Outline Chapter 11 Crystals, Ions, and Solutions

11-1. Ionic and Covalent Crystals 11-2. The Metallic Bond 11-3. Molecular Crystals 11-4. Solubility 11-5. Polar and Nonpolar Liquids 11-6. Ions in Solution11-7. Evidence for Dissociation

11-1. Ionic and Covalent Crystals

Most solids are crystalline, meaning the particles that compose them are arranged in repeated patterns. Amorphous solids have particles irregularly arranged. Crystalline solids fall into four classes:

1. Ionic

2. Covalent

3. Metallic

4. Molecular

Amorphous Glass

Table 11.1

11-1. Ionic and Covalent Crystals

Ionic crystals are formed by the attraction between positive and negative ions.

1. Face-centered cubic ionic crystals have ions located at the corners and centers of the faces of a series of cubes.

2. Body-centered cubic ionic crystals have each ion located at the center of a cube at whose corners are ions of the other kind.

11-1. Ionic and Covalent Crystals

Covalent crystals are formed when pairs of electrons are shared between adjacent atoms. Some crystals are neither wholly ionic nor wholly covalent but contain bonds of mixed character.

Dr. Tracy Hall’s Artificial Diamond Presses

Pictures to the left and below are of diamonds made from graphite. Dr. Hall made diamonds from

peanut butter as well.

11-2. The Metallic Bond

The metallic bond is formed by a "gas" of electrons that moves freely through the assembly of metal ions that form a solid metal. The metallic bond accounts for the characteristics of metals.

M M M M M M M M

M M M M M M M M

M M M M M M M M

M M M M M M M M

M M M M M M M M

e-

e-

e-

e-

e-

Fig. 11.10

The Electron Sea is responsible for the shiny

surfaces of metals.

11-3. Molecular Crystals

Some liquids and solids are formed through the action of van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals.

Polar-polar interaction occurs between polar molecules whose positively and negatively charged ends cause them to line up with the ends that have opposite charges adjacent.

Fig. 11.11

The water molecules in a snowflake are held together by van der Waals bonds. Ice is less

dense than its liquid and thus floats.

Fig. 11.15

Cling film owes its

properties to polar

molecules on its

surface.

11-3. Molecular Crystals

Non-polar-non-polar interaction occurs between non-polar molecules when the molecule's electrons at any given moment are distributed unevenly. This creates temporarily charged molecules whose adjacent ends having opposite signs results in an attractive force.

11-3. Molecular Crystals

Examples of these weak temperary interactions is nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is normally non-polar but if the temperature is low enough, these non-polar molecules can form a liquid, liquid nitrogen.

11-4. Solubility

In a solution, the substance present in larger amount is the solvent; the other is the solute. The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent. The solubility of a substance is the maximum amount that can be dissolved in a given quantity of a particular solvent at a given temperature. Examples of solutions:

liquid in liquid- alcoholic drinkssolid in liquid- salt watergas in liquid- sodas gas in gas- airsolid in solid- metal alloy

11-4. Solubility

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute possible at a given temperature; a supersaturated solution contains more dissolved solute than is normally possible at a given temperature and is usually unstable.

Supersaturated and Supercooled

http://axiomsun.com/home/video/supercooled_water.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnSg2cl09PI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvHrXr5Jajg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OjeFliFZQ8A&NR=1

Lab 16 A

Lab 16 B

Lab 16 C

11-4. Solubility

The solubilities of solids increase with increasing temperatures, while the solubilities of gases in liquids decrease with increasing temperatures. The boiling point of a solution is usually higher than that of the pure solvent, and its freezing point is lower.

18

Antifreeze lowers the freezing point of your

radiator fluid and raises the boiling point.

Salting roads melts the ice.

Affect of Solutions of Boiling Point and Fressing Point

Making Ice Cream

You must add salt so as to lower the freezing point of the

ice water cold enough to

freeze the ice cream.

Affect of Solutions of Boiling Point and Fressing Point

11-4. Solubility

11-5. Polar Liquids

A polar liquid is a substance whose molecules behave as if negatively charged at one end and positively charged at the other. The molecules of a nonpolar liquid have uniform charge distributions.

11-5. Polar Liquids

Polar liquids dissolve only ionic and polar covalent compounds. Nonpolar liquids dissolve only nonpolar covalent compounds.

Intermolecular Forces

Oδ-

Hδ+ Hδ+

Oδ-

Hδ+ Hδ+

Oδ-

Hδ+ Hδ+

Dipole-Dipole Forces

SolidJohn Wayne

Liquid-Michael Jackson Gas-Russian Folk Dancers

+ +

-

11-5. Polar Liquids

Soaps and Detergents have polar head and a non-polar tail. The tail is attracted to the non-polar greasy dirt and the polar head is attracted to the polar water molecules.

