Overview, Production and Postharvest Technologies · History and origin Production and trade Global...

Part I Overview, Production and

Postharvest Technologies CO

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1 Dry Beans and Pulses Production and Consumption — An Overview Muhammad Siddiq and Mark A. Uebersax

Introduction History and origin

Production and trade Global production and trade US production and trade

Consumption trends of dry beans Dry beans and pulses as a diverse food

resource Traditional utilization

Value - added processing and products Nutritional and health considerations

Nutritional profi le Health signifi cance Beans and pulses use in weaning foods Constraints to beans and pulses utilization

Beans and pulses in world food security Summary References

INTRODUCTION

Legumes (dry beans and pulses) occupy an important place in human nutrition, especially among the low - income groups of people in developing countries. They are a good source of protein (signifi cantly higher than that of cereals), dietary fi ber, starch (Osorio - Diaz et al. 2003 ), minerals and vitamins (Kutos et al. 2002 ). They are a staple food and low - cost source of protein in developing countries where protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is prevalent (Van Heerden and Schonfeldt 2004 ). Many reports claim that inclusion of legumes in the daily diet has many benefi cial physiological effects in controlling and preventing various metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease and colon cancer (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma 2003 ). Further, legumes belong to the group that elicits the lowest blood glucose response and contains considerable amount of phenolic compounds. The role of legumes as therapeutic agents in the diets of people suffering from metabolic disorders has gained signifi cant interest in recent years.

Legume crops demonstrate global adaptability, genotypic and phenotypic diversity, and multiple means of preparation and dietary use (see Fig. 1.1 for a selection of common dry

Dry Beans and Pulses Production, Processing and Nutrition, First Edition. Edited by Muhammad Siddiq and Mark A. Uebersax.© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3

4 Overview, Production and Postharvest Technologies

Fig. 1.1. A selection of common dry beans and pulses ( see book cover for color photo ).

Desi Chick pea

Navy

Pinto

Black

Cranberry

Dark Red Kidney

Chick pea Dhal

‘Soup Mix’

Mung bean

Great Northern

Kabuli Chick pea

Small Red

Cowpea/Black eye pea

Light Red Kidney

Lentil Dhal

beans and pulses). Numerous factors infl uence utilization, including: bean type and cultivar selection, cropping environment and systems, storage conditions and handling infrastruc-ture, processing, and fi nal product preparation. Further, nutrient content and bioavailability are dramatically infl uenced by these conditions. Antinutritional factors (trypsin inhibitors, lectins and phytic acid) have long been recognized as concerns and require appropriate processing conditions to ameliorate adverse effects. However, it is noted that some of the antinutrients may have therapeutic value (e.g., tannins, phenolics). In recent years, beans have been cited for imparting specifi c positive health potentiating responses (hypocholes-teremic response, mitigation of diabetes and colorectal cancer, and weight control) when properly positioned in the diet.

The general consensus of recent opinion on healthy eating habits favors an increase in the proportion of legume - based polymeric plant carbohydrates, including starch (particu-larly, resistant starch) in the diet. In the growing phase of urbanization in developing countries, ready - to - eat foods are beginning to play a major role in food consumption pat-terns, and moreover, traditional methods of preparation are generally labor and time inten-sive and certainly unsuitable for urban settings where time is very often a major constraint (Njintang et al. 2001 ).

The common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is considered the most widely grown among more than 30 Phaseolus species described in the literature. It has undergone wide produc-

Dry Beans and Pulses Production and Consumption—An Overview 5

tion distribution from its origins in Mexico, Central America, and the Andean region of South America, has extensive domestication and cultivation, and has been utilized in a variety of food preparations (Hidalgo 1988 ). Scientifi c (genus and species) and common names for various food legumes are:

• Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common bean, fi eld bean, haricot) • Vigna unguiculata L. (cowpea, black - eyed pea, crowder pea) • Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea, garbanzo, Bengal gram, gram, Chana) • Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil, Masur) • Vigna aureus (mung bean, green gram, golden gram) • Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. (pigeon pea, Congo pea, red gram, Angola pea, yellow

dhal) • Phaseolus lunatus L. (lima bean, butter bean) • Vicia faba L. (broad bean, faba bean, horse bean) • Vigna aconitifolia Jacq. (moth bean, mat bean) • Pisum arvense sativum L. (common or garden pea, pois, arveja, Alaska pea, muttar) • Glycine max (L.) Merr. (soybean, soya, haba soya)

Enhanced dry bean utilization focused on improved dietary health is an opportunity within subsistence and developed diets. This chapter provides an overview the important aspects of dry beans and pulses production, postharvest handling and storage, value - added processing and products, nutritional signifi cance, and health benefi ts.

