as in saksakeacutey lsquoone onlyrsquo duagduaacutera(note additional infixation of -g) lsquotwo onlyrsquo taltalora lsquothree onlyrsquoWhere the second consonant is m and also often when it is bit will be replaced by t as in litlimaacutera lsquofive onlyrsquo latlabinduaacutelablabinduaacute lsquotwelve onlyrsquo Further examples are given above

ala- with numeral uacutena forms verb stem in the same way asalas- below


134

alas- with Spanish derived numerals from two to twelve con-verts the numeral into a verb stem affixable with nan- (past)or man- (non-past) indicating the time at which an event didor will take place eg manalaskuaacutetro lsquo(it will be) at fourrsquonanalaskuaacutetro lsquo(it was) at fourrsquo -- cf manalauacutena (it iswill be) atonersquo

ami(n)- [=aN- pi(n)-] frequentative affix with connotationsof completed action (cf mami (n)-) -- eg Pinmasiar kami metlan amidua lsquoWersquove been out twice alreadyrsquo aminpoacutelo lsquoso manytimesrsquo

-en added to numeral stems forms verbs with the conno-tation lsquomakersquo or lsquobaringrsquo the number stated --eg Aacutepaten molsquomake fourrsquo Aacutenemen da ray gomagawaacute lsquoTheyrsquoll bring sixworkersrsquo or lsquoTheyrsquoll increase the number of workers to sixrsquo

-inm- with unaacute lsquofirstrsquo indicates completed stateika- with numerals above nine indicates order eg

ikasaacutemplo lsquoninthrsquo cf mika- koma--(i)ra with numerals from two to ten and pigaacute indicates in-

dividuation eg Pigaacuteray sinaliacutew yo lsquoHow many did you buyrsquo --Analiacutew ak na anemiacutera bought sixrsquo

ka- with pigaacute forms pro-numeral in the frequentative ordinalseries -- eg Kapigaacute lsquoWhat timersquo -- Pipat lsquoThe fourth timersquo Withother numeral stems ka- Forms completative numerals -- egkatloacute lsquothat which makes threersquo kaacutepat lsquothat which makes fourrsquoie anything which brings the total up to the number indicated-- eg Walaacutey katloacute lsquoThere is a third (person or object but not inany definite sequence or order)rsquo The numerals formed with ka-also form the numerator in a fractional statement (with the frac-tional numerals formed with kaka- acting as the denominator) --eg kaduaacutey kakalimaacute lsquotwo fifthsrsquo

kaka- forms fractional numerals eg kakaacutepat lsquofourthportionrsquo kakawaloacute lsquoeighth portionrsquo Numerator is formed by nu-meral affixed with ka- (see above)

koma- forms ordinal numerals eg Binaacutesak may komaacutetlontekaacutep (was-read by-me mkr (subj) third lnk chapter) lsquoI read thethird chapterrsquo


135

mami (n)- [= maN- pi (n)-] frequentative - non-past conno-tations eg Mamiacutenlima kan mantildegalaacutey belas (five-times you lnkwill-get mkr (obj) rice) lsquo(You will) get the rice in five tripsrsquo Ma-minduaacute ak a onlaacuted Ibaacutele lsquoIrsquoll go twice to Manilarsquo

man- (C)V- to form verbs indicating lsquodivide amongrsquo lsquomakeso manyrsquo Manaaneacutem kayoacuten mangaacuteway kaacutenen lsquoMake six lots offoodrsquo lsquomake the food in six portions or lotsrsquo

mika- with numerals from two to nine indicates sequentialorder eg mikaduaacute lsquosecond in orderrsquo (cf koma- ika-)

on- with onaacute lsquofirstrsquo indicates incomplete statepi (n)- with numerals above one indicates which in a

number of occurrences the event etc spoken of took place --eg Piacutepat to lan linmaacute diaacutehellip lsquothe fourth time he came herehelliprsquoSee preceding section for examples of ordinal frequentative nu-merals with pi(n)- and the corresponding cardinal frequentativenumerals formed from maN- and aN- combined with pi (n)-in thecomplex prefixes mami (n)- ami (n)-

san- (+ (C)V- with numerals from two to nine) distributive(n becomes m before p) -- eg Sampiacutegay ataacutedom ed saacutetaysapsaacutep (how-much-each pile your from that sapsaacutep) lsquoHowmuch is a pile of sapsaacutep (fish)rsquo Abayaraacuten mi santaloacutemplon seacuten-timos lsquoWe paid thirty centavos (for) each (item)rsquo Inmalagaacuter iraacutensanliliacutema lsquoThey walked five by fiversquo Santatloacute so inalaacute mi lsquoWegot three eachrsquo Note that in numerals affixed by san- the typeof distribution indicated may be translated in English as lsquosomany eachrsquo lsquoso much eachrsquo or lsquoso many by so manyrsquo dependingon the context as the affix has the general meaning lsquoin groupsof [the number involved]rsquo

tig- with siaacutem lsquoninersquo (reduplicated to siasiaacutem) indicates dis-tribution in same way as san- above


136

IIIPHRASES AND SENTENCES

137


In the preceding chapter words were the center of at-tention and little was said about the larger grammatical unitsphrases and sentences in which the words assume their full sig-nificance A sentence may be defined briefly as a word phraseor combination of phrases which is grammatically complete andcan stand as a complete utterance A phrase is a word or groupof words constituting a unit of sentence structure relevant tothe sentence as a whole In the pages following different kindsof phrases will be identified and discussed in relation to the sen-tences in which they occur and this should serve to clarify therather vague definition just given

SENTENCE TYPESFor a start sentences may be divided into two groups -

-minor and major sentences Minor sentences are somewhatfragmentary in character and acquire their meaning from theimmediate conversational context in which they are found Theyinclude greetings exclamations interjections and similar phe-nomena Major sentences include the more substantial ele-ments of conversation and may be divided into two categoriesverbal and equational The structure of these major sentencetypes is very similar but the verbal sentences are somewhatmore complex than the purely equational (lsquoverblessrsquo) sentences(the latter as will be shown are not necessarily literallyverbless but the role of the verb is quite different in each sen-tence type)

MINOR SENTENCES

GreetingsThe following sentence contains all the elements of a normal

greeting

138

(Masantoacutes a) ngaacuterem ed sikayoacute (maacutema) (blessed lnk afternoon toyou (rsp) sir) lsquoGood afternoon sirrsquo

The adjective maaacutebig lsquogoodrsquo is sometimes substituted for mas-antoacutes or this segment of the sentence may be omitted De-pending on the time of day aacutegew lsquodayrsquo kabuasaacuten lsquomorningrsquolaacutebi lsquonightrsquo evening may replace ntildegaacuterem The singular pronounsikaacute may be used if the addressee is younger than or an intimateor subordinate of the greeter The greeting concludes with aterm of address (eg maacutema agiacute lsquoyounger person of same gener-ationrsquo etc) the personal name of the addressee (Pedro Juanetc) or the formal name (Don Pedro Mr Santos etc)

Replies to greetingsThe normal reply to the above greeting is simply

Ontaacuten met ed sikaacute (Pedro) (like that too to you Peter

Again the use of sikaacute or sikayoacute and the term of address usedif any will depend on the status of the persons involved in re-lation to each other and their degree of familiarity To this replysome variant of the question Panoacutey bilabilaacutey naacutetan ey lsquoHowrsquoslife now ehrsquo will often be added the reply to which is likely toend in a minor sentence

Sikayoacute eh (you eh) lsquoAnd how about yoursquo

Depending on the situation greetings may also take the form ofstatements like Onsempeacutet tayoacute la lsquoWersquore all herersquo which fallwithin the bounds of major sentences

FarewellsWith three notable exceptions farewells usually take the

form of statements (major sentences) like Manpaacutetaniacuter ak la lsquoIrsquollsay goodbye alreadyrsquo Benegaacuten ta ka ni siacuterin ditaacuten lsquoYoursquoll be lefthere by me yetrsquo and so on The exceptions are the replies tothe farewells Sapaacute komoacutey Dios so mantalimak sikatayoacuten aminlsquoIt is hoped that God will take care of us allrsquo Sapaacute komoacuten (an-ticipated hopefully) lsquoMay it be sorsquo and onla kamiacuteak la lsquoWeIwill go alreadyrsquo (said by a departing guest) to which the hostreplies Tiacutela la (we-inclusive-already already) lsquoWe are all goingrsquoas well as the single word farewell Adioacutes lsquoGoodbyersquo

PHRASES AND SENTENCES

139

InterjectionsInterjections are words expressing hesitation exclamation

of surprise anger and similar moods or emotions which are ina sense appended to or inserted in a statement made by thespeaker or addressee but which do not form an integral part ofthe statement concerned Some interjections also occur as re-sponses to non-linguistic events Some of the most frequentlyencountered interjections in Pangasinan are

aacute lsquoReallyrsquo lsquohuhrsquo (can also indicate hesitationpleading etc)

agaacutey lsquoGoodness mersquo lsquohow [big good etc]rsquoagiacute lsquoOuchrsquoay lsquowell helliprsquo lsquoohrsquo lsquoby the way helliprsquobaacutestos indicates disgust or extreme annoyance with

what has taken place --this is somewhat likea lsquoswear wordrsquo in English (lit lsquoindecentrsquo)

eacute lsquoOhrsquo lsquoWell thenrsquooacute lsquoOhrsquooacutey lsquoHeyrsquoSoacutes indicates annoyed or shocked surprise (a

somewhat milder term than baacutestos) it isderived from Jesus and may be intensifiedby adding the names of the other members ofthe Holy Family Soacutes Mariaacute Joseacute lsquoGoodHeavens aboversquo lsquoWhat in Godrsquos name helliprsquo

Other minor sentencesThe following expressions also constitute minor sentences

andiacute lsquoNorsquooacuten lsquoYesrsquooacuten a tuaacute lsquoYes indeedrsquosalaacutemat lsquoThanksrsquosiacutegi lsquoOKrsquo lsquoCarry onrsquo lsquoGo aheadrsquo


140

EQUATIONAL SENTENCESEquational sentences consist fundamentally of two parts a

TOPIC and a COMMENT The topic could also be called thelsquosubjectrsquo of the sentence but we will reserve the latter term forverbal sentences The comment stands first in the sentence andidentifies the topic

The comment phraseThe comment may consist of an interrogative pro-phrase an

adjective independent pronoun a phrase introduced by tagaacutepaacutera singaacute or by a locational demonstrative a noun phraseeither preceded by an article (or the personal marker si for per-sonal nouns) or unmarked It may be simple (a single phrase)complex (more than one phrase the second dependent on orin apposition to the first) or discontinuous Discontinuous com-ments consist of one of the elements listed above plus a timereason or locative phrase (unless a phrase of the same typeforms the first part of the comment) this latter part of thecomment coming after the topic

The topic phraseThe topic phrase consists of a topic marker (usually so or

may) followed by a phrase or by a part of a verbal sentence inthe latter case the comment is usually the subject of the verbalsentence placed in apposition to the remainder of the sentencefor purposes of emphasis The topic may also take the form of atopic pronoun or an appropriate demonstrative

ExamplesThe following sentences are representative of the possible

combinations described above Comment and topic phrases areeach enclosed in double square brackets

[[Ineacuter]] [[so la-en mo]] (where mkr will-be-gone by-you) lsquoWhereare you goingrsquo

[[Si-opaacute]] [[-y iacuteba-m]] (who mkr companion + your) lsquoWhorsquosyour friendrsquo


141

[[Naacutetan]] [[so panag-paraacute-an la-y biniacute]] (now mkr occasion-of-preparing already + mkr seedling) lsquoItrsquos now the time to preparethe seedlings for plantingrsquo

[[Antoacute]] [[-y ntildegaraacuten to]] (what mkr name his) lsquoWhatrsquos hisnamersquo

[[Pagaacute-ra]] [[-y i-saliacutew yo]] (how-many mkr will-be-bought byyou) lsquoHow many will you buyrsquo

[[Pigaacute]] [[ya]] (how-much this) lsquoHow much is thisrsquo

[[Beacutengeacuter]] [[imaacutey ogaacutew]] (naughty mkr boy) lsquoThe boy isnaughtyrsquo

[[Ma-iacuterap]] [[so mangi-pasaacutel na ka-iacuteba]] (difficult mkr to-teachobj servant) lsquoItrsquos hard to teach servants what to dorsquo

[[Kapigaacuten]] [[so labaacutey yo-n i-akaacuter]] (when mkr wanted by-you+ lnkr will-be-gone) lsquoWhen would you like to gorsquo

[[Walaacute]] [[-y libro-k]] (existing mkr book + my) lsquoI have abookrsquo

[[Siaacutek]] [[so aka-oleacutey ed saacute-ray to-toacuteo-n opa-aacuten]] (I mkrhappened-to-organize to the people + lnkr will be paid) lsquoI was theone who looked after the hired handsrsquo

[[Sikatoacute]] [[si Juan]] (he mkr John) lsquoHe is Johnrsquo

[[Tagaacute ineacuter]] [[oslash]] (from where he) lsquoWhere is he fromrsquo

[[Tagaacute Alamiacutenos]] [[kamiacute]] (from Alaminos we (excl)) lsquoWersquorefrom Alaminosrsquo

[[Paacutera si-opaacute]] [[may suacutelat]] (for who mkr letter) lsquoFor whomis the letterrsquo

[[Liacutebro]] [[tan]] (book that-near-you) lsquoThatrsquos a bookrsquo

[[Singaacute oleacuteg]] [[may iacutegat]] (as-if snake mkr eel) lsquoThe eel lookslike a snakersquo

[[Dimaacuted lamisaacutean]] [[imaacutey baraacuteng]] (there-on table mkr bolo)lsquoThe bolo is on the tablersquo

[[Say raacutedio]] [[so paka-pi-kabat-aacuten na baliacuteta]] (the radio mkrsource-of-information-about obj news) lsquoThe news is broadcastover the radiorsquo

[[Walaacute]] [[-y iacuteba-k]] (existing mkr companion + my) lsquoI have acompanionrsquo


142

[[Iacuteba-k]] [[so akulaacutew ko]] (companion + my mkr wife my) lsquoMywife is my companionrsquo

[[Si Juan]] [[so maeacutestro mi]] (mkr Juan mkr teacher our-excl)lsquoJuan is our teacherrsquo

[[Maraboacutek [[oslash]] diaacute]] (dusty it here) lsquoItrsquos dusty herersquo

[[Pigaacutera-n toacuteon [[so gaacutewe-en di Flora]] -n leche flan]] (how-many + lnk dishes mkr will-be-made mkr Flora lnk leche flan)lsquoHow many dishes of Leche Flan will Flora and her family makersquo

[[Si Mondong]] [[so para-asoacutel]] (mkr Mondong mkr respon-sible for fetching water) lsquoMondong is the one who gets the waterrsquo

[[Pigaacute [[ya]] ey]] (how-much this eh) lsquoHow much is thisrsquo

[[Dakeacutel [[so tooacute]] la no ka-pa-pawaacutey]] (many mkr man alreadywhen coming-out) lsquoThere will be many people when itrsquos time togorsquo

[[Ma-likeacute-likeacutet [[si Niacutelo]] ta lakiacute so inm-onaacute-n anaacutek to]] (very-happy mkr Nilo because male mkr first + lnk child his) lsquoNilo wasvery happy because his first child was a boyrsquo

(This sentence contains a second equational sentence --[[lakiacute]] [[so inmonaacuten anaacutek to]] --embedded in the comment of themain sentence)

[[Diaacute-d Pangasinaacuten ya singaacute diaacute-d saacuteray ni-ka-sika-sikmaacutet yapaacutesen ed Filipiacutenas say san-ka- tuy-tuacuteyak-aacuten ya anap-aacuten]] [[so saygariacuteta]] (here in Pangasinan lnk like here at the various lnk placein Philippines the most-widely-distributed lnk livelihood mkr thesmall-store) lsquoHere in Pangasinan just as in the rest of the Philip-pines the most widely distributed commercial activity is the sari-sari storersquo

Inverted equational sentencesOccasionally the comment-topic order is reversed This is

most commonly encountered when the topic is the subject of asentence forming part of the comment or when the comment ispreceded by an adversative conjunction (eg et)


143

Examples[[Si asawaacute-k]] [[maacuteong ya man-luacuteto-y kaacuten-en na Filipiacutenas]] (mkrspouse + my good lnk to-cook + mkr food of Philippines) lsquoMy wifeis good at cooking Filipino foodrsquo

[[Aliwaacute-n amiacuten ya Amerikaacuteno]] et [[ma-kuaacuterta]] (not + lnk alllnk American however wealthy) lsquoNot all Americans are wealthyrsquo

Negating equational sentencesExcept for equational sentences where the topic and

comment are separated by an adversative conjunction as inthe last example above the comment phrase stands first in anegative equational sentence The existential adjective walaacute isnegated by replacement with anggapoacute otherwise the first el-ement in the negative sentence will be the composite agaacute lsquoit [is]notrsquo or aliwaacute lsquonotrsquo plus the linker -n Either agaacute or aliwaacuten maybe used if the first word in the comment is an adjective or aphrase introduced by an identifying preposition (tagaacute etc) oth-erwise aliwaacuten is used The adjective maoacuteng may also be negatedwith the contracted form alimaoacuteng

Examples(The positive form follows the negative in parentheses The

boundaries of the comment and topic are indicated as in thepreceding examples only when they may be unclear to thereader)

Aliwaacuten liacutebro ya lsquoThis is not a bookrsquo (Liacutebro ya) If it is desired tosay lsquoThis is X not Yrsquo the positive and negative sentences followeach other with the topic deleted from the latter Liacutebro ya aliwaacutenkahoacuten lsquoThis is a book not a boxrsquo

[[Agaacute maoacuteng [[si asawaacutem]] ya manluacutetoy kaacutenen na Filipiacutenas]](or Aliwan maoacuteng hellip Alimaoacuteng hellip) lsquoYour wife is not good atcooking Filipino foodrsquo ([[Si asawaacutem]] [[maoacuteng ya manluacutetoy kaneacutenna Filipiacutenas]] (Topic + Comment))

Aliwaacuten sikaraacuten amiacuten so taacutewagen to lsquoNot all of them werecalled by himrsquo (Sikaraacuten amiacuten so taacutewagen to)

Agaacute singaacute yuacutero aacutemay baraacuteng lsquoThat bolo is not like a daggerrsquo(Singaacute yuacutero aacutemay baraacuteng)


144

Aliwaacuten singaacute onpapateacutey no mansaliacuteta may too lsquoThe man doesnot sound like a dying person when he speaksrsquo (Singaacute onpapateacuteyhellip)

[[Aliwaacuten maoacuteng [[oslash]] ya sinmabiacute kayoacute]] lsquoItrsquos not good that youcamersquo ([[Maoacuteng [[oslash]] ta sinmabiacute kayoacute]] -- note how in the negativesentence the particle ta lsquobecausersquo is replaced by the linker ya)

Anggapoacutey iacutebak lsquoI have no companionrsquo (Walaacutey iacutebak)

Cross reference to attributive and topic pronounsIn both equational and verbal sentences an attributive

pronoun may be followed by a phrase marked as topic andidentifying the entity represented by the pronoun (in verbalsentences this order may be reversed and the identificationalphrase precede the verb when the pronoun concerned rep-resents the phrase attributive of action --see the appropriatesection below for comment and examples) This relationship be-tween the pronoun and a topic phrase is called cross-referenceThis phenomenon is particularly common where an attributivephrase has emphatic force in which case it will almost in-variably be pronominalized and form part of a comment phrase(together with the word or phrase to which it is attributive) towhich the other phrase in the cross reference relationship func-tions as topic

Examples (attributive pronoun + appo-sitionalphrase)

Kolaaacuten to may anaacuteko (whereabouts his mkr (topic) child + my)lsquoWhere is my childrsquo

Walaacutey bigiacutes to may kamaacutetis (existing + mkr (topic) caterpillarits mkr (topic) tomato) lsquoThe tomato has caterpillars (ie has beenattacked by caterpillars)rsquo

Dakeacutel so sangaacute to may kiew (many mkr (topic) branch its mkr(topic) tree) lsquoThe tree has many branchesrsquo

Anengneacuteng to aacutek si Pedro (was-seen by-him I mkr (topic)Pedro) lsquoI was seen by Pedrorsquo (In this example emphasis is notinvolved --see section on cross-reference in verbal sentencesbelow)


145

Say gaacuteween tayoacute so onlaacuted kaabongaacuten day amimiacutega (the will-be-done by-us mkr (topic) will-go + to houses their + mkr (topic)friends) lsquoWhat wersquoll do is go to the houses of friendsrsquo

Similarly an appositive phrase may be pronominalized witha topic pronoun and be followed by another appositive phrasemarked by so (or -y) giving a sequence of attributive pronounand topic phrase in cross-reference to both pronouns

Example (attributive + topic pronoun +appositional phrase)

No ontaacuten walaacute met so betaacutentildeg da ray aga akaonlaacute dimaacuted baacutensal yo(if like-that existing also mkr (topic) share their they + mkr (topic)not happened-to-go there + to wedding your) lsquoIf thatrsquos the casetherersquos also a share for (those) who didnrsquot manage to attend yourweddingrsquo (da = ra = so agaacute akaonlaacute hellip)

A topic phrase or the subject of a verbal sentence may alsobe pronominalized and the phrase it represents be placed in ap-position following it and also marked as topic This constructionis limited to phrases which may be represented by plural or re-spect pronouns as the third person topic pronoun has no phono-logical representation except in negative constructions

Examples (topic pronoun + appositionalphrase)

Labaacutey yo kasiacute ray kaacutenen diaacute (liked by-you isnrsquot-it they + mkr(topic) food here) lsquoSo you like the food herersquo (ra = so kaacutenen dia)

Komoacutesta iray baacutelon kaacutesal ey (how-are they + mkr (topic) new+ lnk marriage eh) lsquoAnd how are the newly wedsrsquo (iraacute = so baacutelonkaacutesal)

Labaacutey ko met ya mikaacutebat iraacutey kakanaacuteyon nen Cion (liked by-me also lnk mutually-know they relatives of Cion -- iraacute is subjectof labaacutey ya mikaacutebat is linked to the latter) lsquoI would like to meetCionrsquos relativesrsquo (iraacute = so kakanaacuteyon nen Cion)

Wadiaacute ra di Naacutena Juaacutena (existing-here she (resp) mkr (resp)Nana Juana) lsquoNana Juana is herersquo (ra = di Naacutena Juaacutena)


146

VERBAL SENTENCES

Structure of verbal sentencesA verbal sentence in Pangasinan consists minimally of a

verb together with a subject although the latter may be rep-resented merely by the zero form of the third person singularpronoun Such a minimal sentence may be expanded by the ad-dition of one or more phrases belonging to grammatical cate-gories which may also appear as subjects of verbs as well asother phrases which do not fall within the range of potentialsubjects Further expansions are possible through the use ofphrases and sentences incorporated into other sentences andphrases by means of coordinating and subordinating particlesincluding the linker ya This last kind of expansion has alreadybeen discussed and illustrated in Part II in connection with theparticles concerned and will not be discussed further here In-stead attention will be concentrated on the verb phrase andthose phrases which may enter into a focus relationship withthe verb

The verb phraseThe verb phrase consists of a verb stem either unaffixed

(as in certain imperative constructions and with a number ofinherently passive stems discussed above (Part II)) or with atleast one verbal affix marked for focus and tenseaspect Thisminimal verb phrase may be expanded by the addition of certainadverbial particles (eg la lsquoalreadyrsquo ni lsquoyetrsquo) or by a linked ad-jectival phrase (eg oniroacuteng hellip ya mareeacuten (will-sit hellip lnk quiet)lsquohellip will sit quietlyrsquo) These constructions have also been illus-trated in the relevant sections of Part II

Potential subjects of the verbal sentenceThe verbal sentence may contain one or more of a number

of phrases which may be transformed into subject of such asentence in the presence of an appropriately affixed verb stemThese phrases are those representing (1) the entity to which theaction of the verb is attributed (2) the grammatical object (3)the referent goal (4) referent location (5) the beneficiary (6)the instrument and (7) the agent Only one phrase of each typemay appear with the same verb and only one of these phrases


147

may be the subject of the verbal sentence The phrase whichconstitutes the subject may be said to be in lsquofocusrsquo and theothers described as lsquounfocusedrsquo

Each phrase consists of a nucleus (usually a noun with orwithout modifying or conjoined elements) preceded by an ap-propriate marker (as explained and illustrated in Part II) Thephrase which is attributive of action may also consist simplyof an attributive pronoun while a locative demonstrative maystand for the referential phrase when this is locative in char-acter Where state or condition is involved the nucleus of thephrase may be a verb or adjective a locative referential phrasealso may contain a verb inflected for referent focus in place of anoun Independent pronouns may also appear in the nucleus ofreferential goal benefactive and agentive phrases

When any one of these phrases appears as subject howeverits nature (attributive object referential etc) is indicated bythe focus inflection on the verb stem the phrase itself is markedby a subject (topic) marker or represented by a subject (topic)pronoun

Some selected examples follow the transformation un-dergone by the various phrases is further illustrated in thesection on focus transformations below

ExamplesBinmatiacutek iraacute (did-run) lsquoThey ranrsquo (subject-pronoun iraacute representsphrase attribute of action)

Ilaloaacuten koy isabiacute da (will-be-expected (referent focus) by-me+ mkr will-be-arrived by-them) lsquoIrsquoll be expecting their arrivalrsquo(attributive pronoun ko represents attribute of actions subjectreferent is phrase consisting of another verb plus attributive pro-nouns)

