Origin of Islam in Mecca: Evidence Not Rhetoric By Ijaz BadshahRecently an article The Quranic milieu: where was the Kuran written was published on http://research-islam.blogspot.com. The hypothesis broached in the article is based on the premise that like every piece of literature, the Quran should reflect the cultural milieu of its time. Meccan chapters of Quran frequently allude to grain, olives, wine, pomegranates and orchards so that the pagans of Mecca might ponder on the signs of God and accept the divine message. Since, Mecca has been a barren place which could hardly fit the agriculture milieu of Quran; therefore, Quran may have originated in a fertile region somewhere in the North-West of Arabia. Levant was the fertile region fitting the Quranic context and additionally some of the early Mihrabs (an indicator of the direction of Qibla) also pointed to North-West Arabia rather than Mecca (Hijaz). The Quran also alludes to past nations like Aad, Thamud, Saba, Hira, Madyan and the people of Lot. The audience of Quran should have been familiar with the tales of past nations which was possible only if they had lived in the vicinity of their remains. Since, most of the ancient nations were geographically located in the North-West Arabia; therefore, the pagans of Mecca might have been living in the Levant area. Fallacy of the Hypothesis: There is plenty of evidence, both within the Quran and outside it, to expose the fallacy of the hypothesis advocated in the Quranic milieu. Historical sources like, Quran, manuscripts and Non-Muslim accounts published in the works of renowned historians are relied upon as evidence to counter the speculation of the hypothesis. Allusion in Quran to Mecca: Quran 3:96. The first House (of worship) appointed for men was that at Bakka. [footnoteRef:1] Quran 48:24. And it is He Who has restrained their hands from you and your hands from them in the midst of Makka, after that He gave you the victory over them. [footnoteRef:2] Mecca was also referred to in the Quran as Station of Abraham (3:97), the House a place of assembly(2:125), City of Peace (2:126), the House (2:127), Ka'ba (5:95), Ka'ba, the Sacred House (5:97), the Ancient House" (22:29) and thy city (47:13).[footnoteRef:3] [1: - Ali, A. Yusuf. (trans). al-Quran al-Karim. ] [2: - ibid ] [3: - ibid ]

Most exegetes believe that Bakka and Mecca are synonyms. In South Arabic, the language in use in the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of Muhammad, the b and m were interchangeable. So Becca is the same as Mecca.[footnoteRef:4] The Quran has clearly mentioned Mecca or Bakka as the city of the Prophet where he got first revelation from God in the form of Quran. [4: - Hitti, P. K. (1973). Capital cities of Arab Islam. (Illustrated ed). London: Oxford University Press. p.6 ]

Allusion in Quran to Geography of Mecca: 1. Quran alludes to specified places and people with reference to Mecca, namely Safa, Marwa (Quran 2:158) and Arafat (Quran 2:198). Safa, Marwa and Arafat are the names of sacred mountains mentioned in the Quran which are in close proximity to each other and to the Ka'aba in Mecca (Hijaz). A sojourn to these sacred mountains is a compulsory act during the pilgrimage (Haj) for Muslims. Quran left no doubt regarding the location of Mecca by alluding to geographical features in and around it like Safa, Marwa and Araft. Presumably, if someone did plan to move the Ka'aba, it had to be moved close to identical physical features and rename them Arafat, Al Safa and Al Marwa. It seems quite an impossible task as natural geography could hardly be re-recreated. 2. Quran alludes to migration of the Prophet to Yathrib (Quran 9:40, 33:13), an oasis located about 210 miles north of Mecca. More verses for migration; (3:194, 4:81-98, 8:26-71-72-73-74, 9:40-100-101-120, 16:40-43, 33-49, 59:7-8-9, 60:9-10 & 63:8) The cave to which Quran alludes in the verse (Quran 33:13) is named Thor, located at a distance of about 2.5 K.M. from Mecca in Hijaz. On his way to Yathrib (Medina), the Prophet along with his companion (Abu-Bakr) took refuge in the cave of Thor. The cave still physically exists in the same place as mentioned in the Islamic traditions and could easily be watched by the pilgrims near Mecca. Emigration of the Prophet is also evidenced by other authentic sources such as Pact of Medina. Patricia Crone has admitted the authenticity of the Pact of Medina. [footnoteRef:5] In the Islamic traditions migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina is well documented. However, there could not be found any single evidence in the contemporary Non-Muslim accounts or any manuscripts to suggest that Prophet Muhammad might have migrated to Yathrib from Levant in the north rather than Mecca in the south. [5: - Cone, Patricia. (2006). What do we actually know about Muhammad? Open Democracy. www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mohammed_3866.jsp. p.1 ]

3. Quran alludes to Badr (Quran 3: 13-121-122-123) where first battle was fought between believers and Meccan army in 624 AD. Badr is a place situated south of Medina (Yathrib) on route to Mecca (See the fig-1). The Battle of Badr confirms that the pagan army came from south, i.e. Mecca (Hijaz) and not from Levant, situated in the north of Medina. This place still exists physically between Mecca and Medina in Hijaz which is a testament to the geography of Mecca (Hijaz). (Fig-1 Map shows geographic location of Badr)4. Quran alludes to Hunayn (Quran 9:25) which is a place between Taif and Mecca in Hijaz. After the conquest of Mecca, believers fought the tribe of Hawazin residing in Taif. The battle took place in 630 at Hunayn. The place still exists near the city of Taif (Saudi Arabia), a testament to the geography of Mecca (Hijaz). 5. Quran alludes to Quraysh (Quran 106:1-2-3-4). It was a powerful merchant tribe in Mecca and Prophet Muhammad was born into its Hashemite clan. Non-Muslim sources also confirm that Prophet Muhammad belonged to the tribe of Quraysh [footnoteRef:6] [6: - Hoyland, Robert. (1997). Seeing Islam as Others Saw It; A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. New Jersey: The Darwin Press, Inc. Princeton. p.304. ]

Even if Levant is presumed to have been the place of origin of Islam, then where would the tribe of Quraysh be found there to fit into the postulates of the hypothesis? Its not possible to relocate a well-known tribe in medieval history to a different locality. The speculation in Quranic milieu is launched on the presumptuous construction of the Quranic text, whereas the geographic milieu of Mecca (Hijaz) is established on express assertions of the Quran. It is now evidently clear that the Quran has described the exact geography of Mecca (Hijaz) by alluding to specific places in its vicinity or close proximity which could not be found anywhere else. Mecca in Greek and Roman Sources: The author has overlooked clear references to Mecca in Greek and Roman accounts. Ptolemy mentioned Mecca under the name of Macoraba, meaning Lords Makkah or Allahs Makkah. Ammianus Marcellinus mentioned Mecca under the name of Hierapolis which in Greek and Latin means the holy city. Macoraba meant Makkah is also supported by the fact that Ptolemy mentioned Medina by the name Lathripa and Macoraba was placed south of Lathripa on the map of the region.[footnoteRef:7] [7: - Al-Roubi. (2004). A. M: A Response to Patricia Crones book; Meccan trade and the rise of Islam. Jeddah. King Abdul Aziz University. p. 23-248- Hitti, P.K. (1973). Capital cities of Arab Islam. p. 4-5 ]

By looking at Ptolemys map of Arab towns and places, Macoraba is placed south of Lathripa at the same location as Mecca on the spice-incense trade route from Yemen to Syria. [footnoteRef:8] It clearly