History and o rigin

Beans may be called “ the food of the ancients, ” with literature recording the cultivation of beans, lupins and lentils in the Nile Valley dating as early as 2000 BC. Beans have played a part in the superstitions, the politics and the warfare of ancient peoples. Magistrates were elected in Greece and Rome by the casting of beans into helmets. Certain kinds have been credited with medicinal value (Hardenburg 1927 ). Various forms still serve as the principal source of protein food for the vast populations in the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Phaseolus beans are recognized as an exclusive New World crop of American origin despite their wide distribution worldwide. It is now generally accepted that all the species of the genus Phaseolus originated in Mexico, Guatemala, and the high Andes based on the wide genetic diversity of the cultivated and wild species that exists in the region (Evans 1976 ).

The early Europeans, fi rst in the New England states of the United States, then genera-tions later in the upper Midwest (Great Lakes region), found that the white pea bean and many other dry beans provided a fi ne staple for their own subsistence diet. The settlers possessed many considerable possibilities in growing dry beans that the native Indians apparently never exploited. They traded their excess production to non - bean growing neighbors for goods, services, or cash. The Iroquois Indians grew this small, round pea bean (Indian bean) with corn and squash (the “ three sisters ” cropping system); this bean later became known as the “ navy bean ” because of the large demand that developed for this bean for naval and marine food supply purposes.


PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Dry beans are grown widely in different regions of the world. The signifi cance of dry beans and pulses is made clear by the wide distribution of their production and consumption in the diverse regions of the world, as summarized below:

• East Asia : China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam

• South Asia : Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka • West Asia/Middle East : Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Yemen • North America : USA, Mexico, Canada • Central America and Caribbean : Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El

Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama • South America : Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru,

Uruguay, Venezuela • Europe : Albania, Austria, Benelux, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,

Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Russian Federation

• East Africa : Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire

• West Africa : Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia • South Africa : Angola, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Republic of South Africa,

Swaziland, Zimbabwe

Global p roduction and t rade

The world production of dry beans was 23.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2010, which represented an increase of almost 70% as compared to that in 1980 (Fig. 1.2 ). From 1980 to 2000, dry production increased by 3.9 million MT; however, a signifi cantly higher increase (5.6 million MT) was reported in only the 10 - year period from 2000 to 2010. The area under dry beans cultivation increased only by 14% during the past three decades and has ranged between 23.83 million hectares (2000) and 28.83 million hectares (2007). These fi gures illustrate that most of the production increases during the past three decades were achieved through genetic improvements and applying good agricultural practices (GAPs) than through increases in area under cultivation. Most regions of the world have seen signifi cant increases in production during past three decades: Africa (145%), Asia (36%), and the Americas (North, Central and South) (49%); only Europe saw a decrease of about 35% (FAO 2011 ).

The total world production of pulses (chickpeas, lentils, lupins, pigeon peas, vetches, and other minor pulses) in 2010 was 24.3 million MT, which was more than double than that in 1980. It is noted that while the pulses production increased by 53% in 10 years (1980 – 90), it has advanced at a slower rate (32%) from 1990 to 2010. The area under pulse cultivation increased by 23% from 21.5 million hectares to 26.5 million hectares; however, during the 1990 – 2010 period, cultivation area for pulses has not changed signifi cantly, as exhibited by only a 5.6% increase.

The fava/cowpea world production was 10.6 million MT in 2010, which was more than three times as much as compared to 1980. While the fava/cowpea production ranged between 3.4 million MT and 5.7 million MT during 1980 – 90, it increased by about 86%

Fig. 1.2. Area under cultivation (lines) and world production (bars) of dry beans, pulses and fava/cowpea (1980 – 2010). Dry beans data include pinto, navy, kidney, lima, black, Great Northern; pulses data include chickpeas, lentils, lupins, pigeon peas, vetches, and other minor pulses. Source: FAO (2011).

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Fava/Cowpeas

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from 1990 to 2010. The area under fava/cowpea cultivation experienced similar growth from 1.2 million hectares in 1980 to 5.6 million hectares in 2010. In contrast to dry beans, the boost in fava/cowpea world production appeared to be related mainly to the increases in the cultivated area.

India, Brazil, Myanmar, China, and the United States were the top fi ve dry beans - producing countries, with a production of 4,870,000 MT; 3,202,150 MT; 3,029,800 MT; 1,539,500 MT; and 1,442,470 MT, respectively, in 2010 (Table 1.1 ); combined, these fi ve countries contributed over 50% of the total world production.

Nigeria and Niger were the major cowpea producers, accounting for 73% of the total world production. India ranked fi rst among chickpea producers (with almost 70% of world share), followed by Australia and Pakistan. The cowpea production in the USA has been rather limited until recent years, with 2010 production at 65,570 MT. Lentil production is led by Canada, followed by India and Turkey; Canada ’ s share of total lentil production in the world was 42%. India, Ethiopia, and Australia were the leading countries producing pigeon pea, vetches, and lupins, respectively; India also led in other minor pulses produc-tion (Table 1.1 ) .