Ibatiacutek nen Pedro may manoacutek (will-be-run-away-with (object-focus verb) mkr (atr) Pedro mkr (subj) chicken) lsquoPedro will runaway with the chickenrsquo (attributive phrase marked by nen gram-matical object identified by object-focus inflection i-and subjectmarker may)


148

Mangibatiacutek si Pedro na manoacutek (will-run-away-with mkr (subj)Pedro mkr (obj) chicken) lsquoPedro will run away with the chickenrsquo(Cf previous sentence Here subject marked by si is identified asattribute of action by active verbal affix mangi- while object ismarked as such by na)

Manloacuteto ak na siraacute para kiacutenen Cora lsquoIrsquoll cook the fish forCorarsquo (Attribute of action represented by subject pronoun iden-tified by active verbal affix man- object marked by na beneficiarymarked by para)

Initdaacuten to kamiacute na liacutebro (was-given-for (Benefactive focus) by-him we mkr(obj) book) lsquoHe gave us the bookrsquo (Attributive phraserepresented by attributive pronoun to beneficiary by subjectpronoun kamiacute and identified as beneficiary by verbal affix in- hellip-an object marked by na)

Panpotereacuten to ak na kieacutew da (will-be-made-to-cut (agentfocus) by-him I mkr(obj) wood their) lsquoHersquoll make me cut theirwoodrsquo (Attributive phrase represented by to agent by subjectpronoun ak and identified by verbal affix pan- hellip -en objectmarked by na)

Nakargaaacuten na bueacuter itaacutey botiacutelya (will-be-filled mkr(atr) sandmkr(subj) bottle) lsquoThe bottle will be filled with sandrsquo (Attributivephrase marked by na subject by itaacutey and identified as referent-goal by verbal affix na- hellip -an)

Dimaacuted aboacuteng so akaneacutengnengan ak ed saacutemay retraacuteto (there+ at house mkr(topic) happened-to-be-seen by-me mkr(ref) thephotograph) lsquoIt was in the house [that] I happened to see thephotographrsquo (Subject is also comment of equational sentence(see section on emphasis below) and is identified as referent (lo-cation) by verbal affix aka- -an attributive phrase is representedby attributive pronoun and referent (goal) is marked by ed)

Ipabangaacutet ko yan sayaacutew ed marikiacutet (will-be-caused-to-teachby-me this + lnk dance mkr (ref agent) maiden) lsquoIrsquoll make the girlteach this dancersquo (Attributive pronoun ko represents attrib utivephrase demonstrative subject pronoun ya lsquothisrsquo plus linked nounconstitutes subject phrase identified as object by verbal affix i-with causative prefix pa- agent is marked by ed For further noteson phrases denoting agent see section on effect of causativevoice on focus relationships below)


149

Oacutenla ka ed Ibaacutele (will-go I mkr (ref) Manila) lsquoIrsquoll go to Manilarsquo(Subject pronoun ak identified as representing phrase attributiveof action by verbal affix on- referent (location) marked by ed)

Inpananaacutep nen Pedro imaacutey liacutente ed saacutemay manoacutek lsquoPedrolooked for the chicken with the flashlightrsquo (Attributive phrasemarked by nen subject marked by imaacutey and identified as in-strument by verbal affix inpan- hellip -an referent-goal marked byed)

Kinmeacutektal may tabaacute ed beteacutel (became-congealed mkr(subj) fatmkr(refinst) cold) lsquoThe fat congealed due to the coldrsquo

Other phrasesPhrases of time reason contingency etc may also appear

within the verbal sentence Such phrases have been illustratedin Part II in connection with the particles which mark themVerbal sentences may also contain subordinate or coordinatephrases (which may themselves be verbal sentences) as hasalso been illustrated above in connection with the linker ya andother particles

ExampleSanoacute saacutebado pabaacutengaten kon onsayaacutew si Linda ta onpawiacutel diaacute(on Saturday will-be-caused-to-teach by-me + lnk will-dance mkr(subj) Linda because will-return oslash = she here) lsquoOn SaturdayIrsquoll make Linda teach dancing because shersquoll be returning herersquo(Time phrase marked by sanoacute attribute represented by kosubjectagent marked by si and identified by -en in relation tocausative pa- subordinate phrase linked by ya (-n) displacedby pronoun see section on word order below) reason phrasemarked by particle ta)

Order of phrases within the verbal sentence

Normal orderThe lsquonormalrsquo ordering of a verbal sentence is (1) verb

phrase (2) attributive phrase (3) grammatical object (4) ref-erent goal agent or instrument phrase (all these are marked inthe same way when not in focus and normally only one occursin any particular sentence) (5) referent location (6) benefi-


150

ciary (7) time phrase (8) reason or other conjoined phrase Thetime phrase is frequently placed in a position of emphasis at thehead of the sentence and linked subordinate elements in theverb phrase may be displaced by the attributive phrase espe-cially when the latter is pronominalized (See the example in theimmediately preceding section above for an illustration of bothoccurrences) Changes in word order are most commonly attrib-utable to the effects of pronominalization emphasis negationand cross-reference as well as some focus transformations

Emphasis

Subject functioning as comment phraseAn emphasized phrase which is also the subject of the verb

precedes the verb and forms the comment of an equational sen-tence the topic of which is the remainder of the verbal sen-tence marked by so

ExamplesSikatoacute so akanengneacuteng ed sikaacute (he mkr (topic) happened-to-seemkr (ref) you) lsquoHe [rsquos the one who] happened to see yoursquo (= Aka-nengneacuteng ed sikaacute)

Siaacutek so anengeacuteng nen Pedro (I mkr (topic) was-seen byPedro) lsquoI [rsquom the one who] was seen by Pedrorsquo (= Anengneacuteng toak si Pedro -- see section on pronominalization below)

Aacutemay siacutepit so inpangekaacutel nen Juaacuten ed saacutemay sakoacuteb (the tongsmkr (topic) lifted-with by Juan mkr (ref) the lid) lsquoThe tongs were[what was] used by Juan to lift the lidrsquo (= Inpangekaacutel nen Juanimaacutey siacutepit ed saacutemay sakoacuteb) (There Is a change in phrase orderhere because of the transformation of instrument to subject andshift of object to referent See section on effects of focus transfor-mations on phrase order below)

Say tinaacutepay so inpakaacuten to ed saacutemay asoacutek (the bread mkr(topic) was-fed by-him mkr (ref) the dog + my) lsquo[It was] the bread[that] he fed to my dogrsquo (= Inpakaacuten toy tinaacutepay ed saacutemay asoacutek)

Dimaacuted garden so nananapaacuten nen Pedro na manoacutek lsquo[It was] inthe garden [that] Pedro looked for the chickenrsquo (In referent focus(location) sentences of this type the subject is normally empha-sized --see notes below)


151

Saacutemay ogaacutew so pinaakiacutes to may balolakiacute (the boy mkr (topic)was-made-cry by-him mkr (topic) bachelor) lsquoThe boy was [the onewho] was made to cry by the bachelorrsquo (= Pinnakiacutes to may ogaacutewmay balolakiacute)

There is no ambiguity in the last example above as theemphasized element in non-referent focus sentences is alwaysthe subject of the sentence when the topic-comment equationalrelationship is marked by the presence of so Therefore maybalolakiacute is in apposition to the pronoun to in the emphatic sen-tence In the non-emphatic sentence in parentheses the ap-posed topic phrase (may balolakiacute) is displaced by the subjectgrammatical object In any such sequence of identically markedtopic subject phrases the first will be the subject of the sen-tence and the second will relate to the pronominalized attrib-utive phrase

Emphasis of time phraseTime phrases may be emphasized either by simply placing

them first in the sentence or with certain intransitive verbsinflected for object focus (passivity) by using the equationalconstruction illustrated above In the latter case however theemphasized time phrase may not be de-emphasized by placingit in the post-verbal position appropriate for the subject of apassive sentence

ExamplesSanoacute saacutebado onpawiacutel kayoacute diaacute (on Saturday will-return you here)lsquoYoursquoll come back on Saturdayrsquo

Diaacuted saacutebado so isipoacutet da (here + at Saturday mkr (topic) will-be-departed by-them) lsquoTheyrsquoll be going next Saturdayrsquo

Emphasis of referent of locationIn sentences where the verb is inflected for referent focus

a locative referent is placed in a potition of emphasis and theremainder of the sentence marked as topic of an equationalsentence by so whenever a goal referent is also present in thesentence whether or not the latter is also the subject This con-struction is also very common in other sentences with a locativereferent subject


152

ExamplesDimaacuted aboacuteng so anganaacuten nen Pedro may mansaacutenas (there + athouse mkr (topic) was-eaten-on mkr (atr) Pedro mkr (subj) apple)lsquo[It was] in the house [that] Pedro ate the applersquo

Diaacuted lamisaacutean so angitilakaacuten nen Juan na laacutepis (here + attable mkr (topic) was-left-on mkr (atr) Juan mkr (obj) pencil) lsquo[Itwas] on the table [that] Juan left the pencilrsquo

Shift of subject in emphatic equation-type verbal sentencesIn referent-focus sentences like the two examples above

where the locative referential phrase is in a position of em-phasis the object phrase may be treated as a goal-referentand be marked as subject or a potential goal-referent may betreated as an object phrase Thus Dimaacuted aboacuteng so anganaacuten nenPedro may mansaacutenas (may mansaacutenas goal-referentsubject) mayalso appear as Dimaacuted aboacuteng so anganaacuten nen Pedro na man-saacutenas (na mansaacutenas object phrase) while Diaacuted lamisaacutean so an-gitilakaacuten nen Juan na laacutepis may also be stated Diaacuted lamisaacutean soangitilakaacuten nen Juan may laacutepis

Much less frequently an object phrase may sometimes bemarked as the subject of an active sentence when the attrib-utive phrase (the lsquorealrsquo subject) is emphasized and the re-mainder of the sentence marked by so as for example Siaacutek somangitoloacuter may buacutero Irsquoll [be the one to] take the buacuteroacute (non-em-phatic form mangitoloacuter ak na buacutero) It seems that in sentencesof this type may acts as a kind of definite article rather than asubject marker

Displacement of focused attributive phrase by object phraseIn active sentences and when neither phrase is pronomi-

nalized an unfocused object phrase may occur directly after theverb and function in much the same way as a linked phraseadding emphasis to the comment-topic like relationship be-tween the rest of the sentence and the subject

ExamplesKinmeacuterew na kuacutearta si Araceli kiacutenen baacutei to (did-ask mkr (obj)money mkr (subj) Araceli mkr (ref) grandmother her) lsquoAraceliasked her grandmother for moneyrsquo


153

Say kuacuteanto so pasiromaacuten na pinaoacuter so baboacutey to (the said +by-him mkr (topic) cause-to-be-shaded-upon mkr (obj) nipa-thatchmkr (subj) pig his) lsquoShe says she will shelter her pig with niparoofingrsquo

Displacement of focused attributive phrase by independentdemonstrative

An independent demonstrative may sometimes occur imme-diately following the verb phrase in an active sentence to em-phasize the locative direction of the action in much the samemanner as the object phrase marks the presence of a goal in theexamples immediately above

ExampleLinmaacute diaacute may tooacuten somisiacutengil na sileacutew (did-come here mkr (subj)man + lnkr debt-collector mkr (atr) light) lsquoThe man who collectsthe light bill came herersquo

An example of such a preposed demonstrative and a fol-lowing pronoun placed before the verb phrase is given in thesection on emphasis of subject pronouns below

Emphasis of unfocused attributive phraseWhen the phrase representing the entity to which the action

of the verb is attributed is not the subject of the sentence itmay be pronominalized and follwed by an appositive phrasemarked as topic (See section on cross-reference to attributivepronouns in equational sentences above for examples) Whensuch a topic phrase is emphasized it is simply placed first in thesentence with no intervening marker

Examples

Si Pedro inpawiacutel to may liacutebio (mkr (topic) Pedro was-returned by-him mkr (subj) book) lsquoPedro returned the bookrsquo (Derived fromInpawiacutel to may liacutebro si Pedro (non-emphatic as far as the sentenceis concerned) from Inpawiacutel nen Pedro may liacutebro)

Si Pedro tanemaacuten toy poacutenti imaacutey jardiacuten nen Juan (mkr Pedrowill-be planted-at by-him + mkr (obj) banana mkr (subj) gardenof Juan) lsquoPedro will be planting Johnrsquos garden with bananasrsquo(This is the least clumsy way of stating this sentence derived fromtanemaacuten nen Pedro na poacutenti imaacutey jardiacuten nen Juan)


154

Emphasis of subject pronounExcept in negative sentences (see below) a subject pronoun

does not normally appear in a preverbal position In equationalemphatic verbal sentences the comment phrase formed fromthe subject is pronominalized by using independent pronouns(eg siaacutek so akaoleacutey lsquoIrsquom (the one who is) in chargersquo fromakaoleacutey ak) However for special effect the normal word orderof a sentence may be disarranged and a subject pronoun maybe among the elements shifted to a pre-verbal position withoutany intervening markers A similar construction may also beused when the time-interrogative kapigaacuten is followed by anactive sentence

ExamplesDimaacuted kamiacute binmaacuteleg ed Maniacutela (there we did-grow-up inManila) lsquo[It was] there we grew up in Manilarsquo (normal order Bin-maacuteleg kamiacute dimaacuted Maniacutela)

Kapigaacuten ka nanpataacutembal ed ospitaacutel lsquoWhen were you treatedin the hospitalrsquo

Preposed pronouns may also occur with emphatic linked ad-jectival phrases See section immediately following for examples

Emphasis of linked adjective in verb phraseNormally a phrase linked to the verb by ya (ie ya a or -

n) or na occurs immediately after the verb when the action-at-tributive phrase is not pronominalized or following the pronounrepresenting the latter phrase Such phrases consisting of alinker plus adjective may be emphasized by reversing the orderof the elements preceding the verb Thus verb ( + interveningpronoun) + linker + adjective becomes adjective + linker ( +intervening + pronoun) + verb This is also the normal orderwhen the adjective-like time word antes (lsquobeforersquo) appears in asubordinate sentence

ExamplesMapleacutes kan nanakaacuter lsquoYou walked stronglyrsquo (= Nanakaacuter kanmapleacutes) (Mapleacutes kan manakaacuter lsquoYou (will) walk stronglyrsquo can alsobe interpreted as an equational sentence Mapleacutes ya manakaacuter =comment ka = topic)


155

Matantaacuten a binmatiacutek si Pedro lsquoPedro ran slowlyrsquo (= Binmatiacutekna matantaacuten si Pedro)

Abayaacuteg lan ag kamiacute nannengnengaacuten (long already + lnk not+ we reciprocally-seen) lsquoItrsquos a long time since wersquove seen eachotherrsquo (This is probably the least clumsy construction for a neg-ative sentence of this kind but cf Manaacutealagar kamiacuten abayaacuteg la(waiting we + lnk long already) lsquoWersquove been waiting a long timersquo

PronominalizationWithin the verbal sentence three sets of personal pronouns

are used The subject may be represented by a subjecttopicpronoun (ak ka etc) an unfocused action-attributive phraseby an attributive pronoun (ko mo etc) and a goal-referentobject agent or benefactive phrase by the appropriate marker(para for beneficiary ed for the remainder) followed by an inde-pendent pronoun (siaacutek sikaacute etc) The use of these pronouns hasbeen discussed above in Part II and in some sections of Part IIIThe following notes deal with aspects of pronominalization notyet dealt with especially in relation to word order

Pronominalization of action-attributive phraseAn attributive pronoun representing an unfocused action-

attributive phrase occurs immediately following the verb-stemThe same position is occupied by a subject pronoun when theaction-attributive phrase is in focus except that the pronoun iraacute(ra) does not displace the particle la when the latter occurscontiguous to the verb

When a focused object is represented by a subject pronounthe preceding attributive phrase is automatically pronomi-nalized and re-stated in an appositional phrase in cross ref-erence to the attributive pronoun used The appositional phrasemay be placed in a position of emphasis before the verb or in anon-emphatic position following the object phrase

The attributive pronoun ko lsquoby mersquo is replaced by ta whenfollowed by either ka lsquoyou (sing)rsquo or kayoacute lsquoyou (pl or resp)rsquo

ExamplesItanemaacuten koy Juan na poacutenti (will-be-planted-for by-me + mkr(subj) Juan mkr (obj) banana) lsquoIrsquoll plant the banana for Juanrsquo


156

Si Pedro intamemaacuten to kay poacutenti (mkr Pedro was-planted-forby-him I + mkr (obj) banana) lsquoPedro planted the bananas for mersquo

Anengneacuteng da kamiacute iraacutemay kabkaaacutebay to (were-seen by-themwe mkr (topic) neighbors his) lsquoWe were seen by his neighborsrsquo

Liacutenma la ra dimaacuted Binmaleacutey (did-go already they there + atBimaley) lsquoTheyrsquove already gone to Binmaleyrsquo

Angaacuten ak la na bayaacutebas (did-eat I already mkr (obj) guava) lsquoIalready ate the guavarsquo

Guacutestok lay ongiacutep (wanted + by-me already + mkr (subj) will-sleep) lsquoI want to sleeprsquo

Inaacutero ta ka (loved by-me you) lsquoI love yoursquo

Pronominalization of plural attributive phrasesAttributive phrases which are not subjects of verbal sen-

tences and which are explicitly marked for plurality (eg thosecontaining nouns inflected for multiplicity) are pronominalizedwith da and re-stated in the form of an appositional phraseThe same construction may also be used when it is desired toindicate plurality without marking this explicitly in the nounphrase itself

ExamplesLabaacutey day onsayaacutew may marikiacutet (liked by-them + mkr (subj) will-dance mkr (topic = attributive) maidens) lsquoThe girls would like todancersquo (Cf Labaacutey na marikiacutet so onsayaacutew lsquoThe girl (s) would liketo dancersquo) Piacutesta day inateacutey lsquofiesta of the deadrsquo (plurality made ex-plicit -- cf piacutestay inateacutey lsquofiesta of the deadrsquo but plurality implicitonly)

Kuareacutentay siacutengko so dieacuteta day mamaeacutestros ya inspectoacuteres(forty + and five mkr(topic) per-diem their + mkr( = appositive)teachers lnk inspectors) lsquoThe teacher-inspectorsrsquo per diem will be45 pesosrsquo (Cf dieacuteta na balolakiacute or dieacutetay balolakiacute lsquo(the) youngmanrsquos per diemrsquo)

A similar construction is possible with subject topic pro-nouns furthermore a topic pronoun may appear in appositionto an attributive pronoun in a sequence attributive pronoun+ topic pronoun + appositional phrase See section on cross-


157

reference to attributive and topic pronouns in relation to dis-cussion of equational sentences (above) for examples of theselatter constructions

Pronominalization of focused phrase other thanaction-attributive

When a referent of location is subject of the sentence it maybe represented by an independent demonstrative (eg dimaacuten)without any change in the ordering of other elements in thesentence (although as was noted above such phrases are mostcommonly encountered as the comments of equation-type em-phatic verbal sentences) Other focused phrases are repre-sented by subjecttopic pronouns which occur immediately fol-lowing the pronoun representing the action-attributive phraseand displacing any intervening material again with the ex-ception of the pronoun iraacute which never precedes the particle la

ExamplesInlakoaacuten da kayoacute na oacuteto (was-sold-for by-them you mkr(obj) car)lsquoThey sold the car for yoursquo (Cf Active sentence Nanlaacuteko iray oacutetopaacuterad sikayoacute)

Tamenaacuten toy poacutenti dimaacuten (will-be-planted-at by-him +mkr(obj) banana there) lsquoHersquoll plant bananas therersquo (Cf activesentence Mantaacutenem na poacutenti dimaacuten)

Ibangaacutet mi kayoacute (will-be-taught by-us you) lsquoYoursquoll be taughtby usrsquo (cf Mangibangaacutet kamiacute ed sikayoacute)

Pronominalization of unfocused non-attributive phrasesUnfocused locative referent phrases may be pronominalized

by replacement with independent demonstratives Other non-at-tributive phrases including object phrases are pronominalizedby the appropriate independent pronoun which is preceded bythe marker para (or para + ed) for benefactive phrases andby the referent marker ed for all other phrases which comewithin the category of potential subjects The pronominalizationof these phrases does not affect the word order of the sentence


158

ExamplesMangibangaacutet si Juan ed sikatoacute (will-teach mkr (subj) John mkr(ref( = obj)) him) lsquoJohn will teach himrsquo (cf Mangibangaacutet si Juan naogaacutew (will-teach mkr John mkr(obj) child) lsquoJohn will teach thechildrsquo See section on focus transformations below for commentson substitution of referent markers for object markers)

Angipabatiacutek may aacutewel na manoacutek ed sikatoacute (caused-to-run-off-with mkr(subj) nersquover do well mkr(obj) chicken mkr(ref ( =agent)) him) lsquoThe nersquoer do well made him run off with thechickenrsquo (Another agent phrase eg ed ogaacutew (mkr(ref) boy)could substitute for ed sikatoacute)

Akitongtoacuteng may ogaacutew ed sikaraacute (did-mutually-talk mkr(subj)boy mkr(ref) them) lsquoThe boy talked with themrsquo (The referentialphrase ed sikaraacute could be replaced eg by kiacutenen Pedro lsquoto Pedrorsquoed balolakiacute lsquoto the young manrsquo)

Displacement of linked complements by subject and attributivepronouns

As the subject and attributive pronouns are placed as closeas possible to the verb stem those parts of the verb phrasewhich follow the main verb are displaced by the pronouns con-cerned Examples of this displacement as it affects linkedphrases are given below When the periphery of the verb phraseincludes particles further complications arise in the dis-placement process these are discussed in the next section Innoun phrases the noun nucleus has the same relationship tothe attributive pronoun as does a verb stem in a verb phraseand linked elements accordingly follow the attributive pronounin noun phrases also

ExamplesNibangaacutet kamiacuten maoacuteng dimaacuted Peace Corps (weretaught we + lnkgood there + at Peace Corps) lsquoWe were well taught in the PeaceCorpsrsquo (V[erb] P[hrase] = nibangaacutet ya maoacuteng)

Manaacutelagar ak na manaacutelagar lsquoIrsquoll wait and waitrsquo (VP =manaacutelagar ya manaacutelagar)


159

Aacutekin siacuterin et siacuteporen dan keacutemelen a (why then however will-be-so-soon by-them + lnk will-be-caught eh) lsquoWhy is it that theycatch [the fish] so early [in their development]rsquo (VP = siacuteporen yakeacutemelen)

Walaacute siacuterin so paacuteteyen dan baboacutey (existing then mkr(topic)will-be-killed by-them + lnk pig) lsquoSo theyrsquoll be butchering porkrsquo(VP = paacuteteyen ya baboacutey)

Sisiaacuteen ko ya inaacutero to ak ya talagaacute (is-believed by-me that(lnk)will-be-loved by-him I lnk truly) lsquoI believe he really loves mersquo((Subordinate) VP = inaacutero ya talagaacute)

Gaacutewaen koy nayariaacuten kon makasabiacute ak na masakbaacutey (will-be-done by-me + mkr(subj) can-be-accomplished by-me + lnk can-arrive I lnk early) lsquoIrsquoll do what I can so I can get there earlyrsquo((Subordinate) VP = maksabiacute na masakbaacutey)

Walaacutey iacuteba ton Pilipiacuteno (existing friend his + lnk Filipino) lsquoHehas a Filipino friendrsquo (N[oun] P[hrase] = iacuteban Pilipiacuteno + to)

Pinaltoacuteg toy kapaacutera ton tooacute (was-shot by-him + mkr(subj) co-equal his + lnk man) lsquoHe shot his fellow manrsquo (NP = kapaacuteran tooacute+ to)

Displacement of particles contiguous to verbAs has been noted on several occasions above subject and

attributive pronouns will displace particles which are normallyclosely associated with the verb stem When the particles la andni are so displaced they will occur immediately following thesubject pronoun if the subject is pronominalized or otherwisefollowing the attributive pronoun representing the action-attrib-utive phrase displacing any complement linked to the pronounconcerned

If the particle la appears contiguous to the subject-pronouniraacute the order is reversed to form the combination laacutera (la ra)The subject pronouns itaacute and itayoacute often assume the form itiacute (tiacute)in combination with la and the pronouns ka and kayo similarlymay assume the form ki

ExamplesLabaacutey ko ni nilutoacute (liked by-me still + mkr(subj) (= Oslash) rice) lsquoIrsquodstill like some ricersquo (VP = labaacutey ni)


160

Manoacuteolop itayoacute lan amiacuten no kapaacutepawil (staying-together wealready + lnk all mkr(future) severally-coming-out) lsquoWersquoll all bekeeping close together when everyonersquos coming outLetrsquos all keepclose together helliprsquo (VP = manoacuteoloacutep la Subject = itayoacute + ya amiacuten)

Pinmasiaacuter iraacuten saninaacute met lan amiduaacute (did-go-out they + lnkmother-and-child also already + lnk twice) lsquoThe mother and childhave already been out together twicersquo (VP = pinmasiaacuter + yasaninaacute + ya amiduaacute + met + la)

Nankakaacutebat laacutera (were-severally-known already + they)lsquoThey already knew one anotherrsquo (Cf Nankakaacutebat kamiacute la lsquoWe al-ready knew one anotherrsquo)