11-5. Polar Liquids

Dissociation refers to the separation of a compound into ions when it dissolves.

11-5. Polar Liquids

Electrolytes are substances that dissociate into ions when dissolved in water; nonelectrolytes are soluble covalent compounds that do not dissociate in solution. Electrolytes in solution are able to conduct electric current.

11-6. Ions in Solution

Ions in solution have their own sets of properties that differ from their original atoms and from the original solute. Dissociation is a type of chemical change. The properties of a solution of an electrolyte are the sum of the properties of the ions present in the solution.

11-7. Evidence of Dissociation

In 1887, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed that many substances exist as ions in solution. His hypothesis was based on two points:

1. Reactions between electrolytes in solution occur almost instantaneously, but very slowly or not at all if the electrolytes are dry.

2. Electrolyte solutions have lower freezing points than comparable solutions of nonelectrolytes.

Svante Arrhenius

(1859-1927)

Fig. 11.31

This device used the color

difference between

chromic and dichromate

ions to measure the

alcohol concentration in a person’s

breath.

Outline Chapter 11b Crystals, Ions, and Solutions

11-8. Water 11-9. Water Pollution11-10. Acids 11-11. Strong and Weak Acids 11-12. Bases 11-13. The pH Scale 11-14. Salts

11-8. Water

Seawater has an average salt content, or salinity, of 3.5 percent.. "Hard" water is freshwater that contains Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in solution; "soft" water is free of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.

These household water softeners are ion-exchange resins.

Hard water left a deposit of scale in this

pipe.

11-8. Water

11-9. Water Pollution

Sources of water pollution include:

1. Industrial pollutants

2. Agricultural fertilizers and pesticides

3. Thermal pollution

The biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, is the amount of oxygen needed to completely oxidize the organic material in a sample of water.

11-9. Water PollutionA municipal waste water treatment plant.

Fig. 11.37

Water pollution from a steel mill. Public anger has forced governments

to act against such abuse of the environment.

Below fertilizers caused algae raft.

11-10. Acids

An acid is a hydrogen-containing substance that increases the number of H+ ions present when the substance is dissolved in water. The H+ ions released when an acid dissociates in water combine with water molecules to produce hydronium ions, H3O

+.

The water solutions of acids taste sour, and acids change the color of litmus dye from blue to red.

11-11. Strong Acids and Weak Acids

Strong acids dissociate completely; weak acids dissociate only slightly. Some substances, such as carbon dioxide, do not contain hydrogen but produce acidic solutions by reacting with water to liberate H+ ions from water molecules.

11-12. Bases

A base is a substance that contains hydroxide groups and whose solution in water increases the number of OH- ions present. Strong bases dissociate completely; weak bases dissociate only slightly. The water solutions of bases have a bitter taste, a soapy feel, and turn red litmus to blue.The name alkali is sometimes used for a substance that dissolves in water to give a basic solution. The terms alkaline and basic mean the same.

11-13. The pH Scale

The pH scale expresses the exact degree of acidity or basicity of a solution in terms of its H+ ion concentration. A solution that is neither acidic nor basic is said to be neutral and has a pH of 7. Acidic solutions have pH values of less than 7. Basic solutions have pH values of more than 7.

Finding the [H+] from the pH.

To find the [H+] from the pH just insert the pH into 10-pH.

For example, if the pH is 4 the [H+] is 10-4.

If the pH is 6 the [H+] is 10-6

If the pH is 10 the [H+] is 10-10

If the pH is 8 the [H+] isTo find the pH from the [H+] just insert the [H+] into -log [H+].

For example, if the [H+] is 10-4 the pH is

If the [H+] is 10-9 the pH is

If the [H+] is 10-2 the pH is

9

2

10-8

4

pH = - log [H+][H+] = antilog (-pH) = 10-pH

If [H+] = 2.0 x 10-9 thenpH = -log(2.0 x 10-9) = 8.69897pH =8.70 [H+] = 10-8.7

If pH = 3.2 then[H+] = antilog(-3.2) = 6.31 x 10-4

Calculating pH and [H+]

pH Meter

Fill in the Blanks

pH [H+]

2.5 ______

8.2 ______

_____ 2.8x10-6

_____ 2.6x10-3

0.0032

6.3x10-9

5.6

2.6

11-14. Salts

When a basic solution is mixed with an acidic solution, the base destroys, or neutralizes, the properties of the acid and vice versa. The process is called neutralization. In neutralization reactions, H+ and OH- ions join to form water molecules. Ions left in solution as a result of neutralization can combine to form a salt when the solution is evaporated to dryness. Most salts are crystalline solids that consist of positive metal ions and negative nonmetal ions.