The major dry bean exporting and importing countries are listed in Table 1.2 . China was the lead exporter, followed by Myanmar and the United States whereas India was the top - most importer, followed by Mexico and the United States. Pulses and cowpeas are also traded in the world market; however, accurate data are not available since the FAO does

Table 1.1. Leading dry beans and pulses producing countries in 2010 (metric tons)

Dry Beans Cowpeas Chickpea Lentils

India 4,870,000 Nigeria 2,242,800 India 7,480,000 Canada 1,947,100 Brazil 3,202,150 Niger 1,800,900 Australia 602,000 India 900,000 Myanmar 3,029,800 Burkina Faso 432,400 Pakistan 561,500 Turkey 447,400 China 1,539,500 Myanmar 169,900 Turkey 530,634 USA 392,670 USA 1,442,470 Cameroon 135,000 Myanmar 401,800 Nepal 151,757 Mexico 1,156,250 Mali 109,500 Ethiopia 310,000 Australia 140,000 Tanzania 950,000 Tanzania 90,000 Iran 239,768 Syria 133,000 Uganda 460,000 Uganda 85,000 Mexico 131,895 China 125,000 Kenya 390,598 Malawi 80,100 Canada 128,300 Ethiopia 123,000 Argentina 338,120 Kenya 72,274 U.S.A. 87,952 Iran 79,174 World Total 1 23,230,034 World Total 1 5,540,903 World Total 1 10,918,081 World Total 1 4,585,439

Pigeon pea Vetches Lupin Other Pulses

India 2,460,000 Ethiopia 202,700 Australia 629,000 India 700,000 Myanmar 724,200 Turkey 121,676 Germany 65,000 United Kingdom 493,000 Malawi 182,900 Mexico 98,400 Ukraine 60,400 Poland 204,700 Kenya 103,324 Russian Fed. 59,030 Chile 39,546 Mozambique 158,000 Uganda 93,000 Spain 45,600 Belarus 39,376 Vietnam 145,100 Tanzania 55,000 Belarus 39,070 Poland 25,900 China 108,000 Dominican Rep. 25,070 Serbia 33,115 France 16,437 Tanzania 102,000 Nepal 18,647 Ukraine 33,100 South Africa 16,100 Pakistan 101,000 Congo 5,901 Syria 14,600 Peru 10,521 Sudan 91,100 Haiti 2,400 Italy 9,200 Russian Fed. 9,740 Bangladesh 81,705 World Total 1 3,680,314 World Total 1 704,362 World Total 1 934,426 World Total 1 3,416,262

1 Including all other countries not listed Source: FAO (2011)


not report such data on these commodities. It is noted that the countries that are both exporters and importers of dry beans (e.g., the United States and the United Kingdom) are frequently exporting and importing different types of beans.

US p roduction and t rade

North Dakota and Michigan were the two leading dry bean producing states (Table 1.3 ); together, these two states represented about 50% of total US production with a 36.1% and 13.3% share, respectively. Michigan traditionally was the leading dry bean producing state; however, North Dakota has been the leader for over a decade. The total US pro duction of dry beans was 1.45 million MT in 2010, which is lower than that reported for 1990 (1.64 million MT). Pinto and navy beans are the two leading classes of dry beans produced in the United States (Fig. 1.3 ). The 2010 black bean production was about three times more than in 1980. Black beans were the only bean class that has seen such a tremendous growth. Garbanzo beans (chickpeas) production, which was only about 3,000 MT in 1980, has shown a tremendous growth in recent years, with 2010 fi gures as 87,952 MT.

Table 1.2. Leading dry beans exporting and importing countries — 2009, by metric tons

Exporters Importers

China 1,046,017 India 1,031,320 Myanmar 863,131 Mexico 174,822 USA 433,553 USA 154,998 Argentina 290,105 UK 136,974 Canada 257,012 Brazil 109,921 Egypt 98,505 Japan 106,973 Ethiopia 77,682 Italy 96,003 UK 75,996 South Africa 93,887 Thailand 62,904 Philippines 82,609 Nicaragua 62,330 Cuba 78,756

Source: FAO (2011)

Table 1.3. Leading dry beans - producing states in the USA, for selected years from 1980 to 2010

State 1 Production (Metric Tons)

1980 1990 2000 2010

North Dakota 136,051 254,270 386,765 521,500 Michigan 393,826 276,623 209,563 192,273 Nebraska 138,693 254,219 163,586 145,136 Minnesota 49,076 89,820 121,928 139,182 Idaho 169,124 180,859 87,178 115,727 California 193,713 155,356 104,604 66,455 Washington 54,867 46,333 32,514 62,545 Colorado 117,965 217,184 100,590 57,000 Wyoming 45,266 49,025 38,712 46,545 Other states 59,338 121,267 102,521 99,136 Total (USA) 1,357,919 1,644,956 1,347,961 1,445,499

1 Ranked by 2010 data Source: USDA - ERS (2011a)


Fig. 1.3. Different classes of dry beans produced in the United States for selected years during 1980 – 2010. Source: USDA - ERS (2011a) .

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During the same period (1980 – 2010), lentil production also increased signifi cantly from about 98,000 MT to 392,670 MT. Cowpeas are the only other pulse crop of commercial signifi cance in the United States, with 65,570 MT in 2010.

CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF DRY BEANS

The regions of highest bean consumption include all of Latin America, where legume consumption ranges from 1 kg (2.2 lbs) per capita per year (Argentina) to 25 kg (55 lbs) per capita per year (Nicaragua); common beans dominate and account for 87% of the total legume products consumed (Leterme and Mu ñ oz 2002 ).

Since 1960, the per capita consumption of dry beans in the United States has ranged from a high of 8.96 lbs to 5.40 lbs, with a recent fi gure of 6.10 lbs in 2009 (Fig. 1.4 ) (USDA - ERS 2011a ). Cooked bean consumption is recognized to be greatest in the southern and western areas of the country. About 55% of black beans, one of the fastest growing classes in terms of per capita use, are consumed in the southern region of the country. Although people of Hispanic origin represented approximately 11% of the population, they account for 33% of all cooked dry edible bean product consumption. Relative to their share of the population, low - income consumers consume substantially more navy, lima, and pinto beans than those consumed by mid - or high - income groups (Lucier et al. 2000 ).

Dry beans are not a staple in the United States, and per capita consumption had been declining since mid - 1960s. This decline in bean consumption was directly related to


changes in consumers ’ food preferences. Rising incomes, urbanization, single adult house-hold structure and the increase in the number of women in the labor force have adversely affected bean consumption. Most consumer preferences are shifting in favor of convenience foods and commodities, which require reduced food preparation time. Traditionally, dry bean products did not lend themselves to these emerging trends in consumer choices; however, recent advances in complex formulations and complete baked beans recipes have been innovative and greatly improved the convenience and high quality acceptability.

The per capita consumption of legume - based food products in the United States, Europe [encompassing the European Union (EU)] and other industrialized economies has generally and consistently been substantially lower than that observed in other regions of the world (Schneider 2002 ).

DRY BEANS AND PULSES AS A DIVERSE FOOD RESOURCE

The common dry bean and associated legumes (pulses) are of global agronomic and dietary importance. These agricultural crops demonstrate global adaptability, genotypic and phe-notypic diversity, and undergo multiple means of preparation and dietary use. Dry bean consumption patterns vary dramatically by geographic region and among cultures. Deter-minants include a broad spectrum of social interactions and traditions that discriminate among bean types (color, size and shape) and among means of preparation and end product use. These patterns of use have signifi cant public health impact (Uebersax 2006 ).

The numerous culinary quality traits of beans contribute to their acceptable use but are frequently underestimated in their infl uence. These include: (1) accessibility and storage — local indigenous versus commercial production and open marketplace versus packaged procurement (on - site point of purchase quality assessment, frequency and quantity of pur-chase); (2) in - home storage and meal planning dynamics (stability, knowledge, water availability); (3) preparation and quality — the extensive constraints associated with prepa-ration and cooking (water and fuel availability, sanitation, and time); and (4) characteristic

Fig. 1.4. US per capita consumption of total dry beans for selected years since 1960. Source: Adapted from USDA - ERS (2011b) .

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palatability attributes such as texture and integrity, texture (fi rmness and consistence), and taste and fl avor (Uebersax 2006 ).

The use of dry beans and pulses may be considered from either a traditional or a value - added perspective. In traditional households, dry beans are cooked, fried, or baked to be in soups, eaten as vegetables, or combined with other protein foods to make a main dish. Commercially, beans have commonly been packaged in dry - pack form intended for home preparation and also processed by canning in brine or tomato - based sauce.

Traditional u tilization

Utilization of legumes in many regions still entails long and tedious preparations. Gener-ally, beans are used in the native dry form and are marketed in open bulk displays. The consumer has traditional purchase criteria that include: appearance (color, gloss or sheen), size and shape (typical of the expected class), and overall quality (splits, defects, and debris) of the seed. The consumer is able to readily discriminate among bean lots to select appro-priate levels of quality. Commonly, the concerns of purchasing “ hard beans ” or “ old beans ” are paramount, since these beans take a longer time to cook and lack desired quality attri-butes after cooking (Borget 1992 ).

Beans and maize in blended dishes are deeply imbedded throughout Latin American cultures and transcend to other groups of people. It is due in part to the inherent comple-mentation of amino acids, resulting in a more complete protein food. Sub - Saharan Africa utilizes a wide range of dry beans and other legume crops (cowpea). These are typically water cooked and eaten as porridge. The subcontinent of India uses the greatest quantity and most diversity of legume - based foods. These are characteristically prepared and pro-cessed in very specialized recipes and forms (Khader and Uebersax 1989 ). Throughout Southeast Asia, consumption of legumes is moderate and a great variety of species are produced and used as mature seeds and immature vegetative pods. Sprouted legume seeds are consumed fresh or dehulled and roasted or ground for use in soups or side dishes (Aykroyd and Doughty 1982 ).

In many developing regions, women provide a central role focused on sustaining the family ’ s food security. Traditional cooking of dry edible beans in these countries involves excessive expenditure of time and fuel. The development of appropriate preparation tech-nologies for use at the household and village level would facilitate processing and dietary availability of beans and other legumes. Valuable time could thus be devoted to more effec-tive childcare or additional income generating activities.