Nansiraacute tiacutelay paacutentat (did-eat we + laready mudfish) lsquoWersquovealready had mudfishrsquo (VP = nansiraacute la)

In negative sentences a displaced particle may be carriedalone or along with the pronoun which it follows into a pre-verbal position See the section on negative sentences below forexamples

Negating Verbal Sentences

Equation-type emphatic sentencesEquation-type emphatic sentences are treated like non-

verbal equational sentences for purposes of negation -- ie thenegative adjective aliwaacute is placed before the comment phrase

ExamplesAliwaacuten si Pedro so binmatiacutek (not + lnk mkr Pedro mkr(topic) did-run) lsquoIt was not Pedro [who] ranrsquo

Aliwaacuten saacutemay kiacutendi so sinliacutew to may balolakiacute ed ogaacutew paacuterasaacutemay marikiacutet (not + lnk the candy mkr (topic) did-bought by-himmkr(topic = apposition) bachelor mkr(ref) child mkr(benef) themaiden) lsquoIt was not the candy [which] the bachelor bought fromthe child for the maidenrsquo


161

Negating an anaphoric comment phraseTo express a statement of the kind lsquoit was X not Yrsquo an equa-

tional construction is frequently employed to make the positivestatement followed by a negated comment phrase for the neg-ative segment The same procedure may be used when the pos-itive sentence is not emphatic in character in which case thenegated comment represents a negative alternative choice forthe subject of the preceding full sentence

ExamplesSaacutemay ogaacutew so angaacutey maacutengga aliwaacuten saacutemay manoacutek (the boymkr(topic) did-eat + mkr(obj) mango not + lnk the chicken) lsquoItwas the boy who ate the mango not the chickenrsquo

Say maacutengga so kinaacuten to may ogaacutew aliwaacuten saacutemay manoacutek (themango mkr(topic) was-eaten by-him mkr(topic = appositional)boy not + lnk the chicken) lsquoIt was the mango which the boyate not the chickenrsquo (Ie someone else may have eaten thechicken but it was not the boy This sentence is unambiguous inPangasinan despite the ambiguity present in almost any simpleEnglish translation)

Naneacutengneng tiacutera aliwaacuten sikatoacute labaacutet (will-be-seen by-us +they not + lnk he only) lsquoWersquoll be seeing them not just himrsquo (Iehe is not the only one wersquore going to see)

Aneacutengneng da tayoacute aliwaacuten si Pedro (were-seen by-them wenot + lnk mkr Pedro) lsquoThey saw us not Pedrorsquo (Ie they did notsee Pedro)

Other verbal sentencesVerbal sentences other than those re-structured into a

comment-topic dichotomy are negated by the use of the neg-ative particle ag which may be prefixed to attributive andsubject pronouns verb stems and certain particles

Negation of verb action-attributive or subjectWhen the action-attributive phrase is not pronominalized

the sentence may be negated by the prefixation of ag to the verbstem or in the case of a third-person subject in an active sen-tence or third person action-attributive phrase in other verbalsentences by the use of ag- with the appropriate subject or at-


162

tributive pronoun standing before the verb in cross-reference toan appositive phrase representing the subject or action-attrib-utive phrses as the case may be

When the verb is followed by an attributive andor subjectpronoun the pronouns are preceded by ag- and moved to apre-verbal position together with whatever particles they mayhave displaced from the verb phrase The particle la is alwaysreplaced by ni in such circumstances except in negative im-perative constructions Csee appropriate section below) Whena subject pronoun has a linked complement attached to it andbelonging to the phrase it represents however it may be leftbehind in the transfer

ExamplesAgko ra taacutewagen (not + by-me they will-be-called) lsquoI wonrsquot callthemrsquo (From Taacutewagen do ra)

Agto tinaacutewag iraacuten amiacuten diaacute (not + by-him were-called they +lnk all here) lsquoHe did not call them all herersquo (Subject = iraacuten amiacutenie pronoun plus linked complement)

Agda tataacutewagen si Pedro lsquoThey are not calling Pedrorsquo (FromTataacutewagen da si Pedro)

Agaacutek ni mangawawaacute (not + by-me yet will-marry) lsquoIrsquom notgetting married yetrsquo (Cf Mangasawaacute ak la lsquoIrsquoll be gettingmarried (already)rsquo)

Agantaacute nen Pedro va wadiaacute ka lsquoPedro doesnrsquot know thatyoursquore here (from Antaacute nen Pedro ya wadiaacute ka)rsquo

Agko antaacute ya wadiaacute ka lsquoI didnrsquot know you were herersquo (Antaacutekya wadiaacute ka)

Agkamiacute onpawiacutel diaacute lsquoWe wonrsquot come back herersquo (OnpawiacutelKamiacute diaacute)

Agda guacutesto so onlangoacutey iraacutemay mamarikiacutet (not + by-themwanted mkr(topic) will-swim mkr(topic = appositive) maidens)lsquoThe girls do not want to swimrsquo (from Guacutesto day onlangoacutey iraacutemaymamarikiacutet or alternatively derived directly from the simplerGuacutesto day mamarikiacutet so onlangoacutey (where da + so results from thepronominalization and re-statement of na + mamarikiacutet)

Agaacute napasoacuteot ya onpawaacutey si Seacutelya lsquoCelia cannot be forced tocome outrsquo (Napasoacuteot ya onpawaacutey si Seacutelya)


163

Agiraacute makasompaacutel na aacuteral da ray anaacuteko (not + they able-to-finish mkr(obj) study their they + mkr (topic) child + my) lsquoMychildren cannot finish their studiesrsquo (Makasompaacutel iraacutemay anaacutekona aacuteral da)

Negation of non-equational emphatic sentencesA non-equational emphatic sentence is negated by placing

the sequence of negative particle pronouns and displaced par-ticles between the emphasized subject phrase and the verb

ExamplesSi Pedro agto baacutesaen may liacutebrom lsquoPedro didnrsquot read your bookrsquo(from Si Pedro baacutesaen toy liacutebrom)

Si Juan agto ak ni intanemaacuten na poacutenti (mkr Juan not + by-nimI yet did-plant-for mkr(obj) banana) lsquoJohn has not yet planted thebanana for mersquo (Si Juan intanemaacuten to ak la na poacutenti)

Negation of imperative sentencesNegation of an imperative sentence involves the transfor-

mation of the original sentence into a declarative sentenceinflected for continuous (real incomplete) aspect Where thepositive imperative sentence is already declarative in form (seesection on imperative sentences below) the only change affect-ing the verb is that from unreal to real aspect and the optionaladdition of la lsquoalreadyrsquo to the verb phrase Where an uninflectedverb stem is present in the positive sentence the verb in thenegative sentence will be inflected with the active or passiveaffix (for active and passive uninflected stems respectively) ap-propriate to a declarative sentence

ExamplesAgka oneeleacutek (not + you laughing) lsquoDonrsquot laughrsquo (Positive imper-ative = Eleacutek ka)

Agkayoacute oniiroacuteng lsquoDonrsquot sitrsquo (Iroacuteng kayoacute)

Agmoacute tataacutewagen iraacuten amiacuten diaacute (not + by-you being-calledthey + lnk all here) lsquoDonrsquot call them all herersquo (Taacutewag mo iraacutenamiacuten diaacute)


164

Agmoacute saacutesamaren si Pedro lsquoDonrsquot pick Pedro uprsquo (Samaacuter mosi Pedro)

Agyoacute ra ibabagaacute lsquoDonrsquot invite themrsquo (Ibagaacute yo iraacute)

Agmoacute la piacutelien lsquoDonrsquot select [anything]rsquo (Pilieacuten mo so gabaacuteymo lsquoPick what you would likersquo)

Negation of particles in the verb phraseIn the absence of an intervening pronoun the particles ni

lsquoyetrsquo and met lsquoalsorsquo when contiguous to the verb may be trans-ferred to the pre-verbal position and suffixed to the negativeparticle ag

When it occurs in sentence final position the interrogativeparticle ta may be preceded by ag the resulting combinationhas the same force as English tag-questions like lsquoisnrsquot itrsquolsquodidnrsquot yoursquo lsquowonrsquot hersquo etc

The combination agniacute like its English counterpart lsquonot yetrsquomay also stand as an anaphoric sentence in response to an ap-propriate question

ExamplesAgniacute ginmapoacutey oraacuten (not + yet did-begin + mkr (subj) rain) lsquoTherain has not yet startedrsquo

Lantiacute baacutelet ta agmeacutet nayaacuterin taynanaacuten koy gawaacutek ya agniacuteasompaacutel (indeed but because not + also can + lnkr will-be-leftby-me + mkr(subj) work + my lnk not + yet was-completed) lsquoYesbut Irsquom also unable to leave my work which is still unfinishedrsquo

Pineacutekpek mo may dueacuteg ko agtaacute (was-beaten by-youmkr(subj) carabao my not + interrogative) lsquoYou beat my carabaodidnrsquot yoursquo

Sinmabiacute la si Pedro Agniacute lsquoHas Pedro arrived Not yetrsquo

Anaphoric negative action-attributive phrasesAn unfocused action-attributive phrase may form an

anaphoric alternative to the corresponding phrase in the mainsentence in much the same way as anaphoric negative commentphrases in equation-type emphatic verbal sentences The


165

structure of the anaphoric negative phrase in non-active sen-tences is adversative or other conjunction + ag + alternativepronoun + appositive phrase

ExamplesGuacutesto toy mangaacutelaw may balolakiacute baacutelet agtoacute may marikiacutet (likedby-him + mkr(subj) will-play mkr(topic = appositive) bachelor butnot + by-her mkr (appositve) maiden) lsquoThe young man wanted toplay but the young lady didnrsquotrsquo

Binaacutesak imaacutey liacutebro ta agtoacute si Juaacuten (was-read + by-memkr(subj) book because not + by-him mkr Juan) lsquoI read the bookbecause Juan didnrsquotrsquo

Teacutepeten ko ra no agtoacute may poliacutes (will-be-asked by-me they ifnot + by-him mkr(appositive) policeman) lsquoIrsquoll ask them if the po-liceman doesnrsquotrsquo

FocusIt was pointed out earlier in this discussion of verbal sen-

tences that a special relationship exists between the verb andthe phrase which forms the subject of the sentence the latterwas said to be lsquoin focusrsquo to the verb identified as subject by themarker associated with it or by the pronoun representing it andidentified as a particular kind of phrase (object referent etc) bythe focus-marker affix in the verb stem

In Pangasinan there are six focus categories -- active wherethe phrase representing the entity to which the action is at-tributed (if any) is in focus passive where the grammaticalobject (if any) is in focus (see notes on relationship of gram-matical to logical categories below for an explanation of qual-ifications like lsquoif anyrsquo in these descriptions) referential wherethe grammatical referent -- source location accessory or entityon which the action is performed -- is in focus instrumentalwhere the focus of attention is on the means by or throughwhich the action is accomplished benefactive where thebeneficiary of the action is represented by the phrase in focusand agentive where the performer of the action is representedby the subject phrase and the instigator by the action-attrib-utive phrase In the causative voice these relationships aresomewhat complicated and for this reason causative sentencesare discussed separately below


166

The affixed signalling focus relationships have been listedand illustrated in the section on verbs in Part II and are againlisted in Appendix III under the heading of the fous-types out-lined above

Focus transformationsAlmost any sentence in one focus may be transformed into a

different focus without changing its component phrases exceptinsofar as order in the sentence (the subject phrase often occursimmediately after the attributive phrase) the verbal affix andthe markers on the phrases affected by a change in status areconcerned Not all verbs however may appear with represen-tatives of each type of focus affix --ie some verbs do not takepassive affixes others may not appear with referential affixesetc --and probably no verb is compatible with all verbal affixesThe verb taneacutem lsquoplantrsquo is however one of many verbs whichmay appear with some members of each of the major focustypes and is used in the examples below to illustrate the trans-formations a single sentence may undergo from one focus to an-other

The basic components of the sample sentences are the verb(taneacutem lsquoplantrsquo) plus various affixes forming the verb phrasea phrase attributive of action (nen Pedro lsquoby Pedrorsquo) an objectphrase (na poacutenti lsquothe bananarsquo) a referent phrase (dimaacutedtanaacutemanrsquo in the orchardrsquo) an instrumental phrase (ed limaacute tolsquowith his handsrsquo) a benefactive phrase (para kiacutenen Ceacutelia lsquoforCeliarsquo) and an agentive phrase (ed agiacute to lsquo(through) his youngerbrotherrsquo If all these appeared together they would produce asentence meaning eg lsquoPedro makes his younger brother plantthe banana with his hands in the garden for Celiarsquo Such asentence is however no more elegant in Pangasinan than itis in English and usually only three or four such componentswill appear in any given sentence at the same time The ex-amples which follow therefore incorporate only as many ofthese phrases into each sentence as is possible without pro-ducing unnatural or forced sequences while at the same timeillustrating each in several situations in different sentences

(1) Active -- Mantaacutenem si Pedro na poacutenti dimaacuted tanaacutemampaacutera kiacutenen Celia lsquoPedro will plant the banana in the orchard forCeliarsquo

man-taacutenem si Pedro


167

active-unreal + lsquoplantrsquo subjectaction attrna poacutenti dimaacuted tanaacuteman paacutera kiacutenen Ceacuteliaobject referent beneficiary

(2) Passive -- Intaneacutem nen Pedro may poacutenti ed limaacute to lsquoPedrowill plant the banana with his handsrsquo

i-taneacutem nen Pedro may poacutentipassive-unreal attributive subjected limaacute toinstrument

(3) Referent focus -- Si Pedro tanemaacuten toy poacutenti imaacuteytanaacuteman para kiacutenen Ceacutelia lsquoPedro will plant the banana in thegarden for Celiarsquo

si Pedro tanem-aacutenapposed action-attr referential-unrealto -y poacutenti imaacutey tanaacutemanattributive(pornoun) object subjectpara kiacutenen Ceacuteliabeneficiary

(4) Instrumental focus -- Pantaneacutem nen Pedro imaacutey limaacute toed saacuteray poacutenti lsquoPedro will plant the banana with his handsrsquo(note the shift of the object phrase to referential status)

pan-taneacutem nen Pedro imaacutey limaacute toinstrumental-unreal attributive subjected saacuteray poacutentireferent(goal)

(5) Benefactive focus -- Itanemaacuten nen Pedro si Ceacutelia na poacutentidimaacuted tanaacuteman lsquoPedro will plant the banana in the garden forCeliarsquo

i-tanem-an nen Pedro si Cersquoliabenefactive-unreal attributive subjectna poacutenti dimaacuted tanaacutemanobject referent

(6) Agent focus -- pantaacutenemen nen Juan may agiacute to na poacutentipaacutera kiacutenen Celia lsquoJohn will have his younger brother plant thebanana for Celiarsquo


168

pan-taacutenem-en nen Juan may agiacute toagentive-unreal attributive subjectna poacutenti paacutera kiacutenen Ceacuteliaobject beneficiary

(7) Active causative -- Manpataneacutem si Juan na poacutenti ed agiacuteto lsquoJohn will cause his younger brother to plant the bananarsquo

man-pa-taneacutem si Juan na poacutentiactive-unreal + causative subject objected agiacute toagent

Relationship of grammatical to logical categories

changes in status of focused and unfocused phrasesIt should be clearly noted that there is a considerable degree

of overlap between grammatical categories when they are com-pared with logical categories (real or imagined) abstracted fromthe analysis of a real situation Thus it may be asserted thatwhen an action is performed by someone on a given goal wehave two logical categories -actor and goal -involved in theaction Grammatically these two categories are often repre-sented in Pangasinan by action-attributive and object phrasesrespectively This is by no means always the case however atleast on the surface

Take for example the English sentences lsquoI hit the carabaorsquoand lsquoI cleaned the floorrsquo Both seem to involve an actor anaction and a goal and can in fact be represented in Pangasinanby a verb (action) action-attributive phrase (actor) and objectphrase (goal) in an active sentence -- Nanpeacutekpek ak na dueacutegNanliacutenis ak na daacutetal However if one wishes to shift the at-tention from the actor to the recipient of the action the ap-propriate transformations are active to passive in the case ofthe first sentence -- pineacutekpek ko may dueacuteg but active to ref-erential in the case of the second - Liniacutenisaacuten koy daacutetal Whenthe goal of the action becomes the subject of a sentence itseems to be regarded as that on which the action is performedin the case of verbs like liacutenis and that to which the action isdone where verbs like peacutekpek are concerned Other verbs whichfollow the pattern of liacutenis are asiacutengger lsquoapproachrsquo lukaacutes lsquoopenrsquopiacutenta lsquopaintrsquo kapuacutet lsquoshutrsquo paniacutes lsquosweeprsquo lampaacuteso lsquoscrubrsquo


169

Normally or ideally there is a progression of focus changeslike those illustrated in the set of examples with taneacutem abovewhere each phrase maintains the same character when not infocus --ie the action-attributive phrase becomes the subject ofan active sentence and appears as an attributive phrase else-where the object of an active sentence becomes the subject of areferential focus sentence and is marked as referent elsewhereand so on While this is a general rule there is a considerableamount of overlap between the categories of object and referentin relationship to focus transformations with many verbs andeven within the same focus the distinction is sometimes unclearas has been illustrated above in relation to shift of subject inequation-type emphatic verbal sentences

An example of what was an object phrase everywhere elsesuddenly being marked as a referent is found in theinstrumental-focus transformation (4) in the sentences withtaneacutem above An example of a similar alternation without anychange in focus in the verb itself may be seen in the sentencessiaacutek so angaacuten na mansaacutenas lsquoI ate the applersquo and Saacutemay manoacutekso angaacuten ed mansaacutehas lsquoThe chicken ate the applersquo -- but in thiscase with a small but relevant difference --the chickenrsquos eatingis more eating at the apple rather than consuming it directlyHowever both sentences would become simple passives withthe referent and object phrases treated alike if it were desiredto shift attention from the eater to the eaten Mansaacutenas so kinaacutento may manoacutek lsquoThe apple was eaten by the chickenrsquo Mansaacutenasso kinaacuten ko lsquoThe apple was eaten by mersquo

In the case of personal nouns or pronominal elements ap-pearing as unfocused objects the shift from object to referentas far as formal markings go is automatic -- compare Man-gibangaacutet si Juan na ogaacutew lsquoJohn will teach the boyrsquo Man-gibangaacutet si Juan ed siaacutek lsquoJohn will teach mersquo Mangibangaacutet siJuan kiacutenen Maria lsquoJohn will teach Mariarsquo This may be inter-preted as indicating that referential markers are also personalobject markers or that in view of the overlapping of referentand object as grammatical categories for the lsquologicalrsquo categoryof goal phrases containing personal or pronominal nuclei aresimply treated as referents rather than objects when theyappear as logical goals in non-passive sentences

The topic of an instrument-focus sentence is also difficultto determine by means of a prior assumption With verbs liketaneacutem it may be any body-part used in the action but most


170

verbs with the sense lsquoto kickrsquo will rarely if ever be found withsaliacute lsquofootrsquo as focused instrument for the simple reason that thisinformation is redundant Kicking is of its nature done withfeet A verb like alaacute lsquogetrsquo may have a more conventional lsquoin-strumentrsquo as the topic of an instrument focus sentence Banuiacutetso inpangalaacute toy siraacute lsquoA fishhook is what he caught the fishwithrsquo The instrument with a verb like kalaacuteb lsquoclimbrsquo is more likean agent Pangalaacuteb nen Pedro may lakiacute ed nioacuteg lsquoPedro will makethe boy climb the coconutrsquo (note also the goal (nioacuteg) as referentin this last sentence)

It is therefore wise to avoid assuming that a phrase ina given category in one sentence will automatically reappearin the same grammatical category if the focus of the verb isshifted It is also necessary to learn for each of the verbs con-cerned what kinds of phrases can appear in certain focus trans-formations especially as subjects of passive referential andinstrumental sentences where what might be expected fromthe point of view of a logician or a speaker of another languagedoes not always happen in practice in actual speech

Transitivity actors objects and goalsIn the brief note on transitivity in relation to the character-

istics of verbs (Part II above) it was stated that transitivity de-notes the involvement of an object or goal of the action andthat passive affixes are all explicitly transitive This of courseis somewhat oversimplifying matters and it is now possible togive a more accurate statement of the matter Transitivity in-volves the movement of the action from an actor to a goal bothof which are logical or situational rather than grammatical cat-egories and passive affixes are explicitly transitive only whenthe verb concerned is followed by an explicitly stated subject

Thus it is possible to have active sentences with no actorand passive sentences with no goal as well as goals which arenot objects and objects which are not goals For this reasonthe terms lsquoactor focusrsquo and lsquoobject focusrsquo or lsquogoal focusrsquo havebeen deliberately avoided in this grammar although they areused by some writers in describing Philippine languages In anactive sentence the grammatical object is almost always alsoa logical goal and a stated subject an actor When this sameobject is the subject of a passive or referent-focus sentence therelationship of transitivity remains Of the active affixes on-ap-pears most frequently in intransitive constructions sometimes


171

with an actor but no object sometimes with neither actor norobject Even a stated subject with verbs inflected with on- (orthe past form -inm-) may be very doubtfully actor-like in naturealthough grammatically it is the entity to which the action is at-tributed (see examples below) Of the passive affixes i- (pastform in-) appears with many verbs of motion etc to form goal-less passives (the active counterparts are inflected with on- -inm-) Instrumental focus verbs especially in non-emphaticconstructions generally require the marking of the goal as ref-erent even where it is marked as object in other focus transfor-mations of the same sentence

ExamplesOnoraacuten lsquoIt will rainrsquo (active verb intransitive)

Onsabiacute iraacute lsquoThey will arriversquo (active verb + subject = actorintransitive)

Oninoacutem ak na danuacutem lsquoI will drink some waterrsquo (Active verb+ subject = actor + object = goal transitive)

Onbaacuteleg kamiacute ed Manila lsquoWe will return to Manilarsquo (Activeverb + subject = actor + referent intransitive)

Onbungaacute may kieacutew lsquoThe tree will bear fruitrsquo (Active verb +subject (is the tree an actor) intransitive)

( Ilaloaacuten mi so) isabiacute da lsquoWe will be expecting them to arriversquo(passive verb + attributive phrase (actor) intransitive)

(Sanoacute Saacutebado so) isipoacutet to lsquoShe will go (on Saturday)rsquo (passiveverb + attributive phrase (actor) intransitive)

Guacutestok so manbiacutelay ya andokeacutey lsquoI want to live longrsquo (passiveverb + attributive phrase (actor) + subject (focused object notgoal) intransitive)

Lampaacutesoan toy daacutetal lsquoHe will scrub the floorrsquo (referent-focusverb + attributive phrase (actor) + subject (referentgoal) tran-sitive)

Iteacuter da may liacutebro lsquoTheyrsquoll give me the bookrsquo (passive verb +attributive phrase (actor) + subject (goal) transitive)

Initdaacuten da kamiacute na liacutebro lsquoThey gave us the bookrsquo (Benefactiveverb + attributive phrase (actor) + object (goal) transitive)


172

Manaacuteyam kamiacute ed Ibaacutele lsquoWe will live in Manilarsquo (active verb+ subject (actor) + referent (not goal) intranistive)

Inpangalaacute tayoacute may bislaacutek ed apaacuteyas lsquoWe got the papayaswith the stickrsquo (instrumental focus verb + attributive phrase(actor) + subject (instrumental) + referent (goal) transitive)

Sets of focus affixesAlthough there is no one-to-one relationship between affixes

in the various focus transformations there are a number oflsquosetsrsquo of verbal and nominaliz-ing affixes which can be predictedif it is known which active indicative affix is associated withthe verb concerned These sets are listed below It should beremembered however that other affixes not in the list mayalso occur with verb stems associated with the members ofany given set The benefactive affixes i- hellip -an (incomplete) in-hellip -an (complete) and agentive affixes pan- hellip -en pinan- arecommon to all sets

Focus Set I Set IIActive on- man-

-inm- nan-Passive i- i- -en

in- in- -in-Referential -an(general) -in hellip - anReferential pan- hellip - an(locationa) inpan- hellip -anInstrumental pan-

inpan-Nominalizing manag- manag-affixes panag- panag-Set IV Set IIImaN- mangi-aN- angi-i- -en i-in- -in- in--an mangi- hellip -an-in- hellip -an angi- hellip -anpaN- hellip -an pangi- hellip -aninpaN- hellip -an inpangi- hellip -anpaN- panaN-inpan- inpangi-


173

manaN- manangi-pangi- panangi-

Focus of verbs used in lsquoinfinitiversquo senseThere is no category of affix in Pangasinan which approx-

imates the English infinitive particle lsquotorsquo (eg in lsquoto walkrsquo lsquotocookrsquo etc) and the infinitive affixes of Spanish Latin Greekand other Indo-European languages Instead the kind ofmeaning expressed in English by an infinitive verb is expressedin Pangasinan by a verb inflected for unreal aspect and usuallyactive passive or instrumental focus and appearing as a subor-dinate sentence either linked to the verb to which it relates Theaffix pan- may also appear with verb stems independent of otherverbs with the sense lsquothe time to --rsquo or lsquoinstrument to --withrsquo

ExamplesGabaacutey kon luacutetoen (wanted by-me + lnk will-be-cooked) lsquoI want tocook itrsquo (definite goal)

Gabaacutey kon manluacuteto (wanted by-me + lnk will-cook) lsquoI want tocookrsquo (indefinite goal)

Labaacutey to mangaacuten na puacuteto (wanted by-him + lnk will-eatmkr(obj) rice-cake) lsquoHe wants to eat the rice cakersquo

