Hebrew University Faculty of Humanities Mandel Institute of Jewish Studies

The Sixteenth International Orion Symposium:in conjunction with

The University of Vienna, New York University,The Israel Antiquities Authority and The Israel Museum

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness”April 29–May 2, 2018

ABSTRACTS

SUNDAY, APRIL 29, 2018Beit Maiersdorf, Mount Scopus, Room 405

Session I (10:00–13:30)

Armin LangeUniversity of Vienna

“A Wilderness of Texts? The Textual Plurality of the Torah and Quotations of the Wilderness Narrative in the Dead Sea Scrolls”

The Torah manuscripts among the Dead Sea Scrolls point to a textual plurality of the Torah during the Second Temple period. While the base texts of paratextual literature from the Second Temple period often seem to align with a pre-Samaritan text of the Torah (see Ben-Dov and Tov), only a very few manuscripts attesting to that text form were discovered in the caves of Qumran. This study will use selected quotations of the wilderness narrative as text-critical case studies, to ask to what extent their biblical pre-texts confirm the Torah’s textual plurality during the (late) Second Temple period. Furthermore, it will be asked if (late) Second Temple Jewish literature indicates a preference for a specific text of the Torah, as its paratextual literature seems to suggest.

Emanuel TovHebrew University

“Vox clamantis in deserto: The History of the Interpretation and Misinterpretation of Isaiah 40:3”

The verse that is the motto of the conference (Isa 40:3) has been the focus of attention for ancient and modern exegetes, and it is also used much outside the biblical context. In fact, many people do not know that the expression “a voice in the wilderness” represents a quotation from the Gospels (and through them from Isa 40:3).

The paper focuses on Isaiah 40:3 in its original setting as represented by the cantillation signs in the Masoretic Text, as well as on different interpretations in one of the Qumran writings and in the New Testament. The differences are limited to discrepancies in sense division, but they changed the meaning of the verse altogether by emphasis on the wilderness. Initially these sense divisions were not expressed in writing, but at a later stage they were.

John KampenMethodist Theological School, Ohio

“Does the Use of Isaiah 40:3 Necessarily Point to the Wilderness?”The citation of Isa 40:3 in 1QS 8:13–14 has frequently been understood to be a crucial text for understanding the relationship between the sectarian texts from the Qumran corpus and the Qumran site or other desert locations. Researchers also have argued for the ample use of the wilderness motif throughout the texts from Qumran, frequently relying on the assumption

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 2

that this text was at minimum evidence of the wilderness connection with the history of the sectarian community(ies?). A critical examination suggests that the minimum number of references to מדבר in these sectarian compositions and other texts from the Qumran corpus point to a very limited interest in the wilderness and a much greater connection to the term In other words, the use of Isa 40:3 in this and other passages is related primarily to the .דרךphrase פנו דרך יהוה (prepare the way of the Lord), rather than to the reference, במדבר. This paper examines the use of “the way” in both wisdom and rules texts, as well as the “Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifices,” to determine the function of this imagery in these sectarian compositions in the context of the larger corpus of Qumran texts and sectarian history.

Paul MandelSchechter Institute of Jewish Studies

“Comings and Goings in the Wilderness: On the Power of Biblical Metaphors in Qumran Literature”

The connection of the members of the Essene sect with the desert has generally been taken for granted, and has been cemented in both scholarly and lay circles through the name for the publication series, Discoveries in the Judean Desert, as well as by descriptions of the sect as a largely priestly group who chose to “leave Jerusalem for the desert.” The connection with the desert has found further support in the directive, based on Isaiah 40:3, found in Community Rule concerning the Community Council which “shall be separated from the men of iniquity to go to the desert and prepare there a path for the way of the Lord,” in which the desert seems to serve as a central metaphor. However, it has rarely been mentioned that a figurative meaning of midbar appears nowhere in the extant Dead Sea Scrolls except for two instances in which the word functions in a biblical allusion. The landscape of the desert was familiar to the residents of Judea and Jerusalem and, as in the Bible, was immediately recognizable as possessing two basic characteristics: an area with a dearth of water and, consequently, of scarce or no human habitation. On the other hand, the activity of walking ( function in Qumran literature, as in the Bible, in many (דרך) and the existence of a path (הלךmetaphoric passages of varied usages. In this paper I investigate the relative importance of these two allusions in Qumran literature, and demonstrate the overriding significance of “walking” along a “path” as an extremely pliable metaphor, as opposed to the much more limited use of midbar. The study has ramifications for a more accurate understanding of the above–mentioned passage in the Community Rule as well as for a wider appraisal of the connection between the Essenes and Qumran.

Ursula Schattner-RieserUniversity of Cologne

“Echoes from the Exile and the Aramean Past: Wilderness Themes in the Aramaic Qumran Texts, from Aḥiqar to Tobit”

This paper emphasizes the impact of Exile, in the sense of wilderness, and the didactic purpose of Exile stories and the wilderness–Diaspora experience. The wilderness is not only a deserted place without life; it is also a place of protection and conservation of identity and ethical principles. It is not only a place of distress, but a place of hope and justice.

We can observe several similarities between the Qumran ideology and several Aramaic writings, in both biblical and nonbiblical terms. The wisdom instructions and prayers of Aḥiqar and Tobit are embedded in their personal stories with a pedagogical intent.

In my paper I intend to underline the didactic purpose of those texts in which the narrative structures served as guidelines in learning how to pray and behave ethically.

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 3

Session II (15:00)

Loren Stuckenbruck Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich“Wilderness Traditions and Ethiopic Enoch”

The paper explores varied wilderness symbolism in the collection of early Enoch traditions that form 1 Enoch. In two cases and in distinguishable ways, this collection recalls the revelation to Israel following the exodus from Egypt (Animal Apocalypse, 1 En. 89:28; Apocalypse of Weeks, 93:6). In addition to being a place of revelation, wilderness language is also used to describe a place of refuge (Epistle of Enoch, 96:2), of true nourishment (Eschatological Admonition, 108:9), and of definitive, though temporary punishment (Book of Watchers, 1 En. 10:4–6). These wilderness passages in the Enochic textual tradition are examined for their literary-theological function within 1 Enoch and are compared with the same in contemporary and later Jewish apocalyptic texts.