Value - a dded p rocessing and p roducts

Beans typically require dry cleaning and sorting, gentle handling to assure a minimum degree of mechanical damage, and soaking and blanching prior to fi lling and thermal pro-cessing. The popularity of convenience foods such as dehydrated, extruded, frozen and microwavable food products has provided a venue for the development of new bean products or bean formulations (Fig. 1.5 ). Selected categories of dry - bean - based products utilized in industrialized regions, typically with wide market distribution channels, include packaged dry beans, canned beans (beans in brine or specialty sauces), precooked bean products (precooked and dehydrated bean fl akes and powders), extruded and pasta - type products, specialized food ingredients (meals, fl ours, concentrates, powders and fl akes), quick - cooking beans, and frozen beans. In developed nations, canned products consistently


dominate bean usage (based on individual frequencies of use data and total sales volume) compared with dry beans distributed in prepackaged retail offerings or through direct bulk dispensing.

NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS

The characteristics that make beans and pulses a good food value are: (1) health and well-ness. It is noteworthy that consumers are increasingly selecting healthy and balanced diets proportionally higher in plant – based foods. Legumes have signifi cant nutritional and health advantages for consumers since they are high in protein and dietary fi ber and very low in fat; and (2) environmental sustainability. Advantages are associated with legume nitrogen fi xation in soils. Legumes cultivation has been associated with a positive impact on agri-culture and the environment (Uebersax 2006 ). Generally, rural populations consume greater levels of legumes than the contrasting urban populations, because of the dependence on locally produced foods, which are commonly prepared in traditional manners. People of subsistence or lower income levels generally consume larger quantities of beans, which furthers the stereotypical response “ beans are a poor man ’ s steak ” that often stigmatizes and denigrates bean use and reduces expanded utilization.

Nutritional p rofi le

Legumes (dry beans and pulses) are a good source of protein, dietary fi ber, starch (Osorio - Diaz et al. 2003 ), minerals and vitamins (Kutos et al. 2002 ). Table 1.4 shows a composi-tional comparison of dry beans with major cereal grain crops. In comparison to these cereal

Fig. 1.5. A sampling of valued - added dry bean products. ( * Individually quick frozen). Source: Adapted from Uebersax et al. (1989, 1991) .

Dry pack(Single Classand Mixtures)

Value-added Beans Processing/Products

MILLED FLOURS &

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Extracts –Alkali –Acid –Salt

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grains, beans are relatively high in proteins and dietary fi ber while low in fat and have rela-tively reduced carbohydrates.

Health s ignifi cance

Legumes belong to the group of foods that elicits the lowest blood glucose response and contains considerable amounts of phenolic compounds. The role of legumes as therapeutic agents in the diets of persons suffering from metabolic disorders has gained some research interest (Shehata et al. 1988 ). In the general opinion on healthy eating habits, an increase in the proportion of legume - based polymeric plant carbohydrates, including starch, is rec-ommended in the diet. In the growing phase of urbanization in developing countries, ready - to - eat foods play a major role in the food consumption pattern, and moreover, tra-ditional methods of preparation are generally labor and time intensive and certainly unsuit-able for urban settings where time is very often a major constraint (Njintang et al. 2001 ).

Recently, heightened consumer awareness has led to the promotion of less saturated fat, cholesterol, sugar and salt in the diet and the preference for complex carbohydrates such as fi ber. No single food outside of the context of the total diet should be recommended exclusively; however, dry beans can be promoted as a healthy food, being nutrient dense and an excellent source of dietary fi ber (Table 1.5 ). Figure 1.6 shows the comparative nutritional benefi ts of dry beans versus cereal grains. Protein quality is generally not a nutritional concern for consumers who have mixed diets containing both vegetable and animal proteins.

A diet high in beans can potentially reduce the risk of developing a chronic disease (Wu et al. 2004 ). Chronic diseases are conditions that typically take many years (10 to 30 years) to develop and include certain types of cancers, type 2 diabetes mellitus, heart disease, and other diseases of the blood system. These diseases are the most common causes of death in the United States and many other parts of the world (Geil and Anderson 1994 ; Hangen and Bennink 2002 ). The inclusion of dry beans and other legumes in the daily diet has many benefi cial effects in controlling and preventing various metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease and colon cancer (Dilis and Trichopoulou 2009 ; Flight and Clifton 2006 ; Raju and Mehta 2009 ).