Labaacutey to neacutengnengen may retraacuteto (wanted by-him + lnk will-be-seen mkr(subj) picture) lsquoHe wants to see the picturersquo

Gabaacutey dan manlampaacuteso ka na daacutetal (wanted by-them + lnkwill-scrub you mkr(obj] floor) lsquoThey want you to scrub the floorrsquo

Ilaacuteloaacuten mi so isabiacute yo (will-be-expected by-us mkr(subref-erent) will-be-arrived by-you) lsquoWersquoll be expecting you to arriversquo

Guacutestok so oninoacutem (liked + by-me mkr(subject object) will-drink) lsquoIrsquod like to drinkrsquo

Agtoacute guacutesto so milaacuteban ed sika (not + by-him likedmkr(subjectobject) will-mutually-fight mkr(ref) you) lsquoHe doesnrsquotwant to fight with yoursquo

Naacutetan so maoacuteng a pantiacutepon na belaacutes (now mkr(topic) good lnk(time)-to-gather mkr(obj) rice) lsquoNow is a good time to gather thericersquo


174

Makapataktakoacutet so laacutebin panaacutekar ed takeacutel (very-dangerousmkr(topic) night + lnk (time)-to-walk mkr(ref) forest) lsquoItrsquos verydangerous to walk in the forest at nightrsquo

Alaacutem yay laacutepis ko ta sikatoacutey pansuacutelat mo (be-taken + by-youthis pencil my because it + mkr (topic) will-be-written-with by-you) lsquoTake this pencil so you can write with itrsquo (ie lsquoand use it towrite withrsquo)

Focus relationships between questions and replies and in verbsequences

When several sentences occur in sequence whether as self-contained units in a single utterance or in a relationship ofmain and subordinate clauses there is no requirement that theverbs concerned should be inflected for the same focus or fordifferent focuses The focus chosen depends partly upon whatelement in each sentence the speaker wishes to make the centerof attention and partly upon which focus inflections are appro-priate in the given circumstances (it might not be a good choicefor example to use a passive verb to indicate an indefinite goal)

There is somewhat less freedom of choice however in therelationship between certain questions and the form of an ap-propriate reply when both question and reply involve verbalsentences Generally speaking a reply which does not involvean uninflected passive verb (eg gabaacutey lsquolikedrsquo) is likely to beactive in form even when the question was phrased with apassive or other non-active focus marked in the verb Certainquestions involving interrogative pro-phrases however seem todemand a specific structure in the reply Some of the mostcommonly encountered of these question types are illustratedbelow

(1) Question ineacuter + so + locative-referential verb + attrib-utive phrase (+ object phrase)

Answer Active verb + subject ( = attributive phrase) (+ object phrase) + locative phrase

Eg Ineacuter so nangawaaacuten moy kaacutenen Nangawaacute ak na kaacutenendimaacuted kosiacutena (Where mkr(topic) was-made-at by-you +mkr(obj) food Did-make I mkr(obj) food there + at kitchen)lsquoWhere did you prepare the food I prepared the food in thekitchenrsquo (An abbreviated reply -- Dimaacuted kosiacutena lsquoIn the kitchenrsquo


175

would of course be an acceptable alternative to the full sen-tence It is the function of the examples however to show whatform a full sentence answer should take where one is given)Ineacuter so panaacutenapaacuten mo -- Mananaacutep ak ed Ibaacutele (where mkr(topic)will-be-worked-at by-you --will-work I mkr(ref) Manila) lsquoWherewill you be making your living Irsquoll be working in Manilarsquo

(2) Question Kapigaacuten + so + passive or instrumental ( =time) focus verb + attributive phrase ( + object phrase)

Answer active verb + subject ( = attributive phrase) (+ object phrase) + time phrase

Eg Kapigaacuten so pansuacutelat day baliacuteta Mansuacutelat iraacute na baliacutetano kabuasaacuten (When mkr(topic) will-be-written by-them +mkr(obj) report Will-write they mkr(obj) report time-par-ticle(future) morning) lsquoWhen will they be writing the reportTheyrsquoll write the report in the morningrsquo Kapigaacutey insabiacutemSinmabiacute ak nen siacutembay ngaacuterem (When + mkr(topic) was-arrived+ by-you Did-arrive I time-particle(past) Sunday + lnk af-ternoon)

(3) Question Pigaacute ( + -ra) + so + passive verbs + attrib-utive phrase

Answer Active verb + subject ( = attributive phrase) +object

Eg Pigaacuteray sinaliacutew yo Analiacutew ak na duaacutera (Haw many-in-dividual + mkr(topic) were-bought by-you --Did-buy I mkr(obj)two-individual) lsquoHow many did you buy --I bought tworsquo

(4) Question San- + pigaacute + so + passive or instrumentalfocus verb + attributive phrase (+ ed sakeacutey)

Answer referent-focus verb potential aspect + attrib-utive phrase + distributive numeral or money noun (iesan- + numeral or maN- + money noun)

Eg Sampipiacutegay inpanbaacuteyar yod sakeacutey Abayaraacuten mimasiacuteno (How-much-each + mkr (topic) was -paid-with by-you +mkr(ref) one Was-able-to-be-paid by-us peso-each) lsquoHow muchdid you pay for each one We paid a peso eachrsquo


176

(5) Question Antoacute + so + instrumental focus verb + attrib-utive phrase + object

Eg Antoacutey inpangaacuten moy tinaacutepay Mantikiacutelya so inpangaacutenkoy tinaacutepay (What + mkr(topic) was-eaten-with by-you +mkr(obj) bread Butter mkr(topic) was-eaten-with by-me +mkr(obj) bread) lsquoWhat did you eat your bread with I ate mybread with butterrsquo (ie lsquoI used butter for eating with mybreadrsquo)

Imperative sentencesImperative sentences are of two kinds those with verbs

marked for imperative mood by absence of other affixation andthose phrased as declarative sentences (ie with verbs markedfor moods other than imperative) In both cases the verbs maybe either active or passive in focus declarative imperatives mayalso be marked for benefactive and referent focus Negative im-perative sentences are always declarative See the section onnegation of imperative sentences above for examples

Modal imperativesModal imperatives have the structure unaffixed verb-stem +

second person pronoun ( + object) By unaffixed verb stem ismeant a verb stem free of affixes with modal implications Thepronoun will be a subject pronoun if the verb stem has activeforce and an attributive pronoun when the verb has passiveforce in the latter case the object phrase will be marked assubject of the sentence

Active modal imperatives are generally intransitive whiletransitivity is generally implicit in modal imperatives withpassive force

Commonly encountered active modal imperative forms arealagaacuter lsquowaitrsquo ogiacutep lsquosleeprsquo looacuteb lsquocome inrsquo siacutengger lsquoapproachrsquosimpeacutet lsquogo homersquo loksoacute lsquojumprsquo alageacutey lsquostandrsquo la lsquogo comersquosayaacutew lsquodancersquo

Commonly encountered passive modal imperatives are peacutetlsquoaskrsquo taacutewag lsquocallrsquo pasiaacuter lsquopick up on the wayrsquo lsquostop by forrsquodengeacutel lsquolisten torsquo piliacute lsquopickrsquo alaacute lsquogetrsquo nengneacuteng lsquolook atrsquo sabiacute(in a special sense --see example and note below) lsquoarrive ex-pectedlyrsquo Verbs affixed only for causative voice are also


177

commonly used as passive imperatives eg pakaacuten (cause-to-eat) lsquofeedrsquo painoacutem (cause-to drink) lsquogive (something) to drinkrsquopasiroacutem (cause-to-shelter) lsquoshade shelterrsquo

ExamplesTaacutewag mo iraacute (be-called by-you they) lsquoCall themrsquo

Nengneacuteng yo so inkagawaacute to (be-looked-at by-you mkr(subj)what-was-done by-him) lsquoLook at what hersquos donersquo

Piliacutem so guacutestom lsquoChoose what you likersquo

Looacuteb kayoacute (come-in you) lsquoCome insidersquo

Alagaacuter ka diaacute lsquoWait herersquo

La ka la (go you already) lsquoGo nowrsquo

Ogiacutep ka la (sleep you already) lsquoGo to sleep nowrsquo

Taacutewag ka baacutei ed sikaraacute (call you lsquograndmotherrsquo to her) lsquoCallher lsquograndmotherrsquo (cf transitive use of taacutewag in the first exampleabove)

Sabiacutem ira (arrived-expectedly + by-you they) lsquoYou should bethere theyrsquore expecting you to arriversquo (This quasi-imperative sen-tence has both imperative and declarative connotations as indi-cated by the literal translation and the paraphrase following it)

Declarative imperativesImperative sentences cast in the form of passive declarative

sentences (with i- or -en affixed to the verb stem) are commonwhen an object or goal is definitely indicated and in giving in-structions regarding the performance of particular tasks againwith a definite goal for the action Polite requests to eat comego etc are likely to be phrased as active declarative sentencesWhere manner is involved a verb may be formed from an ad-jective root suffixed for referent focus with -an with an activesentence constituting the subject of the verb so formed Thedeclarative imperative form of some transitive verbs is alsoformed with -an the subject being the goal of the action Whena beneficiary is directly involved requests are usually made inthe form of benefactive focus sentences In addition to secondperson pronouns the inclusive pronouns ti itiacute ta tayoacute itaacute itayoacutemay also appear in non-modal imperative sentences


178

Some verb stems forming declarative imperatives with thepassive prefix i- are bagaacute lsquoinvite askrsquo iteacuter lsquogiversquo saacuteli lsquotryrsquolukaacutes lsquoclosersquo saraacute lsquoshutrsquo siacutepor lsquostart withrsquo siacutenger lsquotiersquo lotoacutersquocook (direct command)rsquo parongoacute lsquoserversquo taleacutem lsquosoakrsquo bantaacuteklsquothrowrsquo aacutetol lsquokeeprsquo

The passive affix -an is associated with verb stems like thefollowing in imperative sentences piliacute lsquochoose selectrsquo pitpiacutetlsquopoundrsquo gawaacute lsquodo makersquo awiacutet lsquocarry takersquo taacutewag lsquosummonrsquoalagar lsquowait forrsquo pakaacuten lsquofeedrsquo (pa- lsquocausativersquo + kan lsquoeatrsquo) kaacutebatlsquomeetrsquo ameacutes lsquobathersquo saliacutew lsquobuyrsquo alaacute lsquogetrsquo kan lsquoeatrsquo baacutesa lsquoreadrsquosaliacuteta lsquosayrsquo tepeacutet lsquoaskrsquo lotoacute lsquocookrsquo (general instruction)

Referent focus declarative imperatives are formed fromstems like deeacuten lsquobe quietrsquo kaacutelna lsquobe slowrsquo ganoacute lsquobe quickrsquo liniacuteslsquocleanrsquo punaacutes lsquowipersquo asiacuten lsquosaltrsquo

ExamplesIsiacutentildeger mo may asoacutem (will-be-tied by-you mkr (subj) dog + your)lsquoTie up your dogrsquo

Ilukaacutes mo pay bentaacutena (will-be-closed by-you please +mkr(subj) window) lsquoPlease close the windowrsquo

Iteacuter moy limaacute (will-be-given by-you + mkr (subj ) five) lsquoGive[me] fiversquo

Piacutetpiten ya maoacuteng so agaacutet insaacuten italeacutem ed tokaacute (will-be-pounded lnk good mkr(subj) ginger then will-be-soaked invinegar) lsquoPound the ginger well and then soak it in vinegarrsquo

Saacuteliwen moy bayaacutewas (will-be-bought by-you + Mkr(subj)guava) lsquoBuy guavasrsquo

Aacutemesen mo may ogaacutew (will-be-bathed by-you mkr (subj)child) lsquoBathe the childrsquo

Alagareacuten mo si Pedro (will-be-awaited by-you mkr(subj)Pedro) lsquoWait for Pedrorsquo

Teacutepeten mod sikaraacute (will-be-asked by-you + mkr (ref) them)lsquoAsk themrsquo

Isiacutepor mon ageacuteebaeacuten may ogaacutew (be-done-from-the beginningby-you + lnk not + being-carried mkr (subj) child) lsquoGet the childused to not being carried right from the startrsquo

Aacutewiten moy aroacutem lsquoTake somersquo


179

Oniroacuteng ka pan mareeacuten (will-sit you please + lnk quiet)lsquoPlease sit quietlyrsquo

Mangaacuten ka pay daiseacutet (will-eat you please + mkr (obj) little)lsquoplease eat a littlersquo

Oacutenla itiacutela (will-go we-already) lsquoLetrsquos gorsquo

Kalnaan mo pay mansaacutera na pueacuterta (be-done-slowly by-youplease + mkr(subj) will-close mkr(obj) door) lsquoPlease close thedoor slowlyrsquo

Liniacutesay siraacute insaacuten asiacutenan (will-be-cleaned + mkr(subj) fishthen will-be-salted) lsquoClean the fish then salt itrsquo

Manaliacutew kiacutela anggaacuteno duaacutera labaacutet (will-buy you already even-if two-individual only) lsquoJust buy tworsquo

Itdaacuten mo kamiacute duaacuteran berbeacuter na agaacuteyep (will-be-given-for by-you we + mkr(obj) two-individual bundle of string-beans) lsquoGiveus two bundles of string beansrsquo

Ialaaacuten yo ak na sakeacutey ya gaacutetang ya belaacutes (will-be-gotten-forby-you I mkr(obj) one lnk ganta lnk rice) lsquoGet me one ganta ofricersquo

Exercises --Direct Voice Verbal SentencesThe exercises which follow consist of translations into and

from Pangasinan using a variety of more frequently encoun-tered verbal affixes to illustrate different focus and aspectualpossibilities Keys to the exercises are provided in Appendix IIthese can also be used as additional exercises with the answerssupplied by the corresponding material below

A list of appropriate verb stems is supplied with eachEnglish-Pangasinan section of the exercise and the sentencesin this section are designed to appear as simple (unemphatic)verbal sentences in translation except for those marked (EM) --non-equational emphatic and (Eq) equation-type emphatic So-lutions other than those given here may also be correct in manycases A check with a native speaker should enable the puzzledreader to decide on the validity of such alternatives


180

Active sentences

Exercise I - Verbal affixes on- (i[ncomplete]) -inm-(c[omplete]) neutral transitivity indicative mood

Translate into Pangasinan1 The iron is getting hot (petaacutentildeg)2 The children returned (pawiacutel) to their homes3 Luisa will ask (keacuterew) her father for some money ( = ask

some money from her father)4 The old man is already working (kiacutemey)5 The man who collects for the light bill came here (la)Translate into English1 Tinmoacutembok imaacutey ogaacutew ed inaacute to2 Ontalineacutentildeg kamiacute ed taacutewag na totooacuten maiacuterap3 Onliliacutenawa so ogaacutew ya kapanianaacutek4 Agaacute sinmabiacute may pamepeacutesak mi5 Binmaacutelet iraacute so mataacute nen marikiacutet

Exercise II - man- (i) nan- (c) implicit transitivityintentive mood

Translate into Pangasinan1 You will read (baacutesa) the story in front of the class2 I want them to play (galaacutew) at our house3 Julian took a bath (ameacutes) in the river4 Mother washed (pesaacutek) our dirty clothing5 Juanita and Luz will water (saloacuteg) the plant (Eq)Translate into English1 Onla tayoacute ya manneacutentildegnentildeg na TV kindiacute Nena2 Sikayoacute so mansnoacutep na plaacuteto tan baacuteso3 Mantoacutepe si Atchiacute na inpesak4 Mapleacutes ya nanbisikleacuteta si Rauacutel5 Agni manaacuteames may marikiacutet nen sinmabiacute may balolakiacute

Exercise III - maN- (i) aN- (c) implicit transitivityTranslate into Pangasinan1 Try bargaining for (taacutewal) the handbag in Nana Mariarsquos

(lot of] merchandise


181

2 I got (alaacute) a dress as motherrsquos Christmas present3 Hersquoll catch (ereacutel) our chicken4 Amparo snatched (saacutemsam) bread from one child5 Grandmother Felismgrsquos dog bites (keacutetket)Translate into English1 Aacutentaacutek maniacutesia ka la ed aacutetentildeg mo naacutetan2 Labaacutelabaacutey toy mantildegaacuten na kaacutenen na Filipiacutenas3 Antildeganoacuteb may marikiacutet na ambalintildegit ya roacutesas4 Antildegalaacutet so baacuteleg ya oleacuteg na too5 Maniiacutem ak na ogaacutew ya mamoacuterbor na prutas

Exercise IV - mantildegi (i) antildegi- (c) explicit transitivityTranslate into Pangasinan1 It was a bulldozer that pushed (tulaacutek) the soil (Eq)2 Put the plate on (tapeacutew) the table3 Fe has tied up (sintildegeacuter) three chidkens)4 Juan is putting the post in a hole (kotkoacutet)5 Irsquoll return (pawiacutel) the book to the closetTranslate into English1 Siopaacute so mantildegipesaacutek ed saacutemay kaweacutes do2 Mantildegitaneacutem si Juan na poacutenti dimaacuted tanaacuteman tayo3 Antildegituloacuter ak na baboacutey diaacute ta inkianaacutek mo4 Antildegitilaacutek si Juan na laacutepis ed lamisaaacuten5 Antildegibangaacutet si Rauacutel kiacutenen Cora baacutelet agto labaacutey ya

manaacuteral

Exercise V - aka- (c) neutral transitivity involuntarymode

Translate into Pangasinan1 Grandmother fell asleep (ogiacutep) to the music from the

radio2 A big rat made (gawaacute) a hole in the wall (Eq)3 I didnrsquot see the wound-up (potiacutepot) ropie4 Grandfatherrsquos hat is hanging (sabiacutet) on the post5 My older sister sewed (daiacutet) me three dresses (Eq)Translate into English1 Si Joe akakalaacutewit na sakeacutey ya lantildegoacutechen kalamansiacute2 Akakeacutetket na pokeacutel kaniaacuten apoteacuter so ntildegipeacuten to


182

3 Agnabaacutelang so paacutenyok ta akasuacutelat so ntildegaraacuten do4 Antildeggapoacute la may priacuteso ta akabatiacutek5 Dakeacutel so kuaacuterta nen baiacutem ya akasbkiacuteb ed sapeacutey to

Exercise VI - mi- (i) aki- (c) reciprocalTranslate into Pangasinan1 We attended a baptism (binyaacuteg) in Bayambang yesterday2 I like dancing (baiacuteli) with him3 Wersquoll greet (tuacuteyaw) them all4 I cooked (lotoacute) at their place because we ran out of fuel5 I exchanged (salaacutet) a book with SusieTranslate into English1 Minentildegneacutentildeg kamiacute pa ed TV yo baacutei2 Akikaacutesi iraacute di naacutenay a paibaaacuten ak kiacutenen Elisa ya onlaacute ed

Dagupan3 Agto labaacutey so mibaacutensag ed mantildegaacuten4 Antakoacutet ak a onseacutempet ta laacutebi la kaniaacuten akiogiacutep ak ed

aboacutentildeg da5 Agmipaacutera so kaatageacutey nen Joseacute kiacutenen Pedro

Exercise VII mi- hellip -a (i) aki- hellip -an (c) reciprocalemphatic

Translate into Pangasinan1 Irsquod like to exchange letters (suacutelat) with you when yoursquore

in America2 He didnrsquot want to hurt (sugaacutet) with his sharp bolo3 I donrsquot want to touch (diwiacutet) him4 Your dog bit (keacutetket) me5 Make (gawaacute) a statement with Mrs CruzTranslate into English1 Milaktipaacuten so liknaaacuten mo ed liknaaacuten ko2 Ambaiacutentildeg ya miarapaacuten si Susan ed siaacutek3 Akisalatan ak na seacutelyo ed sikatoacute4 Say mibandoaacuten so antaacute ton pitontildegtoacutentildeg5 Akipirdonaaacuten si Juan kiacutenen Pedring

Exercise VIII maka- (c) potentialTranslate into Pangasinan


183

1 Luisa wonrsquot be able to arrive (sabiacute) because its alreadynight

2 I can rest (inaacutewa) now that yoursquore all here3 The child still cannot walk (stand) (alageacutey)4 Hersquos the one who can help (toacutelpntildeg) his mother (Eq)5 The old man cannot open his eyes (limataacute)Translate into English1 Makakalaacuteb kasiacute si Jose na nioacuteg2 Makanentildegneacutentildeg ka na marakeacutep ya siacutene ed Manila3 Aga makabaliacutew ed iacutelog ta araleacutem so danuacutem4 Agak makapuacutepu na kieacutew ta epeacutel so baraacutentildeg ko5 Aga makasuacutelat so kawanaacuten ya limaacute to

Exercise IX maka- + pi- (c) potential reciprocalTranslate into Pangasinan1 I canrsquot attend the funeral (send (toloacuter) the dead) to-

morrow because Irsquom going somewhere2 Linda will surely be able to accompany (oloacutep) you on

Monday3 Father would like to be able to talk (tontildegtoacutentildeg) with

Mama Lucio (Eq)4 Drop by our house so you can also see (nentildegneacutentildeg) Luz5 Irsquom the only one who can go to Corarsquos wedding (baacutensal)

in ManilaTranslate into English1 Makapisayaacutew ka kiacutenen Linda no mioloacutep ka ed sikamiacute ya

oacutenla ed baiacutele2 Makapidentildegel kayoacute na steacutereo de Atchiacute Cioacuten no isabiacute da

la3 Onlaacute ak ed aboacutentildeg di kuacuteya Ben piaacuten makapikerew ak na

peacutechay diaacute4 Manpalaacutebi itayoacute dimaacuten piaacuten makapipandeacutem tayoacute5 Masakbaacutey kan onsabiacute nabuaacutes piaacuten makapiraacutesal ka met

Exercise X makaka- (i) potentialTranslate into Pangasinan1 I feel like sitting (iroacuteng) on the bench2 He says he feels like drinking (inoacutem) wine again3 Susie is inclined to bathe (ameacutes) in the sea


184

4 It was threatening rain (oraacuten) when I went there yes-terday

5 Susie feels homesick (sempeacutet) whenever she thinks ofyou

Translate into English1 Makakadelaacutep no onoacuteran na maksiacutel diaacuted Alcala2 Makakaboacuterbor ak na bongaacutey paacutentol3 Makakaokolaacuten lay oraacuten may maniacute ya intaneacutem ed aacutelog4 Makakasiraacute konoacute si Nena na aacuteltey na baacuteka5 Makakaogiacutep ak ed samiacutet na toacutegtog

Exercise XI magsi- (i) nagsi- (c) distributiveTranslate into Pangasinan1 Father says that his brothers and sisters each planned

(noacutenot) their own lives2 I would like each one of us to build (gawaacute) his own house3 You should prepare everything (paraacute) yoursquore bringing so

that nothing will be left behind4 Every farmer works (kiacutemey) on the land when itrsquos the

planting season (Eq)5 Each should be mindful (asikaacuteso) of the child shersquos

taking care of when wersquore on the beachTranslate into English1 Makalaacutekal iraacuten sanaaacutegi ta nagsipesaacutek na kaweacutes da2 Abiliacuten iraacutey qgoacutegaw a nagsiliacutenis na irongaacuten da3 Nagsialaacute kayoacutey labaacutey yon kaacutenen ed lamisaacutean4 Inbagaacute di Mama Inciong ya nagsibaloacuten na kaacutenen to ed

piacuteknik5 Nagsipiliacute na labaacutey ton saacuteliwen piaacuten maganoacute tayoacute

Passive affixes

Exercise XII -en (i) -in- (c) explicit transitivityTranslate into Pangasinan1 He wants to cut down (toacutemba) the bamboo2 I killed (pateacutey) the chicken yesterday3 I donrsquot know how to fix (gawaacute) the broken radio4 Theyrsquove selected (piliacute) the big room to live in (Eq)


185

5 Theyrsquove decided to organize (toacutegyop) their groupTranslate into English1 Iacuteomen mon amiacuten tay gaacutetas mo2 Giniacutelintildeg to na piacutenompiacuteno may belaacutes3 Labaacutey kon kaacutenen imaacutey mansaacutenas ed tapeacutew na lamisaacutean4 Agto amtaacuten saacutempaten imaacutey boacutela5 Agmo ra tataacutewagen

Exercise XIII i- (i) in- (c) intentiveTranslate into Pangasinan1 They pushed (tulaacutek) the jeep because it wouldnrsquot start2 I struck (siacutegbat) the big bolo against a stone3 Mother will wash (pesaacutek) my new dress4 They will leave John behind (tilaacutek) at our house5 Did you return (pawiacutel) the book to where you got it fromTranslate into English1 Ingaacuteton da may salmiacutentildeg ya makaacutelkalnaacute ed daacutetal2 Ibulantildeg nen kuacuteyak imaacutey Texas ya manoacutek to3 Isalaacutet ko na babaacuteleg imaacutey bangaacute4 Ikaacutelbo yon amiacuten so danuacutem to imaacutey laacuteta5 Inpunaacutes to may panyoacutek ed loacutepa to

Exercise XIV ni- (c) intentive purposive potentialTranslate into Pangasinan1 He did not return (pawiacutel) the cover of the can immedi-

ately2 The child has been made used (paacutesal) to praying

everyday3 Linda could be counted (bilaacuteng) a good friend4 I didnrsquot know my handkerchief was exchanged (salaacutet)

with him5 There is still some rice which you should have been able

to sell (laacuteko)Translate into English1 Siopaacutey niacutelam2 Nitaneacutem kasiacute so santildegaacute na kawayaacuten3 Nituacutelak nen Juan may baacuteleg ya kahoacuten4 Nibantildegaacutet iraacuten maoacutentildeg dimaacuted eskuelaaacuten