Søren HolstUniversity of Copenhagen

“Flying over the Great Desert: Wilderness in the Cosmology of the Book of Giants and Related Texts”

In the Qumran version of the Book of Giants, the giant Mahaway, son of the Watcher Baraqiel, flies across the inhabited land and the waste places of The Great Desert in order to seek the advice of Enoch. A comparable journey is undertaken by Methuselah and Noah in the Genesis Apocryphon and 1 Enoch, reflecting a similar cosmology.

Other passages, too, of the “Enochic” literature represented at Qumran testify to the idea of a wilderness separating the world of humans from that place of superior wisdom and insight where Enoch resides or where Paradise is found.

The paper examines this idea and its relation to other Qumran material.

Jonathan Ben-DovUniversity of Haifa & Israel Institute of Advanced Studies

“Populated Land, Seas, Deserts: The Division of the World in 1 Enoch 77 and Medieval Sources”

1 Enoch 77:3 is in some way a source about the structure of the world. It is one of the worst- preserved verses in the entire Astronomical Book, with two highly fragmentary but not identical Aramaic witnesses (4Q209, 4Q210), and a long Ethiopic text which probably reflects a long omission in the middle of the verse, a feature that has led to a fundamental misunderstanding. This heavily damaged verse has attracted enormous scholarly efforts, aiming to explain the structure of the world according to various ancient parallels, or at least make textual sense of the perplexing remains of text. The word מדבר appears in this verse at least twice. Alas, these occurrences appear in sections describing two different parts of the world. This paper is yet another attempt to explain the division of the world, whether into two or three parts, and to make sense of the various versions. It will take in account a similar tripartite division of the world in Late Antique and Medieval Hebrew sources such as piyyuṭ and late midrashim, where the desert plays a central part.

Session III. Festive Opening Session (18:00)

John J. CollinsYale University

“The Significance of the Desert for the Yaḥad”The sectarian movement attested in the Scrolls seems to have been organized on the model of the Israelite camp in the wilderness, in preparation for a new deliverance. This aspect of the wilderness symbolism is retained in the Community Rule, but the desert also acquires a new valance. The desert is a place to go to separate from evil people. In view of the location of the settlement at Qumran, it seems likely that the symbolism of going to the desert to prepare the

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 4

way of the Lord was realized in a literal way. It is not apparent, however, that all the Yaḥad was expected to go the wilderness, or that the wilderness location was essential for realizing the ideals of the sect. Ultimately their hope was to return to the very urban setting of Jerusalem.

MONDAY, APRIL 30Rabin Building, Mount Scopus, Room 2001

Session IV (9:15–10:45)

Sarianna MetsoUniversity of Toronto

“Atonement in the Wilderness: Leviticus 16 and Its Interpretation in the Dead Sea Scrolls”The text of Leviticus 16 describing the rituals of atonement on Yom Kippur is preserved in only two fragmentary scriptural texts found at Qumran, but echoes of its wordings are detectable in several nonscriptural texts. Much scholarly attention has been paid to apocalyptic texts and the figure of Azazel—first mentioned in Lev 16: 8, 10 and 26—to whom the sin-carrying goat is sent in the wilderness. A connection between Lev 16:21 and the formulaic language of penitential prayers has also been established. The main focus of this paper, however, will be on rule texts, and various sections of the Community Rule in particular. The paper aims at demonstrating a broad textual link in the Scrolls between the themes of wilderness and atonement, and examines the notion of the yaḥad withdrawing into the wilderness to atone for its members, for the whole of Israel, and for the land, in relation to the use and interpretation of Leviticus 16.

Zachary LevineNew York University

“The Covenant of the First Ones and Their Chastisement: Leviticus 26:44–45 at Qumran”Drawing on Leviticus 26, the ancient Jewish authors of texts like the Damascus Document (CD) and Words of the Luminaries (4Q504), cite the “chastisement” set in motion with the inauguration of the Sinai covenant to advance an argument that their group and generation have reached the purified, penitential telos of this chastisement. These texts discern and appreciate the unique emphasis on covenant continuity encountered in Leviticus 26. There, God “remembers the covenant with the first ones” and acts to preserve the still-disobedient, exiled nation in Lev 26:43b–45 immediately at the onset of exile, long before the remnant repents in Lev 26:39–41. Not accounting for this order of events (in these texts or in Leviticus), Philip Davies insists that the “first ones” must refer to the Patriarchs. Even if Noah or Sinai is in view, he writes, CD and 4Q504 cite Lev 26:45 to refer to that “broken” covenant “which ended at the exile.” Dipping into an anachronistic discourse of supersessionism, Davies and many scholars following him say that the sectarians cite Lev 26:45 to contrast the “broken” covenant and “old Israel” with the sect who are “the new Israel,” benefiting from a “New Covenant” based on grace. Yet, (contra Davies) these texts actually distinguish the “covenant with the first ones” from God's promise to “remember” the three Patriarchal covenants and “the Land” in Lev 26:42–43a. Rather, these ancient Jewish authors cite Lev 26:43b–45 to evoke the adoption of Israel at Sinai and to emphasize God's incredible fealty to the Sinai covenant, which has endured and come to fruition in their group.