Antioxidants (chemicals that eliminate free radicals) are found to be very high in many types of beans. Wu et al. (2004) investigated the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of over 100 common foods consumed in the United States. Their data showed that red kidney beans had the highest total antioxidant capacity per serving size

Table 1.4. Comparison of nutritional profi les of dry beans with other grains (per 100 g)

Dry Beans Wheat Oat Corn Sorghum

Energy (Kcal) 333 339 389 361 339 Protein (g) 23.58 13.7 16.89 6.93 11.3 Carbohydrates (g) 60.01 72.57 66.27 76.85 74.66 Dietary fi ber (g) 24.9 12.2 10.6 7.3 6.3 Fat (g) 0.83 1.87 6.9 3.86 3.3 Iron (mg) 8.2 3.88 4.72 2.38 4.4 Potassium (mg) 1406 405 429 315 350 Folate ( μ g) 394 44 56 25 0

Source: Adapted from USDA (2012)

Table 1.5. Composition of selected dry beans and pulses (per 100 g)

Unit Pinto Bean

Navy Bean

Black Bean

Red Kidney Bean

Cowpea Chickpea Lentil

Proximate: Water g 11.33 12.10 11.02 11.75 11.05 11.53 10.40 Energy Kcal 347 337 341 337 343 364 353 Protein g 21.42 22.33 21.60 22.53 23.85 19.30 25.80 Total lipid (fat) g 1.23 1.50 1.42 1.06 2.07 6.04 1.06 Carbohydrate g 62.55 60.75 62.36 61.29 59.64 60.65 60.08 Fiber, total dietary g 15.5 24.4 15.5 15.2 10.7 17.4 30.5 Sugars, total g 2.11 3.88 2.12 2.10 – 10.70 2.03

Minerals: Calcium mg 113 147 123 83 85 105 56 Iron mg 5.07 5.49 5.02 6.69 9.95 6.24 7.54 Magnesium mg 176 175 171 138 333 115 122 Phosphorus mg 411 407 352 406 438 366 451 Potassium mg 1393 1185 1483 1359 1375 875 955 Sodium mg 12 5 5 12 58 24 6 Zinc mg 2.28 3.65 3.65 2.79 6.11 3.43 4.78

Vitamins: Vitamin C 1 mg 6.3 – 0 4.5 1.5 4.0 4.4 Thiamin mg 0.713 0.775 0.900 0.608 0.680 0.477 0.873 Ribofl avin mg 0.212 0.164 0.193 0.215 0.170 0.212 0.211 Niacin mg 1.174 2.188 1.955 2.110 2.795 1.541 2.605 Vitamin B - 6 mg 0.474 0.428 0.286 0.397 0.361 0.535 0.540 Folate 2 μ g 525 364 444 394 639 557 479 Vitamin A IU 0 0 17 0 33 67 39 Vitamin E 3 mg 0.21 0.02 0.21 0.21 – 0.82 0.49 Vitamin K 4 μ g 5.6 2.5 5.6 5.6 – 9 5

1 Total ascorbic acid 2 Dietary folate equiv. 3 As α - tocopherol 4 As phylloquinone Source: USDA (2012)

Fig. 1.6. Nutritional benefi ts of dry beans versus cereal grains (data for cereal grains are an average of wheat, corn, sorghum and oat). Source: Adapted from USDA (2012) .

23.58

60.01

24.9

0.83

12.21

72.59

9.103.98

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Protein Carbohydrates Dietary fiber Fat

Conte

nt (g

/100 g

)

Dry Beans

Cereal Grains

15


as compared to all other foods, including many fruits and vegetables. Among all the foods analyzed in that USDA study, dry beans (small red, red kidney, pinto, and black beans) were found to have high levels of antioxidants. Generally, anthocyanin - rich fruits, such as blueberries and plums, are associated with having high antioxidant content; however, the above three types of beans were found to have higher antioxidant capacity than even blue-berries. It is noted that the ORAC data for dry beans are for uncooked seeds; cooking or canning can result in signifi cant loss of antioxidant capacity. Nevertheless, since dry beans cost signifi cantly less than antioxidant - rich fruits and can be stored for months without quality deterioration, they represent an excellent healthy choice, especially for low - income groups and in developing countries.

The potential protective effects of dry beans in disease prevention, such as against cancer, may not be entirely due only to dietary fi ber but also to phenolics and other non - nutritive compounds (Oomah et al. 2006 ), as polyphenols from dry beans can act as anti-oxidants, hindering the formation of free radicals (Boateng et al. 2008 ). In addition, legumes belong to the food group that elicits the lowest blood glucose response. The general consensus on healthy eating habits favors an increase in the proportion of legume - based polymeric plant carbohydrates including starch in the diet. The role of legumes as a therapeutic agent in the diets of persons suffering from metabolic disorders has been reported in the literature (Pittaway et al. 2008 ; Shehata et al. 1988 ). The large amount of water - soluble fi ber is particularly effective in lowering cholesterol in the blood, whereas the water - insoluble fi ber provides bulk, pushing food through the digestive system at a faster rate. Common beans are low in sodium (Augustin and Klein 1989 ; Buttriss and Stokes 2008 ); this could be a healthy food choice for persons on low - sodium diet. Regular consumption of dry beans in the United States, where obesity is on the rise, has been sug-gested to signifi cantly improve the diet quality (Mitchell et al. 2009 ).