186

5 Niacutenonot mi ya wadiaacute ka

Exercise XV na- (i) a- (c) potentialTranslate into Pangasinan1 The box was turned upside down (pigaacuter) by the force of

the wind2 Pedro can tie (sintildegeacuter) the pig3 She doesnrsquot want to be left behind (tilaacutek)4 What you wanted done (gawaacute) has all been finished

(soacutempal)5 I saw (nentildegneacutentildeg) youTranslate into English1 Aguyoacuter na ogaacutew may lobiacuter2 Apasaacutel min amiacuten so kasioacuten ed leneacuteg na sakeacutey siacutemba3 Nadelaacutep ya amiacuten so pageacutey mi4 Apoteacuter na awel so poacutenti ya intaneacutem ko nen saacutebado5 Natoacutemba may bayaacutewas no maksiacutel so dageacutem

Exercise XVI na- (i) na- ( + stress shift or vowel deletion(c)) involuntary

Translate into Pangasinan1 I received (aacutewat) your letter yesterday2 Be careful with these glasses so none will be broken

(pisiacutet)3 I saw (nentildegneacutentildeg) that the tree had fallen yesterday af-

ternoon4 Elisa broke (pisiacutet) three of my sisterrsquos glasses5 My pig is well satisfied (peseacutel) so hersquos lying down al-

readyTranslate into English1 Agtoacute naamtaaacuten ya naacutekna to may martiacutenes ed saacutemay

palpaacuteltog2 Naaacutewat mo komoacuten a maganoacute so suacutelat to3 Agko amtaacute ya naawiacutet ko manaacuteya may swiacuteter nen Belen4 Agni napeseacutel so baboacutey mo5 Agaacute milaacuteban ed sikaacute no nakeacutena may kandiacutentildeg


187

Exercise XVII pan- (i) inpan- (c) paN- (i) inpaN-(c)pantildegi- (i) inpantildegi- (c) subject = time phraseTranslate into Pangasinan

1 Irsquoll send (pawiacutet) my letter to you tomorrow (Eq)2 Later on wersquoll cook (lutoacute) the adobo which wersquoll take to

the picnic (Eq)3 Today is the right time to gather in (pantiacutepon) the rice

(Eq)4 Mother will make (gawaacute) cakes tomorrow (Eq)5 When will you eat (kan) your pig (Eq)Translate into English1 Makapataktakoacutet so laacutebin panaacutekar ed takeacutel2 Saneacuten Saacutebado so panluacuteto di atchiacute na leche flan3 Karomaacuten so inpantildegipawiacutet koy kuaacuterta ed apoacutek4 Kapigaacuten so pantildegalaacutem na maacutentildegga5 Kalabiaacuten so inpantildegilutoacute to na menuacutedon intoloacuter mi ed

kindiacute Laacuteki Mariaacuteno

Referent focus affixes

Exercise XVIII -an (i) -in- hellip -an (c) indicativeTranslate into Pangasinan1 They will wash (oraacutes) all the plates (link adjective to

verb)2 We helped (toacutelontildeg) him to study in Manila3 They applauded (tiacutepak) the singer roundly4 Pour (kaacutelbo) some hot water over the plates glasses and

spoons5 Hersquoll release (boloacutes) some Tilapia in the well in the fieldTranslate into English1 Toloraacuten mo na siraacute si Awintildeg2 Ilaacuteloaacuten da so isabiacute yo3 Aacutemay dalikaacuten so lutoaacutey siraacute4 Dakeacutel tay bagaaacuten mo5 Deenaacuten mo pay mantildegaacuten na soacutepas


188

Exercise XIX pan- hellip -an (i) nan- hellip -an (c) locationsource

Translate into Pangasinan1 From whom did you enquire about (tepeacutet) Pedrorsquos where-

abouts (Eq)2 We slice (gergeacuter) the meat on the chopping board (Eq)3 The rice was ladled (abloacute) onto the big plate (Eq)4 Where will she hang (sabiacutet) her clothes (Eq)5 You will catch (kaacutelap) many fish in the river (Eq)Translate into English1 Say bigaoacute so pantaacuteepan na belaacutes2 Makaacutepoy ya panloacutereyan so akolaacutew3 Panlaacutekoan nen Pedro na raacutedio dimaacuted tindaacutean4 Ineacuter so panaacutenapaacuten mo5 Diaacuted gariacuteta nen atchiacutem so nansaliwaacuten koy toacutepig dimaacuted

Bugallon

Exercise XX paN- hellip -an (i) aN- hellip -an (c) locationsource

Translate into Pangasinan1 They buy (saliacutew) the bread in Rosales (Eq)2 Do you know where (how) to follow (toacutembok) your father

(Eq)3 Irsquom the one they asked (tepeacutet) what she said (Eq)4 From whom shall I ask for (kereacutew) banana leaves (Eq)5 He picked kalamansi with a kalawit (kalaacutewit) in your

garden (Eq)Translate into English1 Si Linda so panisiaaacuten tayo ta aneacutentildegnentildeg to2 Agkoacute antaacute no ineacuter so pantildegalaaacuten koy kuaacuterta3 Say talaacutegdanaacuten so antildegalipaacuten koy sibuacuteyas4 Diaacuted taklaacutey so pantildegarotaacuten to ed agiacutem5 Ineacuter so pantildeganaacuten nen Pedro

Exercise XXI pantildegi- hellip -an (i) antildegi- hellip -an (c) locationsource

Translate into Pangasinan1 Hersquos the one I exchanged (salaacutet) books with (Eq)


189

2 Vinegar is what you should cook (lotoacute) the fish in (Eq)3 I planted (taneacutem) the flowers in your flower pot (Eq)4 He put the book back (pawiacutel) in the closet (Eq)5 They rushed (batiacutek) the child who had been run over to

the hospitalTranslate into English1 Dimaacuted paniacuteinan so pantildegisinopaacuten mo na siraacute2 Agko antaacute so pantildegitanemaacuten to may poacutenti3 Ineacuter so antildegisulataacuten yo may pakaacutebat4 Si atchiacute so antildegibagaacutean koy panbaacuteyar do ed eskuelaaacuten5 Diacutenay pantildegipasakaacuten nen kuacuteyam may taacutebla

Exercise XXII na- hellip -an (i) a- hellip -an (c) potentialTranslate into Pangasinan1 I couldnrsquot put up with (aacutenus) life in the barrio2 Irsquove cleaned (liniacutes) all the bedrooms3 A child should never be lied to (tilaacute)4 Take care that the bottle doesnrsquot get filled (kargaacute)5 He polished (punaacutes) the roof of the car yesterdayTranslate into English1 Nasiksikaacuten mo kasiacute may baacuteleg a siraacute2 Arentildegelaacuten di Naacutenay imaacutey inbagaacutem ed siaacutek3 Akargaaacuten na buacuteer imaacutey botilyaacuten baacuteleg4 Abantildegataacuten na maoacutentildeg a kagagaacutewa may ogaacutew5 Akabataacuten nen Flora ya niloacuteko kay Bill

Exercise XXIII paka- hellip -an (i) aka- hellip -an (c)involuntary

Translate into Pangasinan1 Open the windows so that ( = because it is how) I can

breathe (antildegeacutes) well (Eq)2 She couldnrsquot stay long (aacutenos) with us because of too

much work (Eq)3 Why is it that he cannot save (tiacutepon) his money (Eq)4 The swelling on her throat is the cause of her being

unable to swallow (akmoacute) (Eq)5 It is through the tail that l can identify (biacuterbir) my lost

chicken (Eq)


190

Translate into English1 Say apiacuteley ya saliacute to so agtoacute pakaalageyaacuten2 Diaacuted baacutensal nen Luz so pakapinentildegnengaacuten tayoacute ed mantilde-

gasawaacute ed sikatoacute3 Ineacuter so akanentildegnentildegaacuten mo ed sikaraacute4 Diaacuted taacutembal so pakagastosaacuten ed pansaacutekit5 Ineacuter so pakatawayaacuten koy basiacute

Exercise XXIV na- hellip -an (i) na- + stress shift or voweldeletion hellip -an (c) potential involuntary

Translate into Pangasinan1 My pig died because a coconut fell (pelaacuteg) on him2 I heard ( dentildegeacutel) that Ruben may be going to America by

next month3 Itrsquos good you were able to reach (aacutebot) us here in the

house4 The news is that there was a poor harvest (kebeacutet) in

Alcala because of the past flood and stormTranslate into English1 Pinakaacuten ko piaacuten agaacute narasaacuten naaacuteni dimaacuted miacutetintildeg2 Apiacuteger mo piaacuten agka napelangaacuten na nioacuteg3 Labaacutey dan onogiacutep ta naksawaacuten iraacute4 Narentildegelaacuten to ya sinmabiacute kayoacute5 Nakebetaacuten so pageacutey tayo no agonoraacuten ya mapleacutes

Benefactive focus

Exercise XXV i- hellip -an (i) in- hellip -an (c) indicativeTranslate into Pangasinan1 Juana left (tilaacutek) a letter for Luz on the table2 Irsquoll buy (saliacutew) a new dress for my sister3 She washed (pesaacutek) my dirty clothing for me4 He made (gawaacute)a new toy for his brother5 Irsquoll send (pawiacutet) you ten pesosTranslate into English1 Ibayaraacuten to ak na oacutetantildeg ko ed sikaacute2 Inbayasaacuten to kamiacute sakeacutey dosiacutenan plaacuteto3 Isempetaacuten da tayoacute na dakeacutel ya tinaacutepay


191

4 Inkerewaacuten ko na dakeacutel ya roacutesas5 Initdan nen Juan si Monding na belaacutes

Exercise XXVI ni- hellip -an (c) intentive potentialTranslate into Pangasinan1 My sister could sew (daiacutet) a dress for Luz2 Could you read (baacutesa) me a story later on3 He wouldnrsquot beg (kereacutew) for his younger brother4 He will write (suacutelat) me a nice story5 May she pick (boacuterbor) lanzones for youTranslate into English1 Nisalogaacuten mo ak na tanaacuteman naaacuteni2 Nitanemaacuten to kamiacute na poacutenti karomaacuten3 Agto ka nipesakaacuten ta antildeggaoacutey saboacuten4 Si Pedring nilagaaacuten to kamiacute ikameacuten5 Niakopaacuten da kayoacute na dakeacutel ya bueacuter

Instrumental focus

Exercise XXVII (i) pan- (i) inpan- (c) (for the use of pan-inpan- in reference to time phrases see Exercise XVII(passive affixes))

Translate into Pangasinan1 Use the oil in cleaning (liniacutes) the machine (Eq)2 They use our bullock in harrowing (baacuteka) the field be-

cause it can better withstand the heat (Eq)3 Give her the pail because she wants to use it for watering

(saloacuteg)4 Use the ladle in stirring (kiwaacutel) the inantildegit (sticky rice

mixed with coconut and sugar) (Eq)5 What they will use in dancing (sayaacutew) for their program

is like a Maria Clara (dress) (Eq)Translate into English1 Say tiacutemba so panaacutesol moy danuacutem2 Saacutetay baraacutentildeg so panpoacuteter koy kieacutew3 Bislaacutek so pantoacuterok na ikaloacutet a siraacute4 Inalaacute toy laacutepis ko ta sikatqy pansuacutelat to5 Makaacutepoy a pankaacuterot so andokeacutey a kokoacute


192

Exercise XXVIII (i) pantildegi-(i) inpantildegi- (c) (see alsoExercise XVII (passive affixes))

Translate into Pangasinan1 I had him leave (tilaacutek) two gantas of rice2 Cora put back (pawiacutel) the top of the bottle the wrong way

(Eq)3 Irsquoll have her send (toloacuter) the vegetables to Nana Luisarsquos

house (Eq)

Causative VoiceCausation is marked by the prefixing of pa- to the word root

The resulting stem is then treated as a unit for further affix-ation

Implications of causative voiceVerbs affixed for causative voice indicate that the action

has been brought about indirectly ndash that something has beenlsquocausedrsquo to happen Grammatically this results in some compli-cations not present in direct-voice (non-causative) sentences asthe action expressed in a causative verb may be directed to-wards two separate goals both of which may be representedby separate phrases in the sentence The first of these goalsis the goal of the causation ie the entity (if any) caused toperform the action the second the goal of the action itself iethat to which the caused action is directed These goals are rep-resented in active sentences by the agent and object phrasesrespectively when both are present and distinguished from theattributive phrasesubject which represents the prime mover orcauser of the action

Man-pa-lotoacute ak na leche flanwill-cause-to cook I(subj) mkr(obj) hellipkindiacute Naacutenaymkr (agent) helliplsquoIrsquoll have mother cook the leche flanrsquo

In active passive and referent focus sentences howeverone of the goals may also appear as subject of the sentenceAs different focus transformations affect the constituents ofcausative sentences in different ways it is convenient to discussthese constructions in detail in relation to each of the five fo-


193

cuses which occur in causative sentences Agent focus as agrammatical category is confined to direct-voice sentences al-though the situations represented in these agent focus sen-tences parallel very closely the content of causative construc-tions

Transitivity and focus relationships in causative sentencesCausative sentences are always at least implicitly transitive

and in most causative sentences at least one of the two possiblegoals is explicitly stated It is in causative sentences that thelogical as opposed to grammatical nature of transitivity (espe-cially in so far as the goal is concerned) becomes most apparentas the goals of causation and action play radically differentgrammatical roles in different focus and modal environments

Active sentencesThe most lsquostablersquo constituent in an active causative sen-

tence as far as its role in denoting an aspect of transitivity isconcerned is the object phrase which always marks the goalof the action similarly when present the agent phrase marksthe goal of causation However these statements do not holdtrue in reverse as the subject (focused attributive phrase) ofan active sentence may in the absence of an object or agentphrase and with certain verbs concurrently represent the goalof the action or the agent

When a causative stem is affixed with on- or ni-(the latterreplacing the infix -inm- with causative verbs) the subject ofthe sentence is concurrently the agent caused to perform theaction With this kind of subject-goal unity no object or agentphrase occurs in the sentence

With causative verbs affixed with man- or nan- howeverseveral possibilities present themselves There may be a se-quence of subject (causer) object (goal of action) and agentphrases or one or both of the latter phrases may be absentWhen the agent phrase is absent the implication remains thatlsquosomeonersquo will be caused to perform the action (this is alsothe case with sentences where the causative verb is inflectedwith active affixes other than man- and nan-) When the objectphrase is absent the subject becomes concurrently causer andgoal of the action


194

With active affixes other than on-ni- the full range ofsubject object and agent phrases as noted above may bepresent in the sentence When an active causative verb is usedin an infinitive sense --lsquoto have someone do itrsquo --both subject andagent phrases may be deleted the subject being supplied byimplication through the attributive phrase in the main sentence

ExamplesMantildegipagantildegaacutet ak na ogaacutew ed si Linda (will-cause-to-teach Imkr(obj) child mkr(agent) mkr(personal) Linda) lsquoIrsquoll have Lindateach the childrsquo

Manpaalageacutey itayoacutey aboacuteng tayoacute naacutetan (will-cause-to-stand we+ mkr(obj) house our now) lsquoWersquoll have our house built nowrsquo

Nipatirakiaacuteng imaacutey marikiacutet (became-caused-to-fall-overmkr(subj) maiden) lsquoThe girl tripped up (was caused to fall over)rsquo

Onpatakbaacute may masikeacuten (will-become-caused-to-fallmkr(subj) old-person) lsquoThe old man will sliprsquo

Nanpaoraacuten iraacute (caused-to-rain-upon they) lsquoThey were raineduponrsquo (ie lsquocaused themselves to be rained uponrsquo -- cf Naoraacuten iraacute(were-rained-upon they) lsquoThey were rained upon (by chance)rsquo)

Labaacutey koy manpagawaacute na galaacutewgaacutelaw na anakoacute (liked by-me + mkr(subj) will-cause-to-make mkr (obj) toy mkr(atr) child +my) lsquoI want to have someone make a toy for my childrsquo

Say balolakiacute so amaakiacutes ed saacutemay ogaacutew (the bachelormkr(topic) did-cause-to-cry mkr(agent) the child) lsquoThe youngman made the child cryrsquo

Passive sentencesIn passive sentences the causer of the action is denoted by

the attributive phrase When the affixes -en and -in- are usedwith the passive verb stem the subject of the sentence is thegoal of the causation (ie the object phrase in a correspondingactive sentence) becomes the subject and the agent phrase re-mains marked as such when it is present the existence of anagent is always implied even in the absence of an agent phrase


195

ExamplesIpabantildegaacutet ko yan sayaacutew ed marikiacutet (will-be-caused-to-teach by-methis + lnk dance mkr(agent) maiden) lsquoIrsquoll make the girl teach thisdancersquo

Pabaacutentildegaten kon onsayaacutew si Linda (will-be-caused-to-teach by-me + lnk will-dance mkr(subj) Linda) lsquoIrsquoll make Linda teachdancingrsquo

Pinaakiacutes to ak (was-caused-to-cry by-him I) lsquoHe made me cryrsquo

Agkoacute napainoacutem na gaacutetas yay anaacuteko (not + by-me can-be-caused-to-drink mkr(obj) milk mkr(subj) child + my) lsquoI canrsquot makemy child drink milkrsquo

Say laacutepis so inpaalaacute to may marikiacutet ed balolakiacute (the pencilmkr(topic) was-caused-to-bring by-her mkr(appositive) maidenmkr(agent) bachelor) lsquoIt was the pencil [that] the girl had theyoung man getrsquo

Saacutemay asoacute so pinakaacuten to may marikiacutet (the dog mkr(topic) was-caused-to-eat by-her mkr(subj) maiden) lsquoThe girl made the dogeatrsquo

Referent focus sentencesThere are two kinds of causative referent focus sentences --

those where the subject of the sentence is concurrently the goalof the action and those where the subject is not a goal Whenthe referentsubject is the goal of the action the goal of the cau-sation (agent) is represented by the object phrase

Pa-tombok-aacuten mo-y telegramawill-be-caused-to-follow by-you + mkr(obj) telegram

causer agentmay suacutelatmkr(subj) lettergoal of actionlsquoFollow your letter with a telegramrsquo

When the subject is not the goal of the action (ie when thereferent is an indirect object or the location of the action etc)the object phrase represents this constituent of the sentenceand the presence of an agent is implied but not expressed

Pa-tolor-aacuten da itayoacute


196

will-be-caused-to-take by-them wecauser referent

na belaacutes no siacutembamkr(obj) rice when weekgoal of action timelsquoThey will have some rice sent us next weekrsquo

The sentence above may be translated more literally aslsquo(Someone) will be caused by them to take us rice next weekrsquoor lsquoWe will be caused by them to be taken rice to next weekrsquo Insuch sentences the subject referent is an indirect rather than adirect goal of both the action and the causation the direct goalof the former being marked as object and that of the latter un-expressed

ExamplesPatolongaacuten ka kiacutenen Leo (will-be-caused-to-(be-) help(ed) youmkr(obj) Leo) lsquoGet Leo to help yoursquo (subject = goal action)

Say kuaacutento so pasiromaacuten na pinaoacuter so baboacutey to (the said+ by-her mkr(obj) will-be-caused-to-shade mkr(obj) nipa-thatchmkr(subj) pig her) lsquoShe says her pig will be shaded with nipathatch (ie shersquos going to shade her pig with nipa thatch)rsquo(Subject + goal of action)

Pakalabaacuten moy nioacuteg itaacutey amiacutegom (will-be-caused-to-(be-)climb(-ed) by-you + mkr(obj) coconut mkr(subj) friend + your)lsquoHave someone climb the coconut for your friendrsquo (subject = in-direct object)

Pabauesan ko konoacutey kuaacuterta (will-be-caused-to-lend (be-lent)by-me he(Oslash) indeed + mkr(obj) money) lsquoIt seems that hersquoll be bor-rowing money from me (lit Irsquoll be causing him to be lent money)rsquo(subject = indirect object)

Diaacuted tageacutey so pangipaagewaacuten moy impesaacutek mon kaweacutes (there+ at above mkr(topic) will-be-caused-to-(be-) sun(ned) by-you +mkr(obj) laundered your + lnk clothes) lsquoPut your laundry upstairsto dryrsquo (Subject = location)

Benefactive and instrument focus sentencesBenefactive and instrumental causative sentences are the

least complex in terms of the relationship between their logicaland grammatical constituents The subject is the beneficiary or


197

instrument as the case may be the causer is denoted by theattributive phrase the goal of the action marked as object in abenefactive sentence (as object or referent in an instrumentalsentence) and the goal of the causation marked as agent

ExamplesIpasaliwaacuten ak na tiacutembey ed saacutetay anaacutek mo (will-be-caused-to-buy(be-bought-for) I mkr(obj) thread mkr(agent) the child my)lsquoIrsquoll get my child to buy me some threadrsquo (In this sentence thesubject is by inference also the causer --cf the example immedi-ately following)

Ipapupuaacuten yo ak na samploacuteran kawayaacuten (will-be-caused-to-(be-)cut(-for) by-you I mkr(obj) ten-indivudual + lnk bamboo)lsquoHave ten lengths of bamboo cut for mersquo

Ipakalobaacuten toy nioacuteg iraacute (will-be-caused-to-be-climbed-for by-him + mkr(obj) they) lsquoHersquoll have the coconut climbed for themrsquo

Saacutetay baraacutentildeg so panpapoteacuter day kieacutew kiacutenen Juan (the bolomkr(topic) will-be-caused-to-cut-with by-them + mkr(obj) woodmkr(agent) Juan) lsquoThat bolo is the one theyrsquoll let Juan cut thewood withrsquo

Exercises --Causative Verbal SentencesThe exercises below follow the same format as those for

direct voice sentences qv

Active sentences

Exercise XXIX man- (i) nan- (c) + pa-Translate into Pangasinan

1 Itrsquos better if you have someone wash (pesaacutek) (for you) be-cause washing is difficult

2 Heat up (petaacutentildeg) the water for bathing Baby3 Kuya Milong will have someone buy (saliacutew) a lot of bread4 Later on Irsquoll get someone to ask (kereacutew) some cake from

Atchi Luz5 Let him teach (bangaacutet) you the new dance

Translate into English


198

1 Labaacutey koy manpabeacutelantildeg na kieacutew kiacutendi Maacutema Encioacuteng2 Manpadaacuteiacutet ak na kaweacutes do kiacutenen Remy3 Manpabatiacutek ka pay laacutepis ed gariacuteta maganoacute4 Nanpaliniacutes ak na aboacutentildeg mi ta walaacutey onsabiacuten bisiacuteta mi no

ntildegaacuterem5 Manpatoloacuter ka la diaacuted aboacutentildeg mi na kaacutenen no agkamiacute

makaonlaacute dimaacuted sikayoacute

Passive sentences

Exercise XXX i- (i) in- (c) + pa-Translate into Pangasinan

1 Send (toloacuter) this book tomorrow to Joe at his office2 Donrsquot forget to show (nentildegneacutentildeg) the papers concerning (

= of) the land to the attorney3 Irsquoll let the children copy (sakaacutel) the song4 Get someone to climb (kalaacuteb) that coconut because the

nuts are already dry5 Call Jose because Irsquom going to have him carry (awiacutet) this

heavy box


1 Ipagoyoacuter ta la ed dueacuteg ta piaacuten maganoacute2 Say kuaacutento so ipasabiacutem yan baliacuteta ed kindiacute taacutetay to3 Inpalotoacutek imaacutey poacutenti ya timebaacute nen kabuasaacuten4 Agtoacute labaacutey a ipabaacutesa so sulsuacutelat nen Pedro ed sikatoacute5 Ipabayeacutes mo labaacutet tay kaacutetlim ta agnaderaacutel

Exercise XXXI na- (i) a- (c) + pa-Translate into Pangasinan

1 It is indeed bad to make our parents cry (akiacutes)2 Can you make Aunty Cion stay behind (tilaacutek) after the cel-

ebration today3 You can make them come (akaacuter) here if you know how to

persuade4 Let me know if you can get your older brother to pass by

(1abaacutes)


199

5 He would like to be able to get the one hersquos courting toanswer (ebaacutet) him tonight


1 Apaasintildeggeacuter ko imaacutey ogaacutew no walaacutey kiacutendi2 Agmo naacutetan napabatiacutek itaacuten so kabaacuteyom ta apileacutey3 Napaseacutempet tayoacute komoacuten naacutetan a aacutegew4 Maiacuterap a napaoacuterontildeg ed eskueacutelaan imaacutey agiacute to5 Napaeleacutek tayoacute kasiacute si Luiacutesa et maermeacuten a maong

Referent focus sentences

Exercise XXXII -an (i) -in- hellip -an (c) + pa-Translate into Pangasinan

1 Itrsquos better to let your letter be followed (toacutembok) by atelegram so they will come home immediately

2 Let Juan help you put the box on top of (atageacutey) thewardrobe

3 I would like you to accompany (iacuteba) me to Dagupan4 She says I should lend (baacuteyes) him my money but I have

no money5 Could you let me have (kereacutew) a pinch of salt


1 Pinatoloraacuten to kamiacute na belaacutes nen karomaacuten2 Patanemaacuten koy maiacutes naacutetan imaacutey daacutelin mi3 Pasilewaacuten ka pian naneacutentildegnentildeg mon maoacutentildeg tay dadaacuteiten

mo4 Pasulataacuten mo kiacutenen Ely iraacutemay soacutebre ya ipawiacutet mod siaacutek5 Pinabolosaacuten mi tilaacutepia may boboacuten ed aacutelog

