OttomanRussiaChinaJapan

Ottomans:JanissariesCapitulationsExtraterritorilaityMuhammad AliCrimean WarTanzimat ReformsYoung TurksWinners and losers??

Russia:Crimean WarSerfsSergei WitteZemstovsNicholas IIRusso-Japanese WarBloody SundayRevolution 1905Winners and losers?

China:CohongEast India CompanyOpiumUnequal treatiesSpheres of InfluenceHong KongTaiping RebellionSelf Strengthening MovementBoxer RebellionWinners and Losers?

Japan:Tokugawa ShogunatebakufuCommodore PerryMeiji RestorationDaimyo and samurai?The DietZaibatsuSino-Japanese War 1895Russo-Japanese War 1904Winners and losers?

C 31: Societies at the Crossroads: Ottoman Empire, Russia, Japan and China

Issues that they share• military weaknesses• vulnerable to foreigners who couldoften force their way in• propose reform modeledon the West (education, responsive govt, written constitutions, limit powerof rulers, guarantees of equality)•Suffered from internal pressures(population/ declining crop production/Falling income/ failing economy )

Issues where they differ• Ottoman Empire, RussiaChina = elite rulers did not embrace or support reform• Japan = Tokugawa Shogunate fell, emperor wasrestored, reform is thoroughand embraced industrialization

Territorial Losses of the Ottoman Empire (1800-1914)

MuhammadAli (r. 1805-1848)

Why “The Crossroads”?What do Napoleon, the Russians and Nationalism have to do with it?

The Crimean Wars: 1854-1856

Sultan AbdulHamid II1876-1901

The Young Turks1889-1908

TanzimatReforms1839-1876

Sultan Mahmud II1808-1839

European style armyKilled JanissariesTaxed rural landlordsTo return power to sultan

Education reformPostal system/ RR

New law codesFaster paced reformPublic trialsRight of privacyFree compulsory education

Inspired by Enlightenment

Religious conservative ulama objected

Some wanted constiutional monarchy

Full legal equalityRapid secular reform“puppet sultan”Turkish as official language

Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire (Young Turks 1908)

1. The basis for the Constitution will be respect for the predominance of the national will.  One of the consequences of this principle will be to require without delay the responsibility of the minister before the Chamber, and, consequently, to consider the minister as having resigned, when he does not have a majority of the votes of the Chamber.

2. Provided that the number of senators does not exceed one-third the number of deputies, the Senate will be named as follows: one-third by the Sultan and two-thirds by the nation, and the term of senators will be of limited duration………

7. The Turkish tongue will remain the official state language.  Official correspondence and discussion will take place in Turkish………

9. Every citizen will enjoy complete liberty and equality, regardless of nationality or religion, and be submitted to the same obligations.  All Ottomans, being equal before the law as regards rights and duties relative to the State, are eligible for government posts, according to their individual capacity and their education.  Non-Muslims will be equally liable to the military law.

SPICE?Ottomans:JanissariesCapitulationsExtraterritorilaityMuhammad AliCrimean WarTanzimat ReformsYoung TurksWinners and losers??

YOUNG TURKS: 1889-1908(Social and Political)(Parisian Exiles): Universal suffrageEquality before the law, Freedom of religionemancipationFree public education, Nationalistic (Turkish independence within empire=Arab resistanceunited in mistrust of Europe1908: Inspired an Army CoupMehmed V Rashid (r. 1909-1918) puppet sultan

Social

Societies at the Crossroads: The Ottoman Empire 1750-1914

Territorial Losses from Russia, the BalkansLoss of Egypt (Muhammad Ali) 1820, Greece 1830, Serbia 1867Semi-independent war lords are a problemCorrupt leadership/ private armiesMilitary weak/ technologically weakInternal conflict ethnic/ nationalist groups= REVOLT then Authority under

Sultan Mahmud II(1808-1839)(however undermined authority of the ulamaTanzimat Era: 1839-1876 (conservative critics)Reform accelerated, restructuring of militaryBased on European models, attacked Ottoman sharia laws educational reform, centralized

Political

Geographically diverse- for centuries controlled trade routes from East to West_____________________________IslamSome resistance to reform by conservative clerics/ internal conflict (Christians, Muslims, Jews) ______________________________Turkish made the official language even With Arabic and Slavic speakersSee Tanzimat Era/ Young Turks___________________________

Societies at the Crossroads: The Ottoman Empire 1750-1914

Interaction withThe Environment

CULTURE

Increased economic pressure from EuropeLoss of control (and revenue) from trade due to shifting focus on Atlantic tradeReluctance to embrace modern technologyLed to fiscal insolvency, economic dependence, foreign loans (high interest)1882 CAPITULATIONS = humiliatingDeprived Ottomans of income (GB didn’t have to pay taxes)Extraterritoriality imposed________

ECONOMIC

DECLINE: continued to lose wars, subject peoples wanted autonomy, survived b/c Europe didn’t know how to divide empire w/oUpsetting their own balance of power

Societies at the Crossroads: The Ottoman Empire 1750-1914

TOOBIGTOFAIL?

NO

The Russian Empire 1801-1914Why “The Crossroads”?

Peter I the Great (r. 1682-1725)

Catherine II the Great (r. 1762-1796)

Alexander I (r. 1801-1825)

Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855)

Alexander II (r. 1855-1881)Sergei Witte

Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917)

Social

Societies at the Crossroads: The Russian Empire 1750-1914

Political

Military defeats (Crimean War, Russo-Japanese War 1905) Russification: attacks on ethnic minoritiesled to riots/ secret police/ censorshipSecret assassinations (Alexander II)Bloody Sunday (January 1905 march on Winter Palace)Social discontent leads to October 1905 Revolution

________________________________

Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917): further police control, further expansion into Manchuria/Korea = Russo-Japanese War 1905 (Japan destroys Russian navy)

Tsars agree to some political concessions = The Duma (national legislature) by October 1905 (failed for now- lacked authority)

Bloody Sunday 1905:Soldiers shot into the crowd

Civilian Deaths=96-4000

Strike for fair pay, Suffrage, shorterWork day

SPICE?Russia:Crimean WarSerfsSergei WitteZemstovsNicholas IIRusso-Japanese WarBloody SundayRevolution 1905Winners and losers?

Extremely geographically diverseTechnology had to be employed to createcommunication and facilitate trade(Sergei Witte: Trans-Siberian RR)

___________________________Russian Orthodox Christianity (1/2)Judaism (pogroms)Extreme multi-culturalismIndustrialization(however peasant discontent: low wages, long hrs, uprooted from agrarian lifestyle)

Societies at the Crossroads: The Russian Empire 1750-1914

Interaction withThe Environment

Industrialization with a fundamental agrarian economy (motivation different than in WEST: Why??)Key to modern success = emancipation of the serfs (mobile labor force/ consumers)Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) abolished serfdom (landowners compensated for their loss BUT freed serfs not happy: WHY?)

ECONOMIC

CULTURE

Motivation was social and politicalNOT motivated by entrepreneurialInitiative (TOP DOWN)Workers suffered….

Better to abolish serfdom from above than to

wait for serfs to revolt and liberate

themselves

But……

China and Japan: 19th century PressuresWhy “The Crossroads”?

CHINA: Opium Wars and Unequal Treaties 1838-1842

Since 1759: European tradeLimited to port of Guangzhou

Foreign merchants forced to deal with Chinese firms called cohongs: ONLYtrade in silver buillon

40,000 chests of opium a year shipped to China by 1838Commissioner Lin Zexu rejected by Queen VictoriaLin Zexu confiscated and destroyed 20,000 chests of opium

Forced to grant extraterritoriality statusUNEQUAL TREATIES/ Spheres of Influence

WAR!

SPICE?China:CohongEast India CompanyOpiumUnequal treatiesSpheres of InfluenceHong KongTaiping RebellionSelf Strengthening MovementBoxer RebellionWinners and Losers?

Unequal Treaties

According to the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the Chinese were to:

• Reimburse Britain for costs incurred fighting the Chinese • Open several ports to British trade • Provide Britain with complete control of Hong Kong

(returned July 1, 1997)

• Grant extraterritoriality to British citizens living in China REACTION?

Taiping Rebellion 1850-1864

Opposed the Manchus: wanted

radicalSocial change, no footbinding, no

private property, free public ed, no concubinage(men and women

equal)20-30 million lives

lostMassive decline in

economy/ food

1885 Britain took Burma1886 France took Vietnam

1895 Japan took Korean independence

1898 Spheres of Influence

No sex?