Beans and p ulses u se in w eaning f oods

Malnutrition in children contributes to more than 75% of the deaths due to infectious disease and signifi cantly retards childhood growth (Pelletier et al. 1995 ). Therefore, provid-ing adequate nutrition during early childhood is of supreme importance for infants ’ health (Dahiya and Kapoor 1994 ). Nutritionally balanced weaning food must provide all the essential nutrients, both macro (protein, carbohydrates and fats) and micro (vitamins and minerals) to meet infants ’ dietary needs. Weaning food is frequently derived from a mixture of multiple food sources specifi cally formulated to achieve a balanced nutritional profi le for infants. Generally, plant - based foods are used to meet the protein needs of infants and preschool children (Chau et al. 1998 ; Simango 1997 ).

Weaning foods should be selected on the basis of taste, variable consistency, accept-ability and, more importantly, essential nutrients. Initially, weaning foods can be prepared as a fl uid gruel, which is soft, cooked and mashed to a thin consistency and given once a day. Later, a thicker gruel, which is cooked and mashed to a soft and thick consistency, should be given more often (Barrell and Rowland 1980 ). A systematic approach during the weaning process can be very helpful to support a steady growth and body tissue develop-ment in infants. Feeding practices are strongly associated with child growth (Prentice 1994 ; Fu et al. 2000 ) and better feeding practices are more important especially for children of lower socioeconomic status (Ruel and Menon 2002 ).

Beans and pulses — due to their nutrient - dense nature — serve as an important base for weaning foods. To augment the protein quality of bean - based weaning foods and to over-


come the problem of antinutritional factors, numerous diverse strategies have been pro-posed, including cereal - legume protein complementation (Hernandez et al. 1995 ). However, digestibility and fl atulence - producing components may restrict their broad - scale utilization when feeding legumes to children. The use of appropriate preparation techniques (such as soaking/cooking, dehulling, fi ne grinding, roasting whole beans, germination and fermenta-tion) has been found to improve digestibility and reduce fl atus from beans and pulses (Sarkar et al. 1997 ; Donangelo et al. 1995 ). With regard to developing countries, there are problems associated with feeding young children broth or soup in which the beans have been cooked. This practice is appropriately discouraged as it results in poor protein digest-ibility, diarrhea and other gastrointestinal distresses, and further acerbates protein digest-ibility because the liquid portion may contain high levels of polyphenolic compounds (tannins) extracted from the seed coats of colored beans during cooking.

The Institute of Nutrition for Central America and Panama (INCAP, Guatemala), the Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI, India) and the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN, India) have developed a number of traditional weaning food mixtures that can be prepared using preheated legumes and cereals. Drum - dried bean meals prepared can be potentially used for precooked, prolonged shelf - life weaning food formulations that can provide both protein and energy to infants as well as offer preparation convenience for mothers (Occena et al. 1997 ). The United Nations ’ WHO/FAO has detailed guidelines for preparation and use of weaning foods. Further, numerous US public and private sector groups (e.g., USDA, USAID, Gates Foundation) have made signifi cant impact in develop-ing weaning food mixes and guidelines.

Constraints to b eans and p ulses u tilization

A number of factors limit legume utilization, including the long soaking and cooking times necessary to adequately soften the beans, loss of valuable nutrients during bean preparation, low levels of the sulfur amino acids, low digestibility of unheated proteins, presence of antinutrients (e.g., lectins, trypsin inhibitors), a high level of phytic acid, various fl atulence factors, and hard shell and hard - to - cook (HTC) defects that many develop during dry bean storage (Alonso et al. 2000 ; Lajolo and Genovese 2002 ; Uebersax et al. 1989, 1991 ).

Typically, dry beans are harvested in the mature, dry stage and stored until processed. Chemical changes that occur during adverse storage conditions may result in the develop-ment of the HTC phenomenon. Numerous factors infl uence the quality of the fi nal dry bean product. These include cultivar, seed source, agronomic conditions, handling and storage of the dry product, and processing procedures during cooking or canning. Quality changes in dry beans during cooking and processing are associated with their inherent physical components and chemical constituents (Hosfi eld and Uebersax 1980 ; Uebersax et al. 1991 ). It must be noted that cooking and processing techniques improve palatability, digestibility, and bioavailability through cellular separation and inactivation of antinutri-tional components.

A comprehensive assessment of strategies and procedures used for processing dry beans is a prerequisite to improved utilization of dry beans. Implementation of a given protocol can be maximized through an understanding of the physical and chemical components, and the inherent constraints and diversifi ed processing techniques available to develop eco-nomically viable alternative and innovative products (Uebersax et al. 1991 ). Improved utilization of dry beans can be maximized through an understanding of how physical and chemical components function and react under given process conditions. Variability in the


physicochemical composition of dry beans occurs, which warrants research and quality control programs directed toward providing a consistent product possessing the character-istics of acceptable fl avor, bright color, attractive appearance, uniform texture and high nutritional quality.