Benefactive focus sentences

Exercise XXXIII i- hellip -an (i) in- hellip -an (c) + pa-Translate into Pangasinan

1 Get someone to climb (kalaacuteb) the coconut for Uncle En-ciong so he can have something to take to Manila


200

2 Please have Luisa drop off (samaacuter) a fish in the town forme

3 Irsquoll have a piglet cooked (lotoacute) for you4 I had him sew (daacuteit) your clothes for you because his tai-

loring is good5 Let Susie bring home (sempeacutet) some apples for me to-

morrow


1 No labaacutey mo ipasakalaacuten ka ed si Nena ta marakeacutep so suacutelatto

2 Agko labaacutey a iparontildegoaacuten da ak na ambeteacutel ya baacuteaw3 Inpasaliwaacuten tay belaacutes ed saacutemay anaacutek mo4 Ipatombokaacuten moy swiacuteter to piaacuten ag nabetelaacuten so beneacuteg

to5 Ipasalogaacuten ak ed sikaacute ta agkoacute labaacutey a nabasaacute so saliacutek


201

APPENDIX I

INDEX TO AFFIXESThe affixes discussed individually in the grammar are listed

below with references to the section or sections of the grammarwhere each is treated The following abbreviations are used toindicate the sections concerned

a-der

Adjectives Derivational affixes

a -id Adjectives Affixes of intensity and diminutionadv Adverbscaus Verbal

sentencesCausative voice

ex -c Verbalsentences

Exercises -Causative voice

ex -d Verbalsentences

Exercises -Direct voice

n -n1

Nouns Nominal affixes

n -np Nouns Non-productive affixesn -nz Nouns Nominalizing affixesn -p1

Nouns Plurality

num Numerals Affixes associated with numeralstems

V Verbs Verbal affixes

oslash - v

C1V- n-p1

CV-+ -en-an n-nz

(C)VC- n-p1

CVC- n-n1

CVC-+ -ra num

(C)V(C)-+ non-past (incomplete) v

(C)VCV- n-p1

202

Reduplication of whole root + incomplete aspect v

Reduplication of whole root cf partial redupli cation a-id

Reduplication of whole root +-stress shifts n-n1

Stress shift n-pl (see also na-(inv))

a- a-der

a- v ex 15

-a n-np

a- hellip - an v ex 22

-ada -ado n-np

-ado -ada a-der

ag- v

agka- adv

aka- v ex 5

aka- hellip -an v ex 23

akai- hellip -an n-nz

akan- n-n1

aki- v ex 6

aki- + CV- a-der

aki- hellip -an v

alas- num

ama- v

amin num

-an v ex 18 ex 32

-an n-nz

an- a-der

aN- v ex 3

aN- hellip -an v ex 20

-ana -ano n-np

antildegi- v ex 4

APPENDIX I

203

antildegi- hellip -an v

antildegka- a-id

-dor n-np

-en v ex 12

-en num

-entildeo n-np

-[en]se n-np

-(e)riaacute n-np

-era -ero n-np

-(eacute)s n-p1

-g- + CV- a-id

i- v ex 13 ex 30

i-hellip -an v ex 25 ex 33

ika-nun

-illo n-np

in-v ex 13ex 0

-in-v ex 12

-in-n-n1

-in-n-nz -in-+ CV-a-der

-in-v

in-hellip -an v ex 25

-in-hellip -an v ex 18

inka-n-n1 n-nz

inki-n-nz

-inm-v ex 1

inpai-v

inpama-v

inpan- v ex 27

inpaN- v

APPENDIX I

204

inpantildegi- v ex 28

(i)pan- v ex 27

(i)paN- v

(i)pantildegi- v ex 28

-(i)ra num

-ismo n-np

-ista n-np

-ita -ito n-np a-id

ka- n-n1

ka- n-n1 n-nz

ka-n-nz

ka-num

ka- hellip -an n-p1

ka- hellip -an n-nz

ka- hellip -an n-n1 n-nz

ka- hellip -an n-nz

ka- + CVC- hellip -an n-n1

kada- n-n1

kaka- num

kapan- a-der

ki- n-nz

ki- + CV- a-der

ki- + CV- + unstressed syllable n-nz

ki- hellip -an n-nz

koma- num

ma- a-der

magin- n-n1

magka- a-der

magkaka- a-der

APPENDIX I

205

magsi-v

magsi-hellip -an v

maiacute-+CV-a-der

maka-v ex 8 ex 9

makaka-v ex 10

makan-n-n1

makapa-a-der

maki-+CV-a-der

mala-a-der

mama-v

mamin-num

man-v ex 2 ex 29

man-v

man-a-der

man-+ CV-num

man-+ CVC(V) v

man-hellip -an v

manag-n-nz

manaN-n-nz

manka-a-id

mankaka a-id

maN- v ex 3

maN- man- n-n1

maN-n-n1

mantildega-n-nz

mantildegi-v ex 4

mapa-a-der

mapaN-a-der

-mento n-np

APPENDIX I

206

mi-v ex 6

mi- hellip -an v ex 7

mika- num

na- v ex 15 ex 31

na- v ex 16

na- + stress shift or vowel deletion v ex 16

na- a-der

na- hellip - an v ex 22


na- + stress shift etc hellip -an v ex 24

nagka-adv

nagsi-v ex 11

nai-v

naka-hellip -an v nan-v ex 2

nan-v ex 2

nan-a-der

nan- hellip -an v ex 19

nan-hellip -an v

ni-v ex 14

ni-caus

ni-n-n1

ni-hellip -an v ex 26

-o n-np

-om-n-nz

on-v ex 1 num

on- +CV-v

-on n-np

pa-v ex 29-33

pa-+ reduplicated root a-der

APPENDIX I

207

pagsi- hellip -an v

pai- v

paka- n-nz

paka-v

paka- hellip -n v ex 23

pama-v

pan-v ex 17 (see also (i)pan-)

pan-hellip -an v ex 19

pan-hellip -en v

panag- n-nz

panan- n-nz

panantildegi- n-nz

paN- v ex 17 (see also (i)pan-)

paN- hellip -an v ex 20

paN- hellip -an n-nl

pantildegi-v ex 17 (see also (i)pantildegi-)

pantildegi-hellip -an v ex 21

para- n-nz

pi n-nz

pi(n)-num

pinagka- n-nl

pinan-v

sam-num

san-n-nl

sanka-n-nl

sanka-a-der

sanka- hellip -an n-nl

sanka- hellip -an a-id

sinan- a-der

APPENDIX I

208

-cioacuten n-np

tig- num

APPENDIX I

209

APPENDIX II

KEYS TO EXERCISESEXERCISE I

English to Pangasinan

1 Onpepetaacuteng may plancha2 Pinmawiacutel so ogoacutegaw ed kaabongaacuten da3 Onkeacuterew na kuaacuterta si Luisa kiacutenen amaacute to4 Onkikiacutemey la may masikeacuten5 Linmaacute diaacute may tooacuten somisiacutengil na sileacutew

Pangasinan to English

1 The child went with his mother2 We will answer the call of the poor3 The newly-born child is breathing4 Our washerwoman did not come5 The girlrsquos eyes widened (became large)

EXERCISE IIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Manbaacutesa ka na istiacuteria ed araacutep na klaacutese2 Labaacutey ko iran mangaacutelaw ed aboacuteng mi3 Nanameacutes si Julian ed iacutelog4 Nanpesaacutek iraacute di Naacutenay na maringoacutet na kaweacutes mi5 Di Juanita tan si Luz so mansaacutelog na maceacutetas


1 Wersquoll go (Letrsquos go) and watch TV at Nenarsquos (with Nena[and her household])

2 You (are the one who) will take care of the plates andglasses

3 Atchi (older sister) will fold the laundry4 Raul cycled fast5 The girl was not still bathing when the young man arrived

210

EXERCISE IIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Saacutelim so manaacutewal na handbag ed saacutemay laacuteko nen NanaMaria

2 Angalaacute ak la na kaweacutes ya pamaacutesko di Naacutenay3 Mangereacutel na manoacutek tayoacute4 Anaacutemsam na tinaacutepay si Amparo ed sakeacutey ya ogaacutew5 Mangeacutetket imaacutey asoacute di baacutei Felising


1 I know you believe (siacutesia) your parents now2 He likes very much to eat (kan) Filipino food3 The maiden smelt (angoacuteb) the fragrant flower4 The big snake bit (kalaacutet) someone (a man)5 Irsquoll keep an eye on (siiacutem) the boy whorsquoll harvest (boacuterbor)

the fruit

EXERCISE IVEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Bulldozer so mangitulaacutek na daacutelin2 Mangitapeacutew kayoacute na plato ed lamisaacutean3 Angisingeacuter si Fe na taloacuteran manoacutek4 Mangikokoacutetkot si Juan na luseacutek5 Siaacutek so mangipawiacutel na liacutebro diaacuted aparadoacuter


1 Who will wash my dress2 Juan will plant the bananas in our orchard3 I brought a pig here because itrsquos your birthday4 Juan left a pencil on the table5 Raul taught Cora but she didnrsquot want to learn

EXERCISE VEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Akaogiacutep di baacutei ed toacutegtog na raacutedio2 Balbaacuteleg ya otoacutet so akagawaacute na aboacutet ed diacutengding3 Agko aneacutengneng so akapotiacutepot ya lobiacuter

APPENDIX II

211

4 Akasabiacutet dimaacuted loacutesek may sombreacutero nen laacuteki5 Si atchiacutek akadaiacutet na taloacuteran aacuteysing ko


1 Jose picked a sackful of kalamansi (with a kalawiacutet)2 He bit a bone so his tooth is chipped3 My handkerchief wonrsquot be lost because Irsquove written my

name (on it)4 The prisoner is no longer there because he escaped5 Your grandmother has a lot of money tucked in her skirt

EXERCISE VIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Akibinyaacuteg kamiacute ed Bayambaacuteng karomaacuten2 Labaacutey ko so misaacuteyaw ed sikatoacute3 Mituacuteyaw tayoacute ed sikaraacuten amiacuten4 Akilotoacute ak ed sikaraacute ta naopotaacuten kamiacute kieacutew5 Akisalaacutet ak na liacutebro kiacutenen Susi


1 Could we watch your TV grandmother2 Mother asked (lit sought mercy from) Elisa to accompany

me in going to Dagupan3 He doesnrsquot want to join us in eating4 I was frightened to come home because it was already

night time so I slept at their house5 Jose is not the same height (lit the height is not mutually

the same) as Pedro

EXERCISE VIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Labaacutey ko so misulataacuten ed sikayoacute no walaacute kiacutela ed America2 Agto gusto so misugataacuten ed samay matdeacutem ya baraacuteng to3 Agto labaacutey so midiwitaacuten ed sikatoacute4 Akiketketaacuten imaacutey asoacutem ed siaacutek5 Migawaaacuten ka na kasulataacuten ed kiacutenen Mrs Cruz


APPENDIX II

212

1 Your feelings and my feelings are joined as one2 Susan is ashamed to face me3 I exchanged stamps with her4 He canrsquot talk without shouting (lit lsquoshouting is what he

knows about conversingrsquo)5 Juan forgave Pedring

EXERCISE VIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Agmakasabiacute si Luisa ta laacutebi la2 Makainaacutewa ak naacutetan ta wadiaacute kayoacuten amiacuten3 Agniacute makaalageacutey may ogaacutew4 Sikatoacute so makatuacutelong ed inaacute to5 Agmakalimataacute may masikeacuten


1 Can Jose climb the coconut2 You can see good movies in Manila3 He canrsquot cross the river because the water is deep4 I canrsquot chop the wood because my machete is dull5 His right arm cannot write (ie He canrsquot write with his

right arm)

EXERCISE IXEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Agaacutek makapitoloacuter na inateacutey nabuaacutes ta walaacutey laacuteen ko2 Makapioloacutep la komoacuten si Linda ed sikayoacute no luacutenes3 Labaacutey di taacutetay so makapitongtoacuteng kindiacute Mama Lucio4 Samaacuter ka ed aboacuteng mi piaacuten makapinengneacuteng ka met

kiacutenen Luz5 Siaacutek labaacutet so makapibaacutensal kiacutenen Cora diaacuted Ibale


1 Yoursquoll be able to dance with Linda if you come with us tothe dance

2 Yoursquoll be able to listen to Atchi Cionrsquos stereo when theyarrive

3 Irsquoll go to kuya Benrsquos house to ask for pecha4 Wersquoll stay there late so we can have our supper together

APPENDIX II

213

5 Come early tomorrow so you can also attend the prayer

EXERCISE XEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Makakairoacuteng ak ed bangko2 Say kuaacutento so makakainoacutem lameacutet na aacutelak3 Makakaameacutes ed baacuteybay si Susie4 Makakaoraacuten nen linmaacute ak diaacute karomaacuten5 Makakasempeacutet si Susie no nanonotaacuten to ka


1 It is likely to flood when it rains hard in Alcala2 I feel like picking some santol fruit3 The peanuts planted in the field are likely to need rain al-

ready4 Nena most likely would feel like eating beef liver5 The sweetness of the music is making me drowsy (lit Irsquom

inclined to sleep from the sweetness of the music)

EXERCISE XIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Say kuaacuten di taacutetay ko so magsinoacutenot lay bilaacutey dan sanaaacutegi

2 Gabaacutey ko ya magsigawaacute tayoacutey aboacuteng3 Nagsiparaacutean kayoacutey awiacutet yo piaacuten anggapoacutey natilaacutek4 Saacuteray domaraacutelos so nagsikiacutemey na daacutelin da no oacutentan a

panagtaacutenem5 Nagsiasikaacuteso na komiacutes ton ogaacutew no wadmaacuten tiacutela ed

baybaacutey


1 The brothers and sisters get along well together becauseeach washes his own clothes

2 The children are each supposed to clean their own place(seat)

3 Each of you take whatever food you like from the table4 Mama Inciong said that each should bring his own food to

the picnic

APPENDIX II

214

5 Each should choose what he wants to buy so we can bequick

EXERCISE XIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Labaacutey ton toacutembaen imaacutey kawayaacuten2 Pinmateacutey ko may manoacutek karomaacuten3 Agkoacute amtaacuten gaacutewaen imaacutey aderaacutel ya raacutedio4 Say baacuteleg ya kuaacuterto so piniliacute dan panayamaacuten5 Anonotaacuten dan togyopeacuten imaacutey moacuteyong da


1 Drink all your milk2 He ground the rice very fine3 I want to eat the apple on top of the table4 He doesnrsquot know how to catch the ball5 Donrsquot call them

EXERCISE XIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Intulaacutek da so jeep ta ag onkoraacuteng2 Insiacutegbat ko ed batoacute may baacuterang ya baacuteleg3 Ipesaacutek nen Naacutenay imaacutey baacutelon aacuteysing ko4 Itilaacutek da si Juaacuten ed aboacuteng mi5 Inpawiacutel mon maoacuteng kasiacute ed angalaaacuten mo imaacutey liacutebro


1 They lay the mirror down carefully on the floor2 My brother will put his Texas rooster in the cockfight3 Irsquoll exchange the pot for a bigger one4 Empty all the water out of the can5 He wiped his face with my handkerchief (lit he wiped my

handkerchief on his face)

EXERCISE XIVEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Agto nipawiacutel ya taacutempol so sakoacuteb na laacuteta

APPENDIX II

215

2 Nipaacutesal so ogaacutew ya mandaacutesal ed aacutegewaacutegew3 Nibilaacuteng ya maoacuteng ya kaaacutero si Linda4 Agkoacute amtaacuten nisalaacutet so paacutenyok ed sikatoacute5 Walaacute ni pageacutey ya nilaacuteko yo


1 Whom did you go to2 Can you ( = is there reason to) plant stems of bamboo3 (There is reason to believe that) John can push the big

box4 They were taught well at school5 We thought you were here

EXERCISE XVEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Apigaacuter so kajoacuten ed kasiacutel na dageacutem2 Nasingeacuter nen Pedro may baboacutey3 Agto labaacutey so natilaacutek4 Asoacutempal ya amiacuten so labaacutey yon nagaacutewa5 Aneacutengneng ta ka


1 The child pulled the rope2 We practiced all the songs in only a week3 Our rice plants will be all flooded4 The nersquoer do well cut the bananas I planted on Saturday5 The guava (tree) will fall if the wind is strong

EXERCISE XVIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Naawaacutet koy suacutelat mo karomaacuten2 Apiacuteger yo iraacutetay baacuteso piaacuten anggapoy napisiacutet3 Aneacutengneng ko ya nabuaacutel may kieacutew karomaacuten na ngaacuterem4 Naksiacutet nen Elisa may taloacuteran baacuteso di atqhiacutek5 Nakseacutel a maoacuteng so baboacutey ko kaniaacuten indukoacutel to la


1 He doesnrsquot know that he shot the dove with the toy gun

APPENDIX II

216

2 Hopefully you will soon receive his letter3 I didnrsquot realize that I had taken Belenrsquos sweater4 Your pig is not yet satisfied5 He wonrsquot fight you if the goat is shot

EXERCISE XVIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Nabuaacutes so pangipawiacutet koy suacutelat ed sikaacute2 Naaacuteni so pangilutoacute tayoacute na adoacutebon aacutewiten tayoacute ed picnic3 Naacutetan so maoacuteng a pantiacutepon na belaacutes4 Nabuaacutes la so pangaacutewa di naacutenay na kaacutenen5 Kapigaacuten so pangaacuten moy baboacutey mo


1 Itrsquos dangerous to walk in the forest at night2 (My) sister cooked leche flan last Saturday3 Yesterday I sent money to my grandchild4 When will you get the mangos5 Last night he cooked the menudo which we took to Laki

(Grandfather) Mariano(rsquos)

EXERCISE XVIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Orasaacuten dan amiacuten iraacutemay plaacuteto2 Tinolangaacuten mi ed panaacuteral to ed Manila3 Tinipakaacuten da na maksiacutel imaacutey angasioacuten4 Kalboaacuten mo na ampetaacuteng ya danuacutem iraacutemay plaacuteto baacuteso

tan kutsaacutera5 Bolosaacuten toy tiloacutepia may boboacuten ed aacutelog


1 Send some fish to Awing2 They are expecting you to arrive3 That stove is where the fish were cooked4 Will you invite many5 Please eat your soup quietly

EXERCISE XIX

APPENDIX II

217


1 Siopaacute so nanteacutepetaacuten tayoacutey kolaaacuten nen Pedro2 Diaacuted talaacutegdanaacuten so pangeacutergeraacuten mi na kaacuterne3 Say baacuteleg ya Plaacuteto so nanaacutekloaacuten na baacuteaw4 Ineacuter so pansaacutebitaacuten to ray kaweacutes to5 Diaacuted iacutelog so pankaacutelapaacuten moy dakeacutel ya siraacute


1 Rice is winnowed in the bigaoacute (winnowing basket)2 Itrsquos not good (lit itrsquos foolish) to trick an old woman3 Pedro will sell the radio in the market4 Where will you be working (making a living)5 Your sisterrsquos sari-sari store is where I used to buy tupig in

Bugallon

EXERCISE XXEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Dimaacuted Rosales so panaliwaacuten da na tinaacutepay2 Antaacutem kasiacute so panombokaacuten mo kineacuten amaacutem3 Siaacutek so panepetaacuten da na inbagaacute to4 Siopaacute so pangerewaacuten koy boloacuteng na poacutenti5 Dimaacuted tanaacuteman yo so angalawitaacuten toy kalamansiacute


1 Linda is the one we should believe (sisia) because she sawit

2 I donrsquot know where Irsquom going to get (ala) the money3 I chopped up (galip) the onions on the chopping board4 He pinched (karot) your younger brother on the arm5 Where will Pedro eat (kan)

EXERCISE XXIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Sikatoacute so pangisalataacuten moy liacutebro2 Tukaacute so pangilotoaacuten moy siraacute3 Say masiteram so angitanemaacuten koy roacutesas4 Dimaacuted aparadoacuter so angipawilaacuten toy liacutebro5 Diaacuted ospital so angibatikaacuten man atalaacutepos ya ogaacutew

APPENDIX II

218


1 You should keep the fish in the safe2 I donrsquot know where hersquos going to plant the bananas3 Where did you write the announcement4 My older sister is the one I asked to support me at school5 Whereabouts (in which place) will your older brother nail

the board

EXERCISE XXIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Agko naanusaacuten so bilaacutey ed baacuterio2 Alinisaacuten ko lan amiacuten iraacutey kuaacuterto3 Ag baloacutet natilaaacuten so ogaacutew4 Apiacuteger mo piaacuten agnakargaaacuten itaacutey botilya5 Apunasaacuten to la karomaacuten so toacutektok na auacuteto


1 Could you scale the large fish2 Mother heard what you told me3 The big bottle was filled with sand (ie sand filled the

bottle)4 The child was taught by good deeds5 Flora knew that they had tricked Bill

EXERCISE XXIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Lukasaacuten yo ray bentaacutena ta sikatoacute so pakaangesaacuten konmaoacuteng

2 Dakeacutel ya trabaacutejo so agtoacute akaanosaacuten ed sikamiacute3 Antoacute kasiacute so agtoacute pakatiponaacuten na kuaacuterta to4 Say laraacuteg ed bekleacutew to so agto pakaakmoaacuten na an-

tokamaacuten5 Samay ikol so pakabirbiran ko ed abalang ya manok ko


1 She cannot stand because of her fractured foot2 Itrsquos at the wedding of Luz that wersquoll be able to see her

husband-to-be

APPENDIX II

219

3 Where did you happen to see them4 Medicine is a cause of expense when one is sick5 Where can I taste some basi (sugar-cane-wine)

EXERCISE XXIVEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Inateacutey so baboacutey ko ta naplagaacuten na nioacuteg2 Nangelaacuten ko ya onlaacute konoacute si Ruben ed America no onsalaacutet

a bolaacuten3 Maoacuteng ta naabotaacuten yo kamiacute diaacuted aboacuteng4 Say baliacuteta so nakbetaacuten so Alcala lapuacuted saacutemay linmabaacutes a

delaacutep tan baacutegio


1 I fed him so he wouldnrsquot be hungry (eraacutes) later on at themeeting

2 Be careful that a coconut doesnrsquot fall (pelaacuteg) on you3 They went to sleep because theyrsquore exhausted (kesaacutew)4 He will hear (dengeacutel) that you have arrived5 Our rice plants will wither (kebeacutet) if it doesnrsquot rain hard

EXERCISE XXVEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Intilakaacuten nen Juana na suacutelat si Luz ed lamisaaacuten2 Isaliwaacuten ko na baacutelon kaweacutes to may agiacutek3 Inpesakaacuten to ak na maringoacutet kon kaweacutes4 Ingawaaacuten to na baacutelon galawgaacutelaw may agiacute to5 Ipawitaacuten ta ka na saacutemploy piacutesos


1 Hersquoll pay my debt to you for me2 He borrowed a dozen plates for us3 Theyrsquoll be bringing us back a lot of bread4 She asked for a lot of flowers for him5 Juan gave Mondong some rice

EXERCISE XXVIEnglish to Pangasinan

APPENDIX II

220

1 Nidaitaacuten nen atchiacutek na kaweacutes si Luz2 Nibasaaacuten mo ak kasiacute naaacuteni na istoacuteria3 Agto nikerewaacuten na papeacutel imaacutey agiacute to4 Nisulataacuten to ak na marakeacutep ya stoacuteria5 Niborboraacuten to ka kasiacute na lansoacutenes


1 Would you water the plants for me afterwards2 He planted the bananas for us yesterday3 She canrsquot wash for you because therersquos no soap4 Pedring will weave a mat for us5 They could gather up a lot of sand for you

EXERCISE XXVIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Say laraacutek so panliacutenis mo ed maacutekina2 Saacutemay baacuteka mi so panbaacuteka da ta mamaacutekpel ed petaacuteng3 Iteacuter moy tiacutemba ta sikatoacutey labaacutey ton pansaacutelog4 Aacuteklo so pankiacutewal mo ed saacutetay inangiacutet5 Singaacute konoacute Maria Clara so pansaacuteyaw da diaacuted prograacutema

da


1 Use the pail for fetching the water2 Irsquoll use that bolo to cut the wood3 A stick is used as a spit (lit for piercing) for roasting fish4 He took my pencil because hersquoll be using it to write with5 A long fingernail is a handicap in pinching (lit ineffective

for pinching with)

EXERCISE XXVIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Inpangitilaacutek koy duaacuteran saloacutep ya belaacutes2 Aliwaacute so inpangipawiacutel nen Cora na sakoacuteb na botiacutelya3 Sikatoacute so pangitoloacuter koy pisiacuteng ed aboacuteng di Nana Luisa

EXERCISE XXIXEnglish to Pangasinan

APPENDIX II

221

1 Maoacuteng no manpapesaacutek ka la ta maiacuterap so manpeacutesak2 Manpapetaacuteng kay danuacutem a panaacutemes nen Baby3 Manpasaliacutew na dakeacutel a tinaacutepay si Kuya Milong4 Manpakereacutew ak naaacuteni na kaacutenen kindiacute Atchiacute Luz5 Manpabangaacutet ka na baacutelon sayaacutew ed sikatoacute