Gideon R. KotzéNorth-West University, South Africa

“The Wilderness and the ‘World Turned Upside Down’ Imagery in 4Q179”

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 5

The wilderness features prominently in the imagery of ancient Near Eastern disaster literature. These texts deal with real or imagined disasters and recount events and circumstances in such a way that they are remembered as catastrophic in cultural memory. To this end, the texts often use literary depictions of a world turned upside down (mundus inversus); that is, the inversion of accepted and desired cosmic, religious, societal, and political conditions. Seeing as the wilderness “is conceived of as the abode of ghoulish spirits, wild beasts of prey, and roaming marauders” (S. Talmon) and signifies an uncultured, anti-human territory that is related to the realm of death (O. Keel), it is not surprising that the infiltration of this inhospitable, chaotic space into civilized life is a staple element of mundus inversus images. This type of imagery also appears in Second Temple Jewish literature, and any discussion of the wilderness as a literary theme in early Judaism would be incomplete without a consideration of its expression in writings of the period. Amongst the Dead Sea scrolls, such images are found, e.g., in 4Q179 in a passage that describes the lamentable destruction of the Temple and the desolation of Jerusalem and other cities. Not many studies have been devoted to this manuscript and an examination of its figurative language remains a desideratum. Accordingly, the proposed paper will investigate and interpret the “wilderness” images in 4Q179 as examples of the mundus inversus theme in Second Temple period disaster literature.

Session V (11:10–12:30)

Devorah DimantUniversity of Haifa“Moses at Qumran”

A careful analysis of the references to Moses in the Qumran documents reveals the variety of ways it is done in the three nonbiblical segments of the library: the sectarian texts, the parabiblical works, and the Aramaic compositions. The sectarian texts mostly refer to Moses as the lawgiver, using formulae such as “the law of Moses,” or “as God commanded at the hand of Moses,” formulae taken from the Hebrew Bible. In contradistinction, the parabiblical writings refer to him through reworking passages from the Torah. The Aramaic texts, such as the Animal Visions of 1 Enoch 85–90 and the Visions of Amram, recount Moses’s actual career. It is this diversity that makes up Moses’s portrait at Qumran.

Hindy NajmanOxford University

“Redemptive Rereading: Encountering Desert after Loss in the Apostrophe to Zion and Other Texts”

Through Apostrophe to Zion (11Q5 column 22) we can begin to trace thought patterns in Jewish antiquity about reinterpreting the space of desert, exile, and destruction in ways that speak to the place of therapy as a kind of interpretive tool. What we see in 11Q5 22 is a dynamic of silence and sound through writing, reading, and prayer; and finally, the reconfiguration of space of Temple, Jerusalem, and especially Zion. But this new Zion can be the space of Jerusalem, of exile, of the desert, and of the heavenly Temple. Apostrophe to Zion enables us to revisit prophetic and liturgical texts. By tracing the practices of reading embedded in Apostrophe to Zion, we can trace the contours of new and reassembled text. The point is not to look back to canonical text as fixed and to noncanonical as fluid, interpretive, and changing. Rather this text explicitly and self-consciously performs a “new song” that now pulls together the threads of recollection, liturgy, prophecy, and newly authorized scripture. But it presents itself not as a text that was already preserved and disseminated, but rather as simply a new psalm. It provides us with a snapshot in time of how people thought about hope, loss, recovery, ongoing revelation, and access to the divine.

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 6

Session VI (14:30–16:10)

Noam MizrahiTel-Aviv University

“Dialects in the Wilderness: Reconsidering the Notion of Qumran Hebrew”From the earliest stages of Dead Sea Scrolls research, it was evident to scholars that the language of the scrolls exhibits numerous peculiar features that set it apart from other varieties of ancient Hebrew, leading eventually to the crystallization of the notion of “Qumran Hebrew” (QH). Even though linguists continue to debate whether this is a literary register or a more-or-less faithful reflection of a spoken vernacular, there seems to be an underlying consensus that QH indeed represents a distinct and variety of Hebrew, with some notable authorities considering it even as an independent dialect (presumably of the Jerusalem area). This paper intends to reconsider this assumption from a number of vantage points, taking into consideration theoretical insights of dialectology—especially the relationship between geographical or social isolation and the development of peculiar speech patterns—as well as renewed scrutiny of the ambiguous testimony of some of the salient sectarian texts.

Daniel L. SmithSaint Louis University

“Wilderness Space, Wilderness Time, Wilderness People”From Talmon’s 1966 study of the “Desert Motif” to Najman’s 2006 article on the “Concept of Wilderness in Ancient Judaism,” scholars of ancient Judaism have explored the meanings of midbar in biblical texts and Second Temple Jewish writings. Schofield (2008) moves the conversation forward by emphasizing the spatial and temporal characteristics of the wilderness, showing how it both represents a sacred space and recalls a historical time. I would like to focus attention on the wilderness people who lived during the wilderness period in a wilderness space. Or rather, I would like to recognize the ways in which late Second Temple Jews focused their attention on this wilderness people, Israel in the desert.

When we look beyond mentions of midbar, we find other traces of the wilderness people. For example, the “first ones” or rishonim appear repeatedly in the Damascus Document (CD-A 1:4; 3:10–12; 4:8–10), and other late Second Temple texts abound with references to ancestral Israel in the wilderness. From 1 Maccabees to Josephus to Paul, we find attempts to hearken back to the wilderness. But instead of focusing narrowly on the temporal or spatial aspects of midbar or eremos, we find the legacy of the wilderness generations highlighted. Consequently, we complement Talmon’s study of a literary motif with an exploration of rhetorical strategies used in Second Temple texts to connect ancestral Israel in the wilderness (the “first ones”) with their later progeny, including those living at “the appointed time” (1QM 1:8).

Corrado MartoneUniversity of Turin

“This Must Be the Place: The Zadokite Exodus in the Dead Sea Scrolls”In the Qumran texts the desert is both a metaphor and a real place. However, the metaphor involving the desert is not univocal. As Shemaryahu Talmon put forward in a seminal study, a number of Qumran texts consider the wilderness wandering as a punishment meted out to a generation of sinners in accordance with the biblical narrative (compare, e.g., CD 3:5–7). On the other hand, the desert is the chosen place of a small group of Zadokite separatists after the end of the Zadokite high priesthood in Jerusalem.

This group justifies its choice by recalling nothing less than the words of the prophet Isaiah (see Is 40:3). In this case the desert is no longer the place of sin and punishment but the place to recreate a religious and social context which the new leaders in Jerusalem (the session of perverse men mentioned in 1QS 8:13) had brought to an end.

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 7

It is worth noting that the heart of Isaiah’s announcement, the reason for the messages of good news, is that God is returning to take up residence in Jerusalem again and this could also be the group’s more or less explicit intention or hope.