BEANS AND PULSES IN WORLD FOOD SECURITY

Global food security continues to be a worldwide concern. Beans and pulses contribute signifi cantly to world food supplies and food intake. The importance of agricultural research for crop improvement and enhanced utilization of dry beans and pulses is evident through the scale and diversity of programs. Under CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research), there are a number of research centers focusing on dry beans and pulses, e.g., the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT, Cali, Columbia), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi - Arid Tropics (ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India), the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA, Alleppo, Syria) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria). According to CGIAR (2011) , “ impressive gains have been made with improved common beans, developed with farmer participation through regional networks in East, Central and Southern Africa, e.g., a 30 – 50% yield increase from 1995 to 2010. This improved bean production, while strengthening household food and nutrition security, also provides women with surplus grain to sell in local markets. ”

In the United States, the USAID (Agency for International Development) has long played a role in the dry beans and pulses improvement programs globally. Signifi cant impact has been achieved through the Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) efforts on dry beans, cowpeas, and pulses. Current research foci are: increasing pulse pro-ductivity through genetic improvement, increasing pulse productivity through integrated crop management, increasing pulse utilization for improved nutrition and health, and strengthening pulse value chains (USAID 2012 ). The Pulse CRSP contributes to economic growth and food and nutrition security through knowledge and technology generation that strengthens pulse (e.g., bean, cowpea, pigeon pea, etc.) value chains and enhances the capacity and sustainability of agricultural research institutions that serve pulse sectors in developing countries in Africa and Latin America. Overall, the Pulse CRSP supports over 30 projects in about 20 countries; Fig. 1.7 shows the geographical distribution of these projects (USAID 2012 ).

In addition, numerous other countries through their international development agencies emphasize and support similar research programs on beans and pulses improvement. Selected agencies include the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the International Development Research Centre (IDRC, Canada), the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Swedish International Develop-ment Cooperation Agency (SIDA), and the Department for International Development (DFID, United Kingdom).

Dry beans are an important component of US foreign food aid programs. The USAID lists the following beans and pulses as eligible for food aid programs in selected developing countries: black, Great Northern, kidney (dark and light), navy, pink, pinto, small red, garbanzo (chickpeas), lentils, peas (green, split green, and yellow). The targeted use of food aid programs and assistance with procurement and distribution of dry beans and/or


partially prepared ingredients (fl ours, powders, meals, or extrudates) or fully prepared products (canned, precooked/dehydrated, and extruded) will directly expand use in the most urgently needed populations. Utilization of prepared dry edible beans has consistently been advocated by both governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). These nutri-tion programs are particularly important for infants and children. Dry edible beans are also frequently considered for applications in regions experiencing sustained crop failure. The further use of beans as direct food aid and possible use in monetarization programs should be encouraged.

The total food aid provided by the United States to other countries was 2,643,900 MT in 2010. It is noted that the average US contribution of total world food aid per year was 57.4%, followed by 26.7% by the European Union — EU27 (26.7%), Japan (5.8%), Canada (5.4%), and Australia (2.8%). Other countries ’ total amounted to about 2% (Hanrahan and Canada 2011 ). The United States also led World Food Program contributors (a 45.2% share), followed by EU - 27 (28.7%), Japan (5.7%), and all other countries (20.4%) (Han-rahan and Canada 2011 ). Dry beans and pulses constituted about 8% of total US food aid with 209,200 MT that included dry beans (31,100 MT), lentils (27,600 MT), and peas (150,500 MT) (USDA - FAS 2010 ); it is noted that most of the total food aid is derived from cereal grains ( > 50%).

SUMMARY

The trends in the production and consumption of legume - based products are dynamic and are infl uenced by the challenges of global production. Increased use can be readily infl u-enced by public policy, educational strategies and industrial innovation. The evidence for the health - promoting aspects of legume - based foods is strong and should receive more attention by consumers. In the developed countries of Europe and North America, beans

Fig. 1.7. Countries with USAID ’ s Pulse CRSP - supported projects. Source: USAID (2012) .

Guatemala

Haiti

Mali

Benin

Niger

Nigeria Uganda

Rwanda

Zambia

South Africa Mozambique

Angola

Kenya

Tanzania

Honduras

Nicaragua

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Ecuador


are generally prepared by commercial food processing operations and consumed as canned beans in brine or sauce. The market and overall consumption of beans and formulated bean products are expected to increase and to further segment as these products are positioned as nutritionally rich and healthy foods. However, the development of high - quality bean products in convenience food categories such as dehydrated, frozen and extruded formats appears to be an open opportunity.

The food industry, in cooperation with public research programs (universities and research centers) and other professional organizations, should focus its efforts on incorpo-rating dry beans and minor grain legumes into innovative products that are economically viable, readily accessible to consumers, convenient to use and of high culinary quality. The clearly recognized healthy attributes of beans that are deliverable in both subsistent and developed diets should be exploited for long - term improvement in positive health out-comes. The factors limiting the consumption of dry beans in industrial economics may, in part, be attributable to an inadequate level of innovation for developing value - added prod-ucts adapted to modern consumer needs for convenience while specifi cally linked to high - quality eating experiences. Opportunities to improve the use of dry beans and pulses require integration and expansion of public and private sector interventions that are socially and culturally appropriate.

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