1 I would like to have Mama Enciong chop the wood2 Irsquoll have Remy sew my dress3 Please have someone bring a pencil from the store

quickly4 I had the house cleaned because we have visitors arriving

this afternoon5 Let someone bring the cake to our place if wersquore unable

to come to yours

EXERCISE XXXEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Ipatoloacuter mo nabuaacutes yay liacutebro kiacutenen Joseacute diaacuted oficiacutena to2 Agmoacute lilinguanaacuten a ipannengneacuteng iraacutey papeacuteles na daacutelin

ed abogaacutedo3 Ipasakaacutel koy kansioacuten ed ogoacutegaw4 Ipakalaacuteb yo la tay nioacuteg ta amagaacute lan amiacuten so bongaacute to5 Taacutewag mo Joseacute ta ipaawiacutet ko yay ambelaacutet a kajoacuten ed

sikatoacute


1 Wersquod better let the carabao pull it so it will be (done)quick(ly)

2 She says you should be the one to have this news con-veyed to his father

3 I had the bananas that were cut down this morningcooked

4 She doesnrsquot want to let him read Pedrorsquos letters5 Just lend your scissors -they wonrsquot be damaged

EXERCISE XXXIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Makaacutepoy konoacuten napaakiacutes so aacuteteng tayoacute

APPENDIX II

222

2 Napatilaacutek mo iraacute kasiacute si tiaacute Cion naacutetan kasoacutempal napoacutensia

3 Napaakaacuter mo iraacute diaacute no amtaacutem so mangoyoacuteng4 Ibagaacutem ed siaacutek no napalabaacutes moy kuacuteyam5 Labaacutey to napaebaacutet may kakaacuterawen to naaacuteni no labiacute


1 I could have made the child come near if there had beensome candy

2 You canrsquot make your horse gallop now because itrsquos lame3 Hopefully wersquoll be able to get them to come home today4 Itrsquos difficult (for him) to send his younger brother to

school5 Perhaps we can make Luisa laugh even though shersquos very

lonely

EXERCISE XXXIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Mamaoacuteng no patombokaacuten moy telegraacutema may suacutelat mopiaacuten onseacutempet iraacuten taacutempol

2 Patolongaacuten ka kiacutenen Leo ya mangiatageacutey na kahoacuten edaparadoacuter

3 Labaacutey ko komoacuten so paibaacutean ed sikaacute diaacuted Dagupan4 Say kuaacutento pabayesaacuten ko konoacutey kuaacuterta baacutelet ta anggapoacutey

kuaacutertak5 Pakerewaacuten mo ak pay daiseacutet a asiacuten yo


1 He sent us some rice yesterday2 Irsquom going to have our land planted with corn today3 Get someone to (provide) light (for) you so you can see

properly what yoursquore sewing4 Let Ely address the envelopes which you send me5 We had tilapia released in the well in the field

EXERCISE XXXIIIEnglish to Pangasinan

1 Ipakalabaacuten moy nioacuteg iraacute di Tioacute Enciong piaacuten walaacutey naawiacutetda ed Manila

APPENDIX II

223

2 Ipasamaraacuten mo ak pay siraacute ed baacuteley kiacutenen Luiacutesa3 Ipalotoaacuten ta kay sakeacutey a beleacutek4 Inpasaitaacuten ta ka na kaweacutes mo ed sikatoacute ta marakeacutep so daacuteit

to5 Ipasempetaacuten mo ak na mansaacutenas kiacutenen Susie nabuaacutes


1 If you like have Nena copy for you because she has nicepenmanship

2 I donrsquot want them to serve me cold rice3 We let your child buy him some rice4 Get someone to follow him with his sweater so his back

doesnrsquot get cold5 Irsquoll let you do the watering because I donrsquot want my feet

to get wet

APPENDIX II

224

APPENDIX III

MISCELLANEOUS LEXICAL ITEMS

Personal pronounsPerson Subject

TopicAttributive Independent

1 singular ak ko siaacutek2 familiar ka mo sikaacute3 familiar Oslash -a to sikatoacute1 incl dual itaacute ta sikataacute1 incl pl itayoacute tayoacute sikatayoacute1 excl kamiacute mi sikamiacute2 resp or pl kayoacute yo sikayoacute3 resp or pl iraacute da sikaraacute

Basic demonstratives

near speaker yanear addressee tandistant man

Case-marking particles

Personal Non-Personal

SubjectTopic

AttributiveObjectOther

singFamiliarsi

nen

kiacutenen

PlRespdi

di

kindiacute

SingularNeutralimaacutey so-yna -yna -yed

Pluraliraacutemay

Usu na only in verbal sentences

225

Basic numerals

lsquoonersquo sakeacutey isaacute lsquoeightrsquo waloacutelsquotworsquo duaacute lsquoninersquo siaacutemlsquothreersquo taloacute lsquodecadersquo poloacutelsquofourrsquo apaacutet lsquohundredrsquo lasoacuteslsquofiversquo limaacute lsquothousandrsquo liboacutelsquosixrsquo aneacutem lsquohow manyrsquo pigaacutelsquosevenrsquo apaacutet lsquo-teenrsquo labiacuten-

Focus-marking verbal affixesThe verbal affixes dealt with in the grammar are listed below

in relation to the focus marked by each When two affixes differfrom each other only in regard to the aspectual qualities ofcompleteness vs incompleteness they are listed together thatdenoting completed action following that marked for incom-pleteness and separated from the latter by a slash eg man-nan- Some examples of affixed verb stems follow the lists

Active affixesOslash (imperative) paka-aka- mi-aki- mi- hellip -an aki- hellip -an mama-ama- maN- aN- mantildegi-antildegi- on--inm-ni-before pa- magsi-nagsi- magsi-hellip -annagsi- hellip -an maka- makaka- man-nan-man-+ CVC-nan-+ CVC- man-hellip -annan-hellip -an pagsi- hellip -an ( =magsi- hellip -an)

Passive affixesOslash (imperative) na-a- -en-in- i-in- na-na- + vowel deletion orstress shift nai- ni- pan-inpan- paNinpaN- pantildegi-inpantildegi-

Referent focus affixesna-hellip -ana-hellip -anpaka-hellip -anaka-hellip -an -anin-hellip -annan- hellip -anfollowing pi-hellip aN- hellip -anpaN- hellip -an antildegi-hellip -anpangi-hellip -an na-hellip -anna- + vowel deletion or stress shift hellip -an naka-hellip -an pan-hellip -an nan- hellip -an

Benefactive focus affixesi- hellip -anin- hellip -an ni-hellip -an ni-hellip -an

APPENDIX III

226

Instrumental focus affixespama-inpama- (i)pan-inpan- (i)paN-inpaN- (i) pantildegi-inpantildegi-

Agent focus affixespai-inpai- pan- hellip -enpinan-

Examples of affixed verb stems

nentildegneacutentildeg lsquoseersquo lsquobe seenrsquoakanentildegneacutentildeg lsquohappened to seersquonannentildegneacutentildeg lsquosawrsquomanneacutentildegnentildeg lsquowill seersquomannenentildegneacutentildeg lsquoseeingrsquonanentildegneacutentildeg lsquowill (can) be seenrsquoanentildegeacutentildeg lsquowas (could be) seenrsquomakanentildegneacutentildeg lsquocan seersquomannentildegnentildegaacuten lsquowill see each otherrsquonannentildegnentildegaacuten lsquosaw each otherrsquoakanentildegnentildegaacuten lsquohappened to be seen atrsquonannentildegnentildegaacuten lsquowas seen atrsquonengnentildegeacutentilde lsquowill be seenrsquoninentildegneacutentildeg lsquowas seenrsquotaneacutem lsquoplantrsquo lsquobe plantedrsquomantaacutenem lsquowill plantrsquoitaneacutem lsquowill be plantedrsquotanemaacuten lsquowill be planted atrsquopantaneacutem lsquowill be planted withrsquoitanemaacuten lsquowill be planted forrsquopantaacutenemen lsquowill be made to plantrsquoamataneacutem lsquocaused to be plantedrsquoamapataneacutem lsquohad (someone) plantrsquokansioacuten lsquosingrsquoangansioacuten lsquosangrsquomantildegansioacuten lsquowill singrsquomantildegakansioacuten lsquosingingrsquomankansioacuten lsquowill sing (rather eg than read)rsquoinpantildegansionaacuten lsquowas sung atrsquomagsikansioacuten lsquowill each singrsquomagsikansionaacuten lsquowill each sing in turnrsquobatiacutek lsquorunrsquoonbatiacutek lsquowill runrsquoakabatiacutek lsquohappened to runrsquo

APPENDIX III

227

mantildegibatiacutek lsquowill run off withrsquoibatiacutek lsquowill be run off withrsquomakabatiacutek lsquocan runrsquomakakabatiacutek lsquoinclined to runrsquoantildegibatikaacuten lsquowas rushed torsquo

Basic Vocabulary (Swadesh 200-word list)(verbs are cited in the form of unaffixed stems)

all amiacutenand tananimal aacuteyepashes daacutepolat edback of person bedeacutegbad maogeacutesbark of tree obaacutekbecause tabelly egeacutesbig baacutelegbird manoacutekto bite ketkeacutetblack andekeacutetblood dalaacuteto blow siboacutekbone of person pokeacutelto breathe antildegeacutes linawaacuteto burn pooacutelchild ogaacutew anaacutekcloud loreacutemcold ambeteacutelto come lato count bilaacutentildegto cut with bolo potoacutetday aacutegewto die pateacutey (on-)to dig koacutetkotdirty marutaacutek mariacutentildegotdog asoacuteto drink inoacutemdry amagaacutedull (blunt) epeacuteldust daboacutek sapoacutek

APPENDIX III

228

ear layaacutegearth daacutelinto eat kanegg iknoacuteleye mataacuteto fall or drop pelaacuteg paacutektakfar arawiacutefat matabaacutefather amaacutefear takoacutetfeather bagoacutefew daiseacutetto fight laacutebanfire apoacuteyfish siraacutefive limaacuteto float letaacutewto flow aacutegosflower roacutesas bolaklaacutekto fly tekiaacutebfog keacutelpafoot saliiacutefour apaacutetto freeze keteacutelfruit bontildegaacute prutasto give iacutetergood maoacutentildeg maaacutebiggrass dikaacutegreen beacuterde biacuterdiguts intestines paacuteithair bueacutekhand limaacutehe sikatoacute Oslashhead oloacuteto hear dentildegeacutelheart puacutesoheavy ambelaacutethere diaacuteto hit kenaacutehold in hand pekeacutet beacutenbenhow paacutenonto hunt anoacutephusband asawaacute ( = spouse)I siaacutek ak

APPENDIX III

229

ice yeacuteloif noin edto kill pateacutey (-en)know amtaacutelake looacutekto laugh eleacutekleaf boloacutentildegleft (hand) kawigiacuteleg saliacute biacutekkintildeg oacutelpolie on side dokoacutelto live bilaacuteyliver aacutelteylong andokeacuteylouse kotoacutemale lakiacute (man tooacute)many dakeacutelmother inaacutemountain palandeacuteymouth sontildegoacutet santildegiacutename ntildegaraacutennarrow maiacutentildegetnear asiacutentildegger kaacuterne (flesh lamaacuten)neck beacuteklewnew baacutelonight laacutebinose eleacutentildegnot ag aliwaacuten andiacuteold daaacuten mataacutekkenone isaacute sakeacuteyother aroacutemperson tooacuteto play galaacutewto pull goyoacuterto push tolaacutekto rain oraacutenred ambalantildegaacuteright correct suacutestoright (hand) kawanaacutenriver iacutelogroad karsaacuteda dalaacutenroot lamoacutet sentildegeacutegrope lobiacuterrotten anoloacutek

APPENDIX III

230

rub goacutergorsalt asiacutensand bueacuterto say bagaacutescratch suacutegusea ocean daacuteyatto see nentildegneacutentildegseed bokeacutelto sew daacuteitsharp maacutekdemshort antikeacuteyto sing kansioacuten kaacutentato sit iroacutentildegskin of person baacuteogsky taacutewento sleep ogiacutepsmall melaacuteg kelaacutegto smell antildegoacutebsmoke aseacuteweksmooth piacuteno palaacutenassnake oleacutegsnow lineacutewsome aroacutemto spit loacutepdato split pisaacuteg palduaacuteto squeeze pespeacutes sereacutetto stab or pierce saacuteksakto stand alageacuteystar biteacutewen bitoacuteenstick biacuteslakstone batoacutestraight maacutektekto suck soacutepsopsun aacutegewto swell laraacutegto swim lantildegoacuteytail ikoacutelthat man tanthere ditaacuten dimaacutenthey sikaraacute iraacutethick makapaacutelthin maiacutempis mabeacutentildegto think noacutenotthis ya

APPENDIX III

231

thou sikaacute kathree taloacuteto throw toacutepak boacutentokto tie sintildegeacutertongue dalaacutetooth ntildegipeacutentree kieacutewto turn or veer likoacutetwo duaacuteto vomit otaacuteto walk akaacuterwarm ampetaacutentildegto wash oraacuteswater danoacutemwe sikataacute sikatayoacute sikamiacute itaacute itayoacute kamiacutewet ambasaacutewhat antoacutewhen kapigaacutenwhere ineacuterwhite amputiacutewho siopaacutewide malaacutepar maawaacutentildegwife asawaacute ( = spouse)wind dageacutemwing payaacutekwipe ponaacuteswith ed tanwoman biiacutewoods forest takeacutelworm bigiacutesye sikayoacute kayoacuteyear taoacutenyellow duyaacutew

APPENDIX III

232



Foreword

Preface

Table of Contents

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

Significant sounds

Pangasinan vowel phonemes

The phoneme i

The phoneme E

The phoneme e

The phoneme a

The phoneme o

Is there a phoneme u

General features of Pangasinan vowels

Pangasinan semivowels

Consonants

Pangasinan consonant phonemes

Labial Consonants

Dental Consonants

Alveolar consonant

Velar consonants

Glottal consonant

Consonant combinations

Initial consonant clusters and phonemic ch

Medial clusters

Agreement of nasals with following consonants

Nasal Replacement

Stress and syllabification

Initial consonant clusters

Syllable types

Syllabification within the word

Stress

Stress contrasts

Intonation

Characteristics of intonation patterns

Critical points

Relativity of pitch

Some basic Pangasinan intonation patterns

Orthography



Word roots affixes and word classes

Kinds of root

Types of affix

Stems

Word Classes

Particles

Topic marking particles

Phonological changes

Use of topic markers

Examples (personal markers)

Examples (imay iraacutemay)

Examples (so)

Articles

Changes in phonological shape

Uses of Articles

Examples

Si as an article

Example

Attributive and object (non-focus) markers


Examples

Use of attributivenon-topic object markers

Examples (attribution)

Examples (na marking object)

Further uses of na

Referent markers


Examples

Use of referent markers

Examples

Benefactive marker

Examples

Identificational prepositions

Examples

Temporal and conditional prepositions and conjunctions

Example

Example

Examples

Examples

Examples

The linker ya

Examples

Displacement of linked phrase

Examples

Other Conjunctions

Examples

Examples

Examples

Examples

ADVERBS

Negative adverbs

Examples

Interrogative adverbs

Examples

Optative adverbs

Examples

Adverbs of certainty and uncertainty

Examples

Adverbs of limitation

Examples

Adverbs of intensity duration continuity and frequency

Examples

Adverbs of repetition

Examples

Adverbs of distribution

Examples

Adverbs of alternation

Examples

Adverbs of time

Examples

Adverb of respect

Examples

Adverb of identity

Example

Adverbs of comparison

Examples

Adverbs and Adjectives

Pronouns Demonstratives and Pro-Phrases

Pronouns

SubjectTopic pronouns

Phonological variations

Examples

AttributiveNon-focus pronouns


Order of subject and attributive pronouns

Examples

Independent pronouns

Interrogative pronoun

Examples

Demonstratives



Examples

Locative demonstratives

Examples

Combination of locative demonstratives and existential adjective

Examples

Existential demonstratives

Examples

Independent demonstratives


Components of independent demonstratives and articles

Examples

Independent pronouns and demonstrative stems

Example

Demonstratives of similarity

Examples

Pro-phrases of time

Examples

Interrogative pro-phrases

Examples

Nouns

Structure of noun stems

Basic nouns

Examples

Derived nouns

Grammatical categories of nouns

Plurality (multiplicity) in nouns

Agreement of articles demonstrative adjectives verbs and nouns


Shift in stress

Examples

Reduplication of first consonant and following vowel

Examples

Reduplication of initial (C)VC

Examples

Reduplication of initial (C)VCV

Examples

Affixation with -(e)s

Examples

Affixation with ka-hellip-aacuten

Examples

Affixes associated with noun stems

Nominal affixes

Nominalizing affixes

Multiple classification of word roots

Non-productive affixes

Adjectives

Structure of adjective stems

Examples

Constructions involving adjectives

Phrases containing several adjectives

Adjectives followed by attributive phrases

Examples

lsquoSuperlativersquo adjectives

Examples

Affixes of intensity and diminution

Derivational affixes

Examples

Verbs


Aspect

Transitivity

Mode

Focus

Voice

Verbal Affixes

Unaffixed passive verb stems

Examples

Unaffixed verb stems denoting activity itself

Examples


Stress shifts

Vowel deletion

Numerals

Basic Numerals


Cardinal numerals

Spanish-derived ordinal numerals

Examples

Pangasinan numerals

Ordinal numerals

Use of simple ordinal numerals

Examples

Complex numerals

Individuated numerals

Distributive numerals

Frequentative numerals -- cardinal

Frequentative numerals -- ordinal

Numerals of limitation

Numeral of group distribution

Ordinal numerals

Fractional numerals

Affixes associated with numeral stems



Sentence types

MINOR SENTENCES

Greetings

Farewells

Interjections

Other minor sentences

Equational sentences

The comment phrase

The topic phrase

Examples

Inverted equational sentences

Examples

Negating equational sentences

Examples

Cross reference to attributive and topic pronouns

Examples (attributive pronoun + appo-sitional phrase)

Example (attributive + topic pronoun + appositional phrase)

Examples (topic pronoun + appositional phrase)

Verbal Sentences

Structure of verbal sentences

The verb phrase

Potential subjects of the verbal sentence

Examples

Other phrases

Example


Normal order

Emphasis

Subject functioning as comment phrase

Examples

Emphasis of time phrase

Examples

Emphasis of referent of location

Examples

Shift of subject in emphatic equation-type verbal sentences

Displacement of focused attributive phrase by object phrase

Examples

Displacement of focused attributive phrase by independent demonstrative

Example

Emphasis of subject pronoun

Examples

Emphasis of linked adjective in verb phrase

Examples

Pronominalization

Pronominalization of action-attributive phrase

Examples

Pronominalization of plural attributive phrases

Examples

Pronominalization of focused phrase other than action-attributive

Examples

Pronominalization of unfocused non-attributive phrases

Examples

Displacement of linked complements by subject and attributive pronouns

Examples

Displacement of particles contiguous to verb

Examples


Equation-type emphatic sentences

Examples

Negating an anaphoric comment phrase

Examples

Other verbal sentences

Negation of verb action-attributive or subject

Examples

Negation of non-equational emphatic sentences

Examples

Negation of imperative sentences

Examples

Negation of particles in the verb phrase

Examples

Anaphoric negative action-attributive phrases

Examples

Focus

Focus transformations


changes in status of focused and unfocused phrases

Transitivity actors objects and goals

Examples

Sets of focus affixes

Focus of verbs used in lsquoinfinitiversquo sense

Examples

Focus relationships between questions and replies and in verb sequences

Imperative sentences

Modal imperatives

Examples

Declarative imperatives

Examples

Exercises --Direct Voice Verbal Sentences

Active sentences

Exercise I - Verbal affixes on- (i[ncomplete]) -inm- (c[omplete]) neutral transitivity indicative mood

Exercise II - man- (i) nan- (c) implicit transhy sitivity intentive mood

Exercise III - maN- (i) aN- (c) implicit transishy tivity

Exercise IV - mantildegi (i) antildegi- (c) explicit transitivity

Exercise V - aka- (c) neutral transitivity involuntary mode

Exercise VI - mi- (i) aki- (c) reciprocal

Exercise VII mi- hellip -a (i) aki- hellip -an (c) reciprocal emphatic

Exercise VIII maka- (c) potential

Exercise IX maka- + pi- (c) potential reciprocal

Exercise X makaka- (i) potential

Exercise XI magsi- (i) nagsi- (c) distributive

Passive affixes

Exercise XII -en (i) -in- (c) explicit transitivshy ity

Exercise XIII i- (i) in- (c) intentive

Exercise XIV ni- (c) intentive purposive potential

Exercise XV na- (i) a- (c) potential

Exercise XVI na- (i) na- ( + stress shift or vowel deletion (c)) involuntary

Exercise XVII pan- (i) inpan- (c) paN- (i) inpaN- (c) pantildegi- (i) inpantildegi- (c) subject = time phrase


Exercise XVIII -an (i) -in- hellip -an (c) indicative

Exercise XIX pan- hellip -an (i) nan- hellip -an (c) location source

Exercise XX paN- hellip -an (i) aN- hellip -an (c) location source

Exercise XXI pantildegi- hellip -an (i) antildegi- hellip -an (c) location source

Exercise XXII na- hellip -an (i) a- hellip -an (c) potential

Exercise XXIII paka- hellip -an (i) aka- hellip -an (c) involuntary

Exercise XXIV na- hellip -an (i) na- + stress shift or vowel deletion hellip -an (c) potential involuntary

Benefactive focus

Exercise XXV i- hellip -an (i) in- hellip -an (c) indicative

Exercise XXVI ni- hellip -an (c) intentive potential

Instrumental focus

Exercise XXVII (i) pan- (i) inpan- (c) (for the use of pan- inpan- in reference to time phrases see Exercise XVII (passive affixes))

Exercise XXVIII (i) pantildegi-(i) inpantildegi- (c) (see also Exercise XVII (passive affixes))

Causative Voice

Implications of causative voice

Transitivity and focus relationships in causative sentences

Active sentences

Examples

Passive sentences

Examples


Examples

Benefactive and instrument focus sentences

Examples

Exercises --Causative Verbal Sentences

Active sentences

Exercise XXIX man- (i) nan- (c) + pa-

Passive sentences

Exercise XXX i- (i) in- (c) + pa-

Exercise XXXI na- (i) a- (c) + pa-


Exercise XXXII -an (i) -in- hellip -an (c) + pa-


Exercise XXXIII i- hellip -an (i) in- hellip -an (c) + pa-

APPENDIX I

Index to Affixes

APPENDIX II

Keys to Exercises

APPENDIX III

Miscellaneous Lexical Items

Personal pronouns



Basic numerals

Focus-marking verbal affixes

Active affixes

Passive affixes


Benefactive focus affixes

Instrumental focus affixes

Agent focus affixes


Basic Vocabulary (Swadesh 200-word list)

PALI LANGUAGE TEXTS PHILIPPINES(Pacific amp Asian Linguistics Institute)



by

Richard A Benton









Foreword




vii

Preface





viii




Preface

ix

Table of Contents






x















Table of Contents

xi



















PRONOUNS 74

Table of Contents

xii
















Table of Contents

xiii















Table of Contents

xiv










phrase) 145

Table of Contents

xv



















Table of Contents

xvi


















Table of Contents

xvii









Table of Contents

xviii





Table of Contents

xix

IPHONOLOGY

1

IPHONOLOGY





2







PHONOLOGY

3





4




CentralBack


LOWERHIGH

I [i2] [e] U [o2]

HIGH MID [E][i3]

[o3]

MID e[E]

ǝ o

LOWERMID

[a1]


PHONOLOGY

5






6








PHONOLOGY

7










other i


8








PHONOLOGY

9














10












PHONOLOGY

11













12







PHONOLOGY

13






CONSONANTS






14



stopped bp

dt

gk







PHONOLOGY

15










16








PHONOLOGY

17










18








PHONOLOGY

19








20







PHONOLOGY

21










22



r + + + + + +l + + + +s y + + + + + + +w + + + + + + + +








PHONOLOGY

23










24






PHONOLOGY

25







26





PHONOLOGY

27






28







PHONOLOGY

29












30















PHONOLOGY

31


3ngaacute2rem2
















32














PHONOLOGY

33






learnrsquo











34







mi 4naacute3tan3






PHONOLOGY

35














36



PHONOLOGY

37

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE

38

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE





39








40








41






42




imaacutey





Examples








43












44












45











46











47












48













49













Examples


50








Example









51












52













53















54













55













56















57










58











59














60













61











62














63











64
















65












66











frequency are



67














68














69













70














71









72











73










74

















75




his etc (resp)rsquo










76















77











NearSpeaker

NearAddressee







78















79















80












81















82

















83



















84













85









86










87










88







89









90









91









92










93











94










95







96








97







98












99













100












101















102












103








below


104










105










106











107








VERBS





108









109









110









111









112








113








114









115













116










117









118










119









120








121








122









123










124













125








126


NUMERALS










127










128










lsquotenrsquo


lsquotwentyrsquo




lsquofortyrsquo



129






lsquo172















130



















131




























132


























133














134











135









136


137





MINOR SENTENCES


greeting

138











139











140












141




















142














143












144












145












146

VERBAL SENTENCES








147









148









149











150


Emphasis









151










152










153








Examples




154










155











156













157










158









159












160












161












162













163












164















165









166








167












168









169






170







171














172










173














174










175












176











177














178















179













180

Active sentences









181



manaacuteral





182










183













184










Passive affixes



185









186












187











188




Bugallon








189









chicken (Eq)