Harems for

leaders

1898 Hundred Days Reform? Proto-industrialization

Cixi nullifies

China:

The Boxer Rebellion 1899-1900

Society of Righteous and Harmonious FistsChinese Empress Dowager Cixi

University of Pennsylvania49 lb flawless crystal sphere-second largest in the world

Social

Societies at the Crossroads: China 1750-1914

Political

popular uprisings 1850-1860sTaiping Rebellion defeated by Qing and foreign troops (1864)government slaughtered 100,000 TaipingsHundred Days reforms 1898

________________________________

1896 Spheres of Influence1899-1900 Boxer Rebellion (Empress Dowager Cixi supported militia against foreigners)1900- Chinese leaders no longer in control of economy 1912- collapse of the Qing Dynasty

Qing Dynasty (Manchus) 1644-1911British introduced opium to end cohong systemOpium War (1839-1842)- Chinese easily defeatedunequal treatiesTreaty of Nanjing 1842lost tribute states of Vietnam, Burma, Korea, Taiwan

Extremely geographically diverseLed to policy of isolationismAlways has problem of securing enough arable land for growing populations(terraces)___________________________

Confucianism still strong under Manchu ruleunequal treaties allowed Christian missionaries

Qing widely known as patrons of the arts(Qianglong especially)

Societies at the Crossroads: China 1750-1914

Interaction withThe Environment

BEFORE: tight control of foreign trade/ foreign contact/ cohong systemagrarian/ little demand for foreign goodsAFTER: unequal treatiesultimately severe economic decline (eating grass, human flesh)"Self Strengthening" Movement (1860-1895) failed

ECONOMIC

CULTURE

Deshima, known as Dejima in Japanese, was a small artificial island in Nagasaki Bay (approximately 150 feet by 500 feet) on the southwestern Japanese island of Kyushu. From 1641 to 1845, Deshima served as the sole conduit of trade between Europe and Japan, and during the period of self-imposed Japanese seclusion (approximately 1639-1854) was Japan's only major link to the European world.

ClosedCountry Edicts 1635 and 1639

Why “The Crossroads”For JAPAN?

SPICE?Japan:Tokugawa ShogunatebakufuCommodore PerryMeiji RestorationDaimyo and samurai?The DietZaibatsuSino-Japanese War 1895Russo-Japanese War 1904Winners and losers?

JAPAN: Commodore Perry 1853 and Unequal Treaties

Meiji Restoration 1868 ended Tokugawa Shogunate

European style militaryModernized the infrastructure

New public health measures/ population increase

1872 Mass public education system1890s Massive industrialization (zaibatsu)

Supported consumer culture/ department stores

History of feudalism may have helped them understand the military aspects of the Western

challenge/ created group loyalties

Japan had a history of successful imitation and China did not.

Treaty of Kanagawa: March 31, 1854

1. Peace and friendship between the United States and Japan.

2. Opening of two ports to American ships at Shimoda and Hakodate

3. Help for any American ships wrecked on the Japanese coast and

protection for shipwrecked persons

4. Permission for American ships to buy supplies, coal, water,

and other necessary provisions in Japanese ports.

Social

Societies at the Crossroads: Japan 1750-1914

Political

peasant class suffer under tax burdenuprisings quickly suppressedConfucian social order dismantled

Almost all Japanese became legally equal as commoners- still female infanticide________________________________political stability linked to industrial growth defeated China 1895, Russia 1904

Tokugawa shogunate failing to end crisisforeign pressure to reverse closed door policy1840s bakufu plan to attack foreign interests1853 Commodore Matthew Perryunequal treaties = humiliation = end of Tokugawa rule1868 Meiji Restoration = end to military rule,constitutional government 1889 (parliament, Diet, political parties) Emperor still theoretically in charge)

daimyo and samurai lose powergovernment supported industrial growth/ outlawed unions and labor reform

Bakufu threatenedBy foreign pressure

Conscription armyReplaces samurai

Island nationVery resource poorNeed to trade especially as population grows___________________________

Shintoism/ Neo-Confucianism/ Buddhismunequal treaties allowed Christian missionaries ______________________________universal education (primary and secondary)

competitive universities

Societies at the Crossroads: Japan 1750-1914

Interaction withThe Environment

tax system reorganized (grain taxes to fixed money)industry: govt take over of industry to modernize it- then sold some to private investors (zaibatsu) railroads, telegraphs, steamships, postal systems, banking systems, munitions production)

1899 unequal treaties ended- no limits on Japanese in trade either ECONOMIC

CULTURE