This paper will analyze the different views of the desert in the DSS literature, trying to ascertain if they could help to better delineate a possible historical context of the Qumran schism, in the perspective of the Zadokites’s vicissitudes in second century BCE Judea.

Session VII (16:30)

Eyal RegevBar-Ilan University

“The Wilderness, Damascus and the Land: The Notion of Place in Sectarian Community Building”

Qumranic sectarian documents have a special inclination towards places. In addition to the Wilderness (a symbol or reality?) in 1QS 8, and the Land of Damascus (a metaphor for exile?) in CD, Jerusalem is mentioned in both positive and negative senses, and perhaps also as a symbol, in several documents such as the War Rule and 1QpHab. In addition, more general terms attest to the significance of the notion of place or space. The “camps” in CD may relate to Israel's camp(s) in the wilderness as symbolizing sacredness. Also, the idea of atoning for the Land appears several times in the 'holy house' passages in 1QS 8–9 and may be related to the sect as a place on earth.

I will examine how the authors used these particular and general locations to create a sense of concrete space. Places are not merely geographical terms, they become metaphors for the community. They create a sense of concreteness, perhaps because some of the members of the sect were wanderers (either by choice or because they were persecuted). Using critical theory on symbolic space and the role of metaphors, I suggest exploring a unique sense of place in Qumran which demonstrates that the metaphor of wilderness, which perhaps is the origin of this phenomenon, is only part of a larger notion of sectarian community as a place/space.

Arjen BakkerOxford University

“‘Prepare in the Wilderness’: Cultivation of the Self in the Judean Desert”Scholars have proposed different reasons for the separation of the yaḥad and its retreat to the desert. Often the explanation involves a conflict with competing groups over halakhic matters and political influence. This paper will examine a different model that situates the yaḥad’s separation and retreat in a broader cultural tendency that developed in the Mediterranean world of the Greco-Roman period. The French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that, under the influence of various philosophical schools during the Hellenistic period, and climaxing in the early Roman Empire, there was a widespread interest in practices related to asceticism and self-transformation. Foucault demonstrated that this concern for cultivation of the soul was not a solitary affair, but rather a social practice that was sometimes institutionalized in communities, such as those of the Epicureans, the Pythagoreans, and, significantly, the Therapeutae in Egypt. In this paper I will argue that the same phenomenon can be recognized in the writings of the yaḥad. The members of this community appropriated elements of this broader cultural tendency which they refashioned in a particular way. This provides an alternative and viable model for explaining the separation of an elite group within the community and its retreat into the wilderness. To support this hypothesis, I will discuss a number of relevant elements in the Scrolls, such as the ideal of circumcising the foreskin of the heart, the transformation of the self that is described in the Barkhi Nafshi hymns, and the related theme of the struggle with evil spirits. I will demonstrate that cultivation of the self was an important dimension of life in the yaḥad that has so far received minimal attention, but that casts significant light both on the community’s inner ideals, and on the way in which it interacted with its cultural environment.

Alison Schofield

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 8

University of Denver“The Concept of Wilderness and the Rule of the Congregation”

TUESDAY, MAY 1Israel Museum, Shrine of the Book, Dorot Auditorium

Session VIII (9:00–11:15)

Reinhard G. KratzGeorg-August-Universität, Göttingen

“QWB and SQE: Two Digital Projects on Lexicography and Edition of the Scrolls”The talk will present two major digital projects on the Scrolls. One is the Qumran-Wörterbuch (QWB) which is a long-term project funded by the Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen and directed by Reinhard G. Kratz, Annette Steudel, and Ingo Kottsieper. This project is based on an innovative and unique linguistic database, which contains transcriptions of the Dead Sea Scrolls—including all variant readings proposed in printed editions and other scholarly publications—along with lexical, morphological, grammatical, and bibliographical data. The first volume of this lexicon appeared in 2017.

The second project has the title Scripta Qumranica Electronica (SQE). It is a German-Israeli cooperation (DIP) funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and directed by three principle investigators—Jonathan Ben-Dov (Haifa), Nahum Dershowitz (Tel-Aviv), and Reinhard G. Kratz (Göttingen)—and their teams, in cooperation with the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) represented by Pnina Shor. This project aims at connecting the textual database of QWB with the image database of the IAA’s Leon Levy Dead Seas Scrolls Digital Library both for scholarly use and for the public. The coordination of data from these two repositories will provide a common platform for new editions of the Scrolls including new and powerful tools to digitally reconstruct physical manuscripts and to analyse their text.

Amos FrumkinHebrew University

“The Geology and Environment of the Qumran Caves”The geology and microclimate of Qumran caves were studied in order to reevaluate the conditions appropriate for the preservation of scrolls.

Several types of geological settings and cave types were observed:a. Escarpment (hard bedrock) natural caves in: (1) Shivta Formation; (2) Ein Feshkha

Formation.b. Lisan Formation (soft sediment) caves: (1) artificial; (2) natural (piping).The last type involves flash-flood flow through the caves; no scrolls were found in this

type (b2), although other finds associated with the Qumran site were previously unearthed. We conducted microclimate measurements in Q4 Cave bottom, during January–February (the coldest and most humid period of the year). The relative humidity varied between 28% and 72%; temperatures were 15–20OC, with day-night variation of 2–3OC.

Eitan Klein and Amir GanorIsrael Antiquities Authority

“Explorations and Discoveries in the Judean Desert Caves: The Antiquities Looting Prevention Unit’s Activity in the Last Few Years”

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 9

Most of the Judean Desert Caves are located in the high vertical cliffs above the banks of deep and narrow valleys. The access to these caves is very tough and usually requires the use of ropes.

In the last seventy years, important artifacts from various periods have been found in these caves, including the famous Dead Sea Scrolls. These artifacts, were preserved, some in an exceptional state, due to the constant dry conditions that prevail in the Judean Desert.

There are indications of human activity in the caves, primarily for refuge, beginning with the Neolithic Period but mainly during the Chalcolithic and Roman Periods. Because of their remote location and the high probability of finding precious archaeological finds in the caves they are a preferred target for looters.

In this lecture we will present the activities of the Antiquities Looting Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority in the Judean Desert from 2009 to the present. The purpose of this activity is to protect our cultural heritage from the looters’ illegal excavations.

The first results of this were the confiscation of two ancient papyri; three salvage excavations in refuge caves of the Judean Desert, which yielded various interesting findings; and the arrest of three groups of antiquities looters. These activities led us to initiate the present systematic, three-year survey and excavations project in the Judean Desert Caves.

Uri Davidovich and Roi PoratHebrew University

“New Excavations in the Large Cave Complex of Naḥal Tze’elim: A Refuge Complex of the Bar-Kokhba Revolt”

The Large Cave Complex in Naḥal Tze’elim (Wadi Seiyal) is the first complex where Roman-period Jewish documents, dated to the Bar Kokhba Revolt, surfaced during archaeological work conducted by Israeli archaeologists. These documents were uncovered as part of the “Naḥal Tze’elim Expedition,” headed by the late Yohanan Aharoni in the winter of 1960; these discoveries initiated the large-scale cave survey known as the “Judean Desert Operation,” undertaken in 1960–1961. While Aharoni’s excavation results in the Large Cave Complex were never published in detail, his work was the last to be carried out in the cliffs of this ravine, which is the longest and southernmost of the Judean Desert ravines that served as temporary refuges for Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt. Following renewed academic interest in the cave complex, and the on-going illegal looting there in recent years, a large-scale excavation project was initiated jointly by the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Hebrew University, focusing on the Cave of Skulls (the largest cave in the complex) and the Cave of Scrolls (where Aharoni’s documents were uncovered). The results of the excavations, conducted between May and September 2016, demonstrate the significance of this cave complex as one of the main refuge locales in the Judean Desert during multiple periods, and shed further light on daily activities of Jewish families that fled to Judean Desert cliff caves, as well as on the possible provenance of recently-looted documents, including the papyrus dated to “Year 4 of the Destruction of the House of Israel.”

Session IX (11:45–13:15)

Oren GutfeldHebrew University

“Old Cave–New Project: The Renewed Excavation in Cave 53”Cave 53 is located on a cliff less than a mile south of the site of Qumran. In January 2017 a renewed excavation was conducted (after test-excavation in the early 1990’s in the first “Operation Scroll”) on behalf of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

The cave is comprised of a main chamber (5x3.5m) with small chambers to the south and north and a 12m tunnel in the back wall of the cave in the main chamber, Numerus flint tools, pottery sherds, hearths and other special finds ware found in mixed layers attributed to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, Pottery Neolithic, and to the Early and Late Chalcolithic periods. Following these layers, in all sections of the cave but mainly in the back tunnel, large amount of pottery vessels, bones and organic materials were found, which may be attributed to the Early Roman period. In the small southern chamber, behind a stone blockage, a small rolled fragment of worked hide was found in a storage jar. In several niches along the walls of the

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 10

back tunnel, multiple storage jars and lids were found together with several leather strips, pieces of cloth, numerus olive pits, date seeds and nuts. Hiding in a cruck, two rusty pickaxes were found revealing that the cave was looted several decades ago. These extraordinary finds proved that this cave used to hide scrolls that were looted.

Guy D. StiebelTel-Aviv University

“Post mortem: The Rebels’ Community at Masada and the Qumran Connection”The renewal of the excavations at the site of Masada by the Neustadter archaeological expedition out of Tel-Aviv University (2017), alongside a re-examination of the results of the previous expeditions, allow one to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of rebels' community at the celebrated site. One of the groups that seemingly found asylum at Masada appears to bear direct linkage with the sectarian community of Qumran. In addition to the previously published sectarian documents from Masada we appear to possess direct physical evidence that had been overlooked. The lecture aims to present the heterogenic composition of the rebels’ community and particularly to shed new light on the members of the sectarian community of Qumran that apparently found shelter at the site during the turbulent period of the First Jewish Revolt.

Marcello FidanzioFacoltà di Teologia di Lugano

“Qumran Cave 11Q Final Report: Archaeology and New Scroll Fragments”The last cave in which manuscripts were found was first discovered and looted by the Bedouins, and then excavated by R. de Vaux and G.L. Harding (1956); later, minor excavations were done by J. Patrich (1988 and 1991), M. Fidanzio and D. Bahat (2017). The results of the excavations and their finds are largely unpublished, so far.

This paper aims to present the core of the final report on Cave 11Q’s archaeology, which will be published in 2018. Archaeology introduces us to the knowledge of some phases in the history of the cave and helps in dealing with general topics of Qumran research, such as the post-depositional process which affected the context; the function of the cave related to the manuscripts deposition; a comparative approach to 11Q and the other caves in the vicinity of Qumran and in the Judean desert.

Almost fifty tiny scroll fragments, kept in storage rooms and laboratories, have been until now unknown. They turn out to be helpful for confirming the provenance of some of the scrolls attributed to Cave 11Q and, in few cases, in debating the traditional identifications of some manuscripts.

Session X (19:00–21:00): Public Program in HebrewIsrael Museum, Springer Auditorium

Adolfo RoitmanThe Israel Museum

”באנוס, יוחנן המטביל וכת קומראן: המשמעות הדתית של המדבר ביהדות העתיקה“(“Bannus, John the Baptist, and the Qumran Community: The Religious Meaning of

Wilderness in Ancient Judaism”)The origins of Israel are associated in the biblical tradition with the wilderness. According to the Pentateuch, the Hebrew people became a political entity at the foot of Mount Sinai, in a territory of liminal character, located between civilizations (Egypt and Canaan) and unshaped by human activity, in a still virginal state. In this same spirit, the idealization of the desert would seem to have been promoted especially in prophetic circles (Elijah and Jeremiah) as an ideological alternative to cities and temples, identified with moral and religious corruption.

This perception of wilderness re-emerged with singular force in eschatological and pietistic circles at the end of the Second Temple era, in the light of the strong criticisms that the Jerusalem Temple was objectionable for its moral, ritual, and religious sinfulness. As a

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 11

consequence, individuals and groups inspired both by the ancient biblical tradition and by the anti-urban cultural atmosphere and lifestyle prevalent among some philosophical–religious groups (Pythagoreans, Therapeutae, etc.) in the Hellenistic-Roman world, chose to leave the city of Jerusalem and its Temple to go into the wilderness, in order to embark on a natural, ascetic, and pure life, recovering the authentic origins of the nation.The objective of this paper is to explore three concrete examples as case studies: Bannus, John the Baptist, and the Qumran Community. The final goal is to set out the similarities and differences between these three sociological–religious phenomena; I argue that the northern region of the Dead Sea would have had a multi-layered complex of religious–symbolic meanings for Jews in ancient times.

Lawrence H. SchiffmanNew York University

”המשכן והמקדש במגילת המקדש (“The Desert Tabernacle and the Temple of the Temple Scroll”)

The Temple plan put forward in the architectural source of the Temple Scroll is a verbal plan for a greatly expanded temenos and Temple structure. In this respect, it stands in line with the entire sequence of such verbal plans: that of the desert Tabernacle, the Temple of Solomon, Ezekiel's proposed Temple plan and, later, the Mishnaic description of the pre-Herodian Temple and Josephus's description of the Herodian Temple. As distinct from all the other plans, the Temple Scroll represents an architectural plan that seeks to embody that of the tabernacle, as surrounded by the Israelite camp, as described in biblical sources. This paper seeks to trace the specific, detailed influence of the tabernacle plan on that of the Temple Scroll. At the same time, the paper will point out differences between these plans. Overall, I seek to argue that from both architectural and conceptual points of view the Temple Scroll has been greatly influenced by the Torah's descriptions of the desert Tabernacle and the Israelite camp of the desert wandering. Although the scroll as a whole seems to conceive the society it describes as urbanized, the “desert motif” was nevertheless of great influence.

Pnina ShorIsrael Antiquities Authority

”מהמדבר לקדמת המדע: תיעוד, שמור והנגשת מגילות מדבר יהודה“ (“From the Wilderness to Multispectral Imaging: The Documentation, Preservation and

Digitization of the Dead Sea Scrolls”)Issues of conservation, preservation and documentation of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) have concerned both scholars and conservators ever since the scrolls’ discovery. The removal of the fragile scrolls from the caves in the Judean Desert where they had been preserved for over 2,000 years interrupted the environmental stability that had ensured their preservation for so long. The scrolls have been damaged by the ravages of time, as well as, since their discovery, from mishandling and mistreatment.

In 1991, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA)—advised by world-renowned, leading professionals in issues relating to conservation of manuscripts written on parchment and papyrus—established a designated conservation laboratory for the preservation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The conservation and preservation of the scrolls has since been an ongoing task, due to their extreme brittleness and the need to stay current with the most up-to-date conservation methods.

In the last decade, again with the help of international experts, the IAA reevaluated the conservation techniques under use, and discussed courses of action for still unresolved issues. The IAA also embarked on an advanced, large-scale digitization project, which was initiated as yet another conservation effort—but this has evolved into an overall project that is gradually changing the DSS research environment and methodology.

The presentation will demonstrate the technology and sciences involved in the imaging of the scrolls; the development of a noninvasive monitoring system, based on the multispectral images, for tracking the state of preservation of the scrolls; the creation of the highest-quality color images and advanced near infra-red images for public and scholarly use; the online digital library with its open access; the development of computer generated tools, algorithms, virtual workspaces; and new studies resulting from the use of these best possible images.

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 12

The Dead Sea Scrolls are a universal cultural heritage. As such, it is our duty to safeguard the scrolls and preserve them for future generations, sharing them with the public and with scholarly communities worldwide.

WEDNESDAY, MAY 2Rabin Building, Mount Scopus, Room 2001

Session XI (9:00–10:40)

Steven D. FraadeYale University

“Revelation and Prophecy in the Wilderness”While I will focus on the Dead Sea Scrolls, I will place them in the broader context of both other writings (especially apocalyptic) from the late Second Temple period, and early rabbinic and Christian writings. They share (but with significant variations) a view of the wilderness as both a place of danger—e.g., from animals, demons, lack of food and water, and lawless people—and of unmediated divine–human, intimate encounter: both individual and collective; both one time (Sinai) and ongoing; reflective of a widespread ancient attitude of “cultural primitivism.” While these themes already appear “inner-biblically,” they are variously transformed, especially through eschatological lenses, by the dynamic process of interpretation. How and why is it that law is revealed and covenant is enacted in a place of lawlessness and without borders? In this broader context, I will revisit the idea (James VanderKam) that central to the self-understanding of the “Qumran community” was its view of itself as if standing at Sinai.

Liora GoldmanUniversity of Haifa / Oranim Academic College of Education

“From Mount Sinai to the Well: Where and to Whom will the Torah be Revealed?”In this lecture, I shall examine the way in which the Qumran scrolls rework the central biblical narrative of Moses receiving the Torah on Sinai. I shall discuss whether the mountain remains the “central protagonist” or whether other places as recognized as no less important; whether its significance was associated with the delivery of the Torah or other events on or around it; whether Moses continues to play the major role or whether aides are said to accompany the revelation at Sinai and its transmission, heirs also arising after him.

Analysis of the Qumran library reveals that it contains a variety of traditions in relation to both man and mountain. While the majority of “the Rewritten Bible” scrolls closely follow the biblical text—locating the revelation of the Torah on Mount Sinai and representing Moses as the chief actor, leading the people out of Egypt, bringing them to Sinai, and giving them the Torah—the Visions of Amram make much of Aaron and his sons’ appointment to the high priesthood, regarding Sinai as important because of the erection of the tabernacle and the altars on its slopes. Sectarian texts thus treat Moses as the first of a series of figures—and Sinai as the first of numerous places—to whom and at which God reveals Himself and His Torah.

Moshe J. BernsteinYeshiva University

“Who (or What) is a מחוקק?”In CD 6:3-10, the “Well-song” (Num 21:17–18) furnishes a critical passage for the Qumran group’s formation narrative, adapting a piece of the Israelites’ wilderness memory to their own historical experience. The מחוקק of that passage is their “Interpreter of the Law,” and √חקק appears four times in the concentrated and focused exegesis of the first seven words of verse 18. Beginning with Vermes’s study of מחוקק in his classic Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961), attempts have been made to contextualize the Qumranic interpretation of the term in the context of other early Jewish exegesis. This paper will focus on the Qumranic and targumic renderings of attempting to ,מחוקק

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 13

distinguish carefully between interpretations and translations that appear similar on the surface but actually diverge. We shall also examine consistency (or the lack thereof) in the treatment of the term .in these interpretive traditions מחוקק

Session XII (11:00–12:40)

Alex JassenNew York University

“Feeling Persecuted in the Wilderness: The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Narrative of Victimhood”

The Dead Sea Scrolls present a sectarian community filled with anxiety about the imminent threat of violence by more powerful Jews and imperial forces. This paper explores these portraits of violence through the theoretical framework of studies on victimhood and persecution. By drawing on this theoretical framework, I peel away the layers of the text to uncover how the sectarians created a voice for their disempowered identity. I turn to the many ways in which the sectarians used imagined violence as a vehicle for their resistant counterdiscourse. I explore a wide range of passages where the sectarians identify themselves as the victims or potential victims of violence perpetrated by empowered others: Rome and local Jewish priestly and political authorities. In the face of their disempowered status, the sectarians constructed an identity of themselves, other Jews, and Rome that explained their disempowered status and delegitimized the prestige of these other groups. The sectarians responded to their sense of disempowerment by magnifying the power of others while simultaneously underscoring their own narrative of victimhood. This narrative of victimhood transformed the indifference of their enemies into a myth of perpetual persecution.

Jesper HøgenhavenUniversity of Copenhagen

“The Wilderness in the Copper Scroll (3Q15)”The Copper Scroll (3Q15) is a catalogue of hidden treasures, and an itinerary: An anonymous “voice” instructs an addressee to retrieve the valuables. The hiding-places constitute a symbolic geography. Most of the place-names have biblical connotations, and several locations recall the narratives of the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land. The text depicts a desolate landscape, consisting of abandoned places, ruined buildings. In particular, the Temple of Jerusalem seems to have lost its sacred functions, and to have been emptied of its sacred objects which are now located in profane places. However, some of the places mentioned bring to mind divine promises of an eschatological redemption of the land. The journey that 3Q15 prescribes seems to mirror the movements of the Israelites at the time of the conquest, and includes a period of “roaming in the desert.” Two of the locations mentioned most frequently, Kohlit and Secacah are located in the wilderness. Jerusalem, which is never mentioned by name in the scroll, represents sacred space, while the wilderness is profane space. But the desert also carries the weight of the Pentateuchal narratives as the place of the encounter and covenant-making between God and Israel. From the perspective of these narrative traditions, the wilderness is both a desolate and dangerous place and the sacred space par excellence. The present paper explores how these wilderness traditions are employed creatively in the symbolic geography of the Copper Scroll.

Atar LivnehBen-Gurion University of the Negev

“Reciting History on Sinai: A Study of Jewish Antiquities 3.83–88 in Comparative Perspective”

Following an exegetical tradition also attested in 4Q158 (cf. Sam. Pent.), Jewish Antiquities adapts the literary narrative of the Ten Commandments from Exodus 19–20, in accordance with the framework of Deuteronomy. Jewish Antiquities thus places a recitation of Israelite history prior to the Ten Commandments (J.A. 3.83–88; cf. Deuteronomy 1–3[4]). Here, Moses portrays history as a sequence of divine favors bestowed upon Israel and her ancestors, and suggests that Israel will continue in the same path only if the Israelites obey

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 14

the law (cf. Deut. 29:1–8). While the historical events/figures enumerated in J.A. 3.83–88 are typical of contemporary summaries of Israelite history, their arrangement and presentation concur with Josephus’s own emphasis and purpose. For example, while Adam’s sojourn in the Garden is recorded in 4Q422 and 4Q504, J.A. 3.87 is unique in juxtaposing the first human being with “Israel in the wilderness,” linking the two cases via the common theme of the gracious provision of food by God. The latter motif further ties these past events to the future awaiting the Israelites—if only they will keep the covenant, they, too, will “enjoy a fruitful earth” (J.A. 3.88; cf. Deut. 28:2-14).

Session XIII (14:30–16:10)

George BrookeUniversity of Manchester / University of Chester (England)

“Locating the Wilderness in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament: A Study in Mutual Illumination”

In this essay the various passages concerning the wilderness in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the New Testament will be juxtaposed with each other. The purpose of the paper is to offer some clarification on where the wilderness might be located, whether metaphorically and spiritually or physically and geographically. It will be argued that in both literary corpora attention should be paid to the multivalence of the term in the light of scriptural antecedents and their various interpretations. It will be argued in part that wilderness is a reference of place corresponding with the spatial character of theophany in the Tabernacle and prophetic sign.

Hermann LichtenbergerUniversity of Tübingen

“The Woman in the Desert and the Wings of the Eagle in Rev 12:13–14”Revelation chapter 12 is dominated in research by the Combat Myth, with its parallels in Greek and Jewish tradition. Relatively little attention has been paid, however, to the tradition of “Israel in the wilderness” underlying the figure of the woman. This is especially noticeable in the use of the wilderness motif and the “wings of the large eagle” (Rev 12:14), which clearly reflecting Exod 19:4 and Deut 32:10–11. The latter passage is also quoted and expanded in 4Q504 (DibHam) 3 (6) 6–9 (see Lange/Weigold, Biblical Quotations, 72.109); for a different association with nesher see Isa 40:31; Ps 103:5; for the large nesher see Ezek 17:3 and 7. The woman in Revelation 12 bears the traits of “Israel in the wilderness,” especially in respect to the wilderness as a place of safety (see, e.g., 1 Macc 2:29–30) and of sustenance (e.g. Exodus 16; see also Mark 1:13), for an allotted time (e.g., Exod 16:35); and in respect to her rescue by the wings of an eagle.

Michael R. JostUniversity of Bern

“Between Wilderness Experiences and Heavenly Glory: The Place of the People of God in Hebrews and in Comparison with 1QSerekh ha-Yaḥad”

How does the author of Hebrews describe the present place of the people of God? Because of the temptations, the present situation is compared with the experiences of Israel in the wilderness (Heb 3:7–19, Ps 95:7–11 and Ps 94:7–11 LXX). At the same time, however, the people have, through faith, access to the throne of grace (Heb 4:16; 10:19–22), to the heavenly Jerusalem, and to innumerable angels in festal gathering (Heb 12:18-24). The aim of the paper is, in the first part, to describe the situation of the present people of God according to Hebrews and to define the meaning of the metaphor of wilderness referring to biblical and early Jewish concepts.

In the second part, I compare these results with the situation of the Yaḥad. For, the actual situation in the wilderness (1QS 8:13–14, 9:20), with simultaneous access to the celestial world (1QS 11:7b–9a) is also characteristic of the Yaḥad (see also 1QM 1:2–3 and 7:6; 12:1–5). Nevertheless, significant differences are to be noted. This is shown primarily by the fact that an actual retreat into the wilderness of at least a part of the Yaḥad was a constituent

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 15

element for the Yaḥad (1QS 8:13–14 and the Qumran settlement), while Hebrews does not consider this option. Obviously, the place and the destiny of the earthly people of God are described with similar metaphors from biblical and early Jewish traditions, but are in fact differently understood.

Session XIV (16:30–18:00)

Jeffrey P. GarcíaNyack College, New York City

“Where in the Wilderness is John the Baptist? Making a Way for Repentance, Charity, and Justice”

The aim of this study is to challenge the nearly seventy years of attempts to identify John the Baptist with some part of the Qumran Community. The arguments for this identification have developed around two primary points. First, the Baptist’s events are said to take place in the “wilderness of Judah” (Matt 3:1), a phraseology which is unique to the Gospel of Matthew. Indeed, where “wilderness” (erēmos) is read in the other Gospels, it is understood largely as the desert areas on the western shores of the Dead Sea or the southernmost end of the Jordan river as it makes its way into it. Yet, the “wilderness of Judah” is an unknown toponym in Second Temple texts, and not a single reference to midbar yehudah exists among the Qumran scrolls. In fact, midbar and erēmos can be understood as deserted areas of pasture without the implication of hot, arid environments (e.g., “wilderness of Bethsaida,” Luke 9:10). The second point is the association of Isa 40:3 with John’s movement and it’s use in the Community Rule (1QS 8:14). It seems that the discussion of this has been obscured by a lack of attention given to the fuller Lukan narrative of the Baptist. This account charts a different course for him than Matthew, Mark, and John; namely, one that emphasizes repentance, charity, and justice—an idea that seems to fit more comfortably within the spiritual world of Ben Sira and the Sages of Israel, than that of the Qumran community. Therefore, I examine the geographical toponym “wilderness of Judah” (“wilderness” in the other Gospels) and the Lukan account of the Baptist in light of Jewish sources in order to plot a new place for John on the landscape of ancient Jewish thought.

Ian WerrettSaint Martin's University (Lacey, Washington)

“Out of the Wilderness: Qumran, Jesus, and Ritual Purity”As a physical location and a metaphor, the wilderness has figured prominently in the theological interpretations of the Jewish people’s history from the earliest of times down to the present. From its associations with suffering and exile, to its connections with divine revelation and theophanic encounters, the wilderness can evoke feelings of joy, anxiety, nostalgia, and fear. Beyond these qualities however, the wilderness, be it Siberia or the Judean Desert, can also function as a purifying agent; not only in terms of its barrenness and austerity, but also in that it requires people to accept their weaknesses and shortcomings or face the ultimate consequence of their denial. And it is precisely this connection—the parallels between the wilderness, purity, impurity, life, and death—that I wish to explore in this paper. Specifically, I will compare the perceived effects of the wilderness experiences of the Qumran community and of Jesus and show how it is that these experiences resulted in radically different interpretations of the purity requirements that were theoretically incumbent on the Jews of the Second Temple period. I will accomplish this by exploring the possible rationale behind Jesus and Qumran’s wilderness experiences, by examining the differences between their relative positions in society, and by comparing passages from the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Gospel of Mark that deal with related purity concerns.

Daniel FalkPennsylvania State University

“Seeking God in Dry Places: Prayer and the Wilderness in Early Judaism and Christianity”Jesus is depicted in the Gospels as characteristically retreating to deserted places to pray (e.g., Mark 6:46; Luke 5:16; Matt 14:23), and instructing his disciples also to seek solitude for prayer (Matt 6:6). These traditions about Jesus undoubtedly were the major influence on the

The Dead Sea Scrolls at Seventy: “Clear a Path in the Wilderness” 16

prayer practice of the Desert Monastics, but was Jesus’ practice unusual or typical in the context of early Jewish piety? The Dead Sea Scrolls and the site of Qumran attest a community that retreated to the wilderness for ideological/theological motivations and that also had a highly developed liturgy of communal prayer. A significant amount of research has explored the meaning of the desert in the ideology of the movement, especially in relation to Sinai traditions and Isaiah 40:3, but there has been little exploration of the desert specifically as a place of prayer. This paper will examine the evidence for the desert as a place of prayer in the Dead Sea Scrolls and other early Jewish sources. It will also briefly consider comparative analogues in the ancient Near East and in Mediterranean cultures.

Acknowledgments

The Hebrew University of JerusalemThe Orion FoundationThe Federal Ministry for Europe Integration and Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Austria

The Austrian Embassy, Tel AvivThe Austrian Cultural Forum, Tel Aviv

The Israel Antiquities AuthorityThe Israel MuseumGeorge S. Blumenthal, Founder, jewishhistory.comf