190








Benefactive focus



191



Instrumental focus








192




house (Eq)








193









194












195














196












197








Active sentences







198




Passive sentences





heavy box







(1abaacutes)


199

















200




morrow






201

APPENDIX I



a-der








n -n1



Nouns Plurality



oslash - v

C1V- n-p1

CV-+ -en-an n-nz

(C)VC- n-p1

CVC- n-n1

CVC-+ -ra num


(C)VCV- n-p1

202





a- a-der

a- v ex 15

-a n-np


-ada -ado n-np

-ado -ada a-der

ag- v

agka- adv

aka- v ex 5



akan- n-n1

aki- v ex 6

aki- + CV- a-der

aki- hellip -an v

alas- num

ama- v

amin num

-an v ex 18 ex 32

-an n-nz

an- a-der

aN- v ex 3


-ana -ano n-np

antildegi- v ex 4

APPENDIX I

203


antildegka- a-id

-dor n-np

-en v ex 12

-en num

-entildeo n-np

-[en]se n-np

-(e)riaacute n-np

-era -ero n-np

-(eacute)s n-p1

-g- + CV- a-id

i- v ex 13 ex 30


ika-nun

-illo n-np

in-v ex 13ex 0

-in-v ex 12

-in-n-n1


-in-v



inka-n-n1 n-nz

inki-n-nz

-inm-v ex 1

inpai-v

inpama-v

inpan- v ex 27

inpaN- v

APPENDIX I

204


(i)pan- v ex 27

(i)paN- v


-(i)ra num

-ismo n-np

-ista n-np

-ita -ito n-np a-id

ka- n-n1

ka- n-n1 n-nz

ka-n-nz

ka-num

ka- hellip -an n-p1

ka- hellip -an n-nz


ka- hellip -an n-nz


kada- n-n1

kaka- num

kapan- a-der

ki- n-nz

ki- + CV- a-der


ki- hellip -an n-nz

koma- num

ma- a-der

magin- n-n1

magka- a-der

magkaka- a-der

APPENDIX I

205

magsi-v

magsi-hellip -an v

maiacute-+CV-a-der

maka-v ex 8 ex 9

makaka-v ex 10

makan-n-n1

makapa-a-der

maki-+CV-a-der

mala-a-der

mama-v

mamin-num

man-v ex 2 ex 29

man-v

man-a-der

man-+ CV-num

man-+ CVC(V) v

man-hellip -an v

manag-n-nz

manaN-n-nz

manka-a-id

mankaka a-id

maN- v ex 3

maN- man- n-n1

maN-n-n1

mantildega-n-nz

mantildegi-v ex 4

mapa-a-der

mapaN-a-der

-mento n-np

APPENDIX I

206

mi-v ex 6


mika- num

na- v ex 15 ex 31

na- v ex 16


na- a-der




nagka-adv

nagsi-v ex 11

nai-v


nan-v ex 2

nan-a-der


nan-hellip -an v

ni-v ex 14

ni-caus

ni-n-n1


-o n-np

-om-n-nz

on-v ex 1 num

on- +CV-v

-on n-np

pa-v ex 29-33


APPENDIX I

207

pagsi- hellip -an v

pai- v

paka- n-nz

paka-v


pama-v



pan-hellip -en v

panag- n-nz

panan- n-nz

panantildegi- n-nz






para- n-nz

pi n-nz

pi(n)-num

pinagka- n-nl

pinan-v

sam-num

san-n-nl

sanka-n-nl

sanka-a-der



sinan- a-der

APPENDIX I

208

-cioacuten n-np

tig- num

APPENDIX I

209

APPENDIX II












210






the fruit







APPENDIX II

211











the same) as Pedro




APPENDIX II

212







right arm)








APPENDIX II

213












baybaacutey





the picnic

APPENDIX II

214













APPENDIX II

215













APPENDIX II

216












EXERCISE XIX

APPENDIX II

217





Bugallon








APPENDIX II

218



the board












husband-to-be

APPENDIX II

219














APPENDIX II

220






da



for pinching with)




APPENDIX II

221






to come to yours




sikatoacute








APPENDIX II

222







lonely











APPENDIX II

223







to get wet

APPENDIX II

224

APPENDIX III









SubjectTopic


singFamiliarsi

nen

kiacutenen

PlRespdi

di

kindiacute


Pluraliraacutemay


225

Basic numerals








APPENDIX III

226





APPENDIX III

227




APPENDIX III

228


APPENDIX III

229


APPENDIX III

230


APPENDIX III

231


APPENDIX III

232



Foreword

Preface

Table of Contents

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

Significant sounds


The phoneme i

The phoneme E

The phoneme e

The phoneme a

The phoneme o




Consonants


Labial Consonants

Dental Consonants

Alveolar consonant

Velar consonants

Glottal consonant



Medial clusters


Nasal Replacement



Syllable types


Stress

Stress contrasts

Intonation


Critical points

Relativity of pitch


Orthography




Kinds of root

Types of affix

Stems

Word Classes

Particles






Examples (so)

Articles


Uses of Articles

Examples

Si as an article

Example



Examples




Further uses of na

Referent markers


Examples


Examples

Benefactive marker

Examples


Examples


Example

Example

Examples

Examples

Examples

The linker ya

Examples


Examples

Other Conjunctions

Examples

Examples

Examples

Examples

ADVERBS

Negative adverbs

Examples


Examples

Optative adverbs

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Adverbs of time

Examples

Adverb of respect

Examples

Adverb of identity

Example


Examples



Pronouns



Examples




Examples



Examples

Demonstratives



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples




Examples


Example


Examples

Pro-phrases of time

Examples


Examples

Nouns


Basic nouns

Examples

Derived nouns





Shift in stress

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Nominal affixes




Adjectives


Examples




Examples


Examples



Examples

Verbs


Aspect

Transitivity

Mode

Focus

Voice

Verbal Affixes


Examples


Examples


Stress shifts

Vowel deletion

Numerals

Basic Numerals


Cardinal numerals


Examples

Pangasinan numerals

Ordinal numerals


Examples

Complex numerals







Ordinal numerals

Fractional numerals




Sentence types

MINOR SENTENCES

Greetings

Farewells

Interjections



The comment phrase

The topic phrase

Examples


Examples


Examples





Verbal Sentences


The verb phrase


Examples

Other phrases

Example


Normal order

Emphasis


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Example


Examples


Examples

Pronominalization


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Focus





Examples



Examples



Modal imperatives

Examples


Examples


Active sentences












Passive affixes















Benefactive focus



Instrumental focus



Causative Voice



Active sentences

Examples

Passive sentences

Examples


Examples


Examples


Active sentences


Passive sentences







APPENDIX I

Index to Affixes

APPENDIX II

Keys to Exercises

APPENDIX III


Personal pronouns



Basic numerals


Active affixes

Passive affixes




Agent focus affixes




by

Richard A Benton









Foreword




vii

Preface





viii




Preface

ix

Table of Contents






x















Table of Contents

xi



















PRONOUNS 74

Table of Contents

xii
















Table of Contents

xiii















Table of Contents

xiv










phrase) 145

Table of Contents

xv



















Table of Contents

xvi


















Table of Contents

xvii









Table of Contents

xviii





Table of Contents

xix

IPHONOLOGY

1

IPHONOLOGY





2







PHONOLOGY

3





4




CentralBack


LOWERHIGH

I [i2] [e] U [o2]

HIGH MID [E][i3]

[o3]

MID e[E]

ǝ o

LOWERMID

[a1]


PHONOLOGY

5






6








PHONOLOGY

7










other i


8








PHONOLOGY

9














10












PHONOLOGY

11













12







PHONOLOGY

13






CONSONANTS






14



stopped bp

dt

gk







PHONOLOGY

15










16








PHONOLOGY

17










18








PHONOLOGY

19








20







PHONOLOGY

21










22



r + + + + + +l + + + +s y + + + + + + +w + + + + + + + +








PHONOLOGY

23










24






PHONOLOGY

25







26





PHONOLOGY

27






28







PHONOLOGY

29












30















PHONOLOGY

31


3ngaacute2rem2
















32














PHONOLOGY

33






learnrsquo











34







mi 4naacute3tan3






PHONOLOGY

35














36



PHONOLOGY

37

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE

38

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE





39








40








41






42




imaacutey





Examples








43












44












45











46











47












48













49













Examples


50








Example









51












52













53















54













55













56















57










58











59














60













61











62














63











64
















65












66











frequency are



67














68














69













70














71









72











73










74

















75




his etc (resp)rsquo










76















77











NearSpeaker

NearAddressee







78















79















80












81















82

















83



















84













85









86










87










88







89









90









91









92










93











94










95







96








97







98












99













100












101















102












103








below


104










105










106











107








VERBS





108









109









110









111









112








113








114









115













116










117









118










119









120








121








122









123










124













125








126


NUMERALS










127










128










lsquotenrsquo


lsquotwentyrsquo




lsquofortyrsquo



129






lsquo172















130



















131




























132


























133














134











135









136


137





MINOR SENTENCES


greeting

138











139











140












141




















142














143












144












145












146

VERBAL SENTENCES








147









148









149











150


Emphasis









151










152










153








Examples




154










155











156













157










158









159












160












161












162













163












164















165









166








167












168









169






170







171














172










173














174










175












176











177














178















179













180

Active sentences









181



manaacuteral





182










183













184










Passive affixes



185









186












187











188




Bugallon








189









chicken (Eq)


190








Benefactive focus



191



Instrumental focus








192




house (Eq)








193









194












195














196












197








Active sentences







198




Passive sentences





heavy box







(1abaacutes)


199

















200




morrow






201

APPENDIX I



a-der








n -n1



Nouns Plurality



oslash - v

C1V- n-p1

CV-+ -en-an n-nz

(C)VC- n-p1

CVC- n-n1

CVC-+ -ra num


(C)VCV- n-p1

202





a- a-der

a- v ex 15

-a n-np


-ada -ado n-np

-ado -ada a-der

ag- v

agka- adv

aka- v ex 5



akan- n-n1

aki- v ex 6

aki- + CV- a-der

aki- hellip -an v

alas- num

ama- v

amin num

-an v ex 18 ex 32

-an n-nz

an- a-der

aN- v ex 3


-ana -ano n-np

antildegi- v ex 4

APPENDIX I

203


antildegka- a-id

-dor n-np

-en v ex 12

-en num

-entildeo n-np

-[en]se n-np

-(e)riaacute n-np

-era -ero n-np

-(eacute)s n-p1

-g- + CV- a-id

i- v ex 13 ex 30


ika-nun

-illo n-np

in-v ex 13ex 0

-in-v ex 12

-in-n-n1


-in-v



inka-n-n1 n-nz

inki-n-nz

-inm-v ex 1

inpai-v

inpama-v

inpan- v ex 27

inpaN- v

APPENDIX I

204


(i)pan- v ex 27

(i)paN- v


-(i)ra num

-ismo n-np

-ista n-np

-ita -ito n-np a-id

ka- n-n1

ka- n-n1 n-nz

ka-n-nz

ka-num

ka- hellip -an n-p1

ka- hellip -an n-nz


ka- hellip -an n-nz


kada- n-n1

kaka- num

kapan- a-der

ki- n-nz

ki- + CV- a-der


ki- hellip -an n-nz

koma- num

ma- a-der

magin- n-n1

magka- a-der

magkaka- a-der

APPENDIX I

205

magsi-v

magsi-hellip -an v

maiacute-+CV-a-der

maka-v ex 8 ex 9

makaka-v ex 10

makan-n-n1

makapa-a-der

maki-+CV-a-der

mala-a-der

mama-v

mamin-num

man-v ex 2 ex 29

man-v

man-a-der

man-+ CV-num

man-+ CVC(V) v

man-hellip -an v

manag-n-nz

manaN-n-nz

manka-a-id

mankaka a-id

maN- v ex 3

maN- man- n-n1

maN-n-n1

mantildega-n-nz

mantildegi-v ex 4

mapa-a-der

mapaN-a-der

-mento n-np

APPENDIX I

206

mi-v ex 6


mika- num

na- v ex 15 ex 31

na- v ex 16


na- a-der




nagka-adv

nagsi-v ex 11

nai-v


nan-v ex 2

nan-a-der


nan-hellip -an v

ni-v ex 14

ni-caus

ni-n-n1


-o n-np

-om-n-nz

on-v ex 1 num

on- +CV-v

-on n-np

pa-v ex 29-33


APPENDIX I

207

pagsi- hellip -an v

pai- v

paka- n-nz

paka-v


pama-v



pan-hellip -en v

panag- n-nz

panan- n-nz

panantildegi- n-nz






para- n-nz

pi n-nz

pi(n)-num

pinagka- n-nl

pinan-v

sam-num

san-n-nl

sanka-n-nl

sanka-a-der



sinan- a-der

APPENDIX I

208

-cioacuten n-np

tig- num

APPENDIX I

209

APPENDIX II












210






the fruit







APPENDIX II

211











the same) as Pedro




APPENDIX II

212







right arm)








APPENDIX II

213












baybaacutey





the picnic

APPENDIX II

214













APPENDIX II

215













APPENDIX II

216












EXERCISE XIX

APPENDIX II

217





Bugallon








APPENDIX II

218



the board












husband-to-be

APPENDIX II

219














APPENDIX II

220






da



for pinching with)




APPENDIX II

221






to come to yours




sikatoacute








APPENDIX II

222







lonely











APPENDIX II

223







to get wet

APPENDIX II

224

APPENDIX III









SubjectTopic


singFamiliarsi

nen

kiacutenen

PlRespdi

di

kindiacute


Pluraliraacutemay


225

Basic numerals








APPENDIX III

226





APPENDIX III

227




APPENDIX III

228


APPENDIX III

229


APPENDIX III

230


APPENDIX III

231


APPENDIX III

232



Foreword

Preface

Table of Contents

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

Significant sounds


The phoneme i

The phoneme E

The phoneme e

The phoneme a

The phoneme o




Consonants


Labial Consonants

Dental Consonants

Alveolar consonant

Velar consonants

Glottal consonant



Medial clusters


Nasal Replacement



Syllable types


Stress

Stress contrasts

Intonation


Critical points

Relativity of pitch


Orthography




Kinds of root

Types of affix

Stems

Word Classes

Particles






Examples (so)

Articles


Uses of Articles

Examples

Si as an article

Example



Examples




Further uses of na

Referent markers


Examples


Examples

Benefactive marker

Examples


Examples


Example

Example

Examples

Examples

Examples

The linker ya

Examples


Examples

Other Conjunctions

Examples

Examples

Examples

Examples

ADVERBS

Negative adverbs

Examples


Examples

Optative adverbs

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Adverbs of time

Examples

Adverb of respect

Examples

Adverb of identity

Example


Examples



Pronouns



Examples




Examples



Examples

Demonstratives



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples




Examples


Example


Examples

Pro-phrases of time

Examples


Examples

Nouns


Basic nouns

Examples

Derived nouns





Shift in stress

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Nominal affixes




Adjectives


Examples




Examples


Examples



Examples

Verbs


Aspect

Transitivity

Mode

Focus

Voice

Verbal Affixes


Examples


Examples


Stress shifts

Vowel deletion

Numerals

Basic Numerals


Cardinal numerals


Examples

Pangasinan numerals

Ordinal numerals


Examples

Complex numerals







Ordinal numerals

Fractional numerals




Sentence types

MINOR SENTENCES

Greetings

Farewells

Interjections



The comment phrase

The topic phrase

Examples


Examples


Examples





Verbal Sentences


The verb phrase


Examples

Other phrases

Example


Normal order

Emphasis


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Example


Examples


Examples

Pronominalization


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Focus





Examples



Examples



Modal imperatives

Examples


Examples


Active sentences












Passive affixes















Benefactive focus



Instrumental focus



Causative Voice



Active sentences

Examples

Passive sentences

Examples


Examples


Examples


Active sentences


Passive sentences







APPENDIX I

Index to Affixes

APPENDIX II

Keys to Exercises

APPENDIX III


Personal pronouns



Basic numerals


Active affixes

Passive affixes




Agent focus affixes










Foreword




vii

Preface





viii




Preface

ix

Table of Contents






x















Table of Contents

xi



















PRONOUNS 74

Table of Contents

xii
















Table of Contents

xiii















Table of Contents

xiv










phrase) 145

Table of Contents

xv



















Table of Contents

xvi


















Table of Contents

xvii









Table of Contents

xviii





Table of Contents

xix

IPHONOLOGY

1

IPHONOLOGY





2







PHONOLOGY

3





4




CentralBack


LOWERHIGH

I [i2] [e] U [o2]

HIGH MID [E][i3]

[o3]

MID e[E]

ǝ o

LOWERMID

[a1]


PHONOLOGY

5






6








PHONOLOGY

7










other i


8








PHONOLOGY

9














10












PHONOLOGY

11













12







PHONOLOGY

13






CONSONANTS






14



stopped bp

dt

gk







PHONOLOGY

15










16








PHONOLOGY

17










18








PHONOLOGY

19








20







PHONOLOGY

21










22



r + + + + + +l + + + +s y + + + + + + +w + + + + + + + +








PHONOLOGY

23










24






PHONOLOGY

25







26





PHONOLOGY

27






28







PHONOLOGY

29












30















PHONOLOGY

31


3ngaacute2rem2
















32














PHONOLOGY

33






learnrsquo











34







mi 4naacute3tan3






PHONOLOGY

35














36



PHONOLOGY

37

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE

38

IIWORDS AND THEIR

STRUCTURE





39








40








41






42




imaacutey





Examples








43












44












45











46











47












48













49













Examples


50








Example









51












52













53















54













55













56















57










58











59














60













61











62














63











64
















65












66











frequency are



67














68














69













70














71









72











73










74

















75




his etc (resp)rsquo










76















77











NearSpeaker

NearAddressee







78















79















80












81















82

















83



















84













85









86










87










88







89









90









91









92










93











94










95







96








97







98












99













100












101















102












103








below


104










105










106











107








VERBS





108









109









110









111









112








113








114









115













116










117









118










119









120








121








122









123










124













125








126


NUMERALS










127










128










lsquotenrsquo


lsquotwentyrsquo




lsquofortyrsquo



129






lsquo172















130



















131




























132


























133














134











135









136


137





MINOR SENTENCES


greeting

138











139











140












141




















142














143












144












145












146

VERBAL SENTENCES








147









148









149











150


Emphasis









151










152










153








Examples




154










155











156













157










158









159












160












161












162













163












164















165









166








167












168









169






170







171














172










173














174










175












176











177














178















179













180

Active sentences









181



manaacuteral





182










183













184










Passive affixes



185









186












187











188




Bugallon








189









chicken (Eq)


190








Benefactive focus



191



Instrumental focus








192




house (Eq)








193









194












195














196












197








Active sentences







198




Passive sentences





heavy box







(1abaacutes)


199

















200




morrow






201

APPENDIX I



a-der








n -n1



Nouns Plurality



oslash - v

C1V- n-p1

CV-+ -en-an n-nz

(C)VC- n-p1

CVC- n-n1

CVC-+ -ra num


(C)VCV- n-p1

202





a- a-der

a- v ex 15

-a n-np


-ada -ado n-np

-ado -ada a-der

ag- v

agka- adv

aka- v ex 5



akan- n-n1

aki- v ex 6

aki- + CV- a-der

aki- hellip -an v

alas- num

ama- v

amin num

-an v ex 18 ex 32

-an n-nz

an- a-der

aN- v ex 3


-ana -ano n-np

antildegi- v ex 4

APPENDIX I

203


antildegka- a-id

-dor n-np

-en v ex 12

-en num

-entildeo n-np

-[en]se n-np

-(e)riaacute n-np

-era -ero n-np

-(eacute)s n-p1

-g- + CV- a-id

i- v ex 13 ex 30


ika-nun

-illo n-np

in-v ex 13ex 0

-in-v ex 12

-in-n-n1


-in-v



inka-n-n1 n-nz

inki-n-nz

-inm-v ex 1

inpai-v

inpama-v

inpan- v ex 27

inpaN- v

APPENDIX I

204


(i)pan- v ex 27

(i)paN- v


-(i)ra num

-ismo n-np

-ista n-np

-ita -ito n-np a-id

ka- n-n1

ka- n-n1 n-nz

ka-n-nz

ka-num

ka- hellip -an n-p1

ka- hellip -an n-nz


ka- hellip -an n-nz


kada- n-n1

kaka- num

kapan- a-der

ki- n-nz

ki- + CV- a-der


ki- hellip -an n-nz

koma- num

ma- a-der

magin- n-n1

magka- a-der

magkaka- a-der

APPENDIX I

205

magsi-v

magsi-hellip -an v

maiacute-+CV-a-der

maka-v ex 8 ex 9

makaka-v ex 10

makan-n-n1

makapa-a-der

maki-+CV-a-der

mala-a-der

mama-v

mamin-num

man-v ex 2 ex 29

man-v

man-a-der

man-+ CV-num

man-+ CVC(V) v

man-hellip -an v

manag-n-nz

manaN-n-nz

manka-a-id

mankaka a-id

maN- v ex 3

maN- man- n-n1

maN-n-n1

mantildega-n-nz

mantildegi-v ex 4

mapa-a-der

mapaN-a-der

-mento n-np

APPENDIX I

206

mi-v ex 6


mika- num

na- v ex 15 ex 31

na- v ex 16


na- a-der




nagka-adv

nagsi-v ex 11

nai-v


nan-v ex 2

nan-a-der


nan-hellip -an v

ni-v ex 14

ni-caus

ni-n-n1


-o n-np

-om-n-nz

on-v ex 1 num

on- +CV-v

-on n-np

pa-v ex 29-33


APPENDIX I

207

pagsi- hellip -an v

pai- v

paka- n-nz

paka-v


pama-v



pan-hellip -en v

panag- n-nz

panan- n-nz

panantildegi- n-nz






para- n-nz

pi n-nz

pi(n)-num

pinagka- n-nl

pinan-v

sam-num

san-n-nl

sanka-n-nl

sanka-a-der



sinan- a-der

APPENDIX I

208

-cioacuten n-np

tig- num

APPENDIX I

209

APPENDIX II












210






the fruit







APPENDIX II

211











the same) as Pedro




APPENDIX II

212







right arm)








APPENDIX II

213












baybaacutey





the picnic

APPENDIX II

214













APPENDIX II

215













APPENDIX II

216












EXERCISE XIX

APPENDIX II

217





Bugallon








APPENDIX II

218



the board












husband-to-be

APPENDIX II

219














APPENDIX II

220






da



for pinching with)




APPENDIX II

221






to come to yours




sikatoacute








APPENDIX II

222







lonely











APPENDIX II

223







to get wet

APPENDIX II

224

APPENDIX III









SubjectTopic


singFamiliarsi

nen

kiacutenen

PlRespdi

di

kindiacute


Pluraliraacutemay


225

Basic numerals








APPENDIX III

226





APPENDIX III

227




APPENDIX III

228


APPENDIX III

229


APPENDIX III

230


APPENDIX III

231


APPENDIX III

232



Foreword

Preface

Table of Contents

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

Significant sounds


The phoneme i

The phoneme E

The phoneme e

The phoneme a

The phoneme o




Consonants


Labial Consonants

Dental Consonants

Alveolar consonant

Velar consonants

Glottal consonant



Medial clusters


Nasal Replacement



Syllable types


Stress

Stress contrasts

Intonation


Critical points

Relativity of pitch


Orthography




Kinds of root

Types of affix

Stems

Word Classes

Particles






Examples (so)

Articles


Uses of Articles

Examples

Si as an article

Example



Examples




Further uses of na

Referent markers


Examples


Examples

Benefactive marker

Examples


Examples


Example

Example

Examples

Examples

Examples

The linker ya

Examples


Examples

Other Conjunctions

Examples

Examples

Examples

Examples

ADVERBS

Negative adverbs

Examples


Examples

Optative adverbs

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Adverbs of time

Examples

Adverb of respect

Examples

Adverb of identity

Example


Examples



Pronouns



Examples




Examples



Examples

Demonstratives



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples




Examples


Example


Examples

Pro-phrases of time

Examples


Examples

Nouns


Basic nouns

Examples

Derived nouns





Shift in stress

Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Nominal affixes




Adjectives


Examples




Examples


Examples



Examples

Verbs


Aspect

Transitivity

Mode

Focus

Voice

Verbal Affixes


Examples


Examples


Stress shifts

Vowel deletion

Numerals

Basic Numerals


Cardinal numerals


Examples

Pangasinan numerals

Ordinal numerals


Examples

Complex numerals







Ordinal numerals

Fractional numerals




Sentence types

MINOR SENTENCES

Greetings

Farewells

Interjections



The comment phrase

The topic phrase

Examples


Examples


Examples





Verbal Sentences


The verb phrase


Examples

Other phrases

Example


Normal order

Emphasis


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Example


Examples


Examples

Pronominalization


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples



Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples


Examples

Focus





Examples



Examples



Modal imperatives

Examples


Examples


Active sentences












Passive affixes















Benefactive focus



Instrumental focus



Causative Voice



Active sentences

Examples

Passive sentences

Examples


Examples


Examples


Active sentences


Passive sentences







APPENDIX I

Index to Affixes

APPENDIX II

Keys to Exercises

APPENDIX III


Personal pronouns



Basic numerals


Active affixes

Passive affixes




Agent focus affixes



Pangasinan Reference Grammar...Although Pangasinan speakers only slightly outnumber speakers of...

Documents

Transcript of Pangasinan Reference Grammar...Although Pangasinan speakers only slightly outnumber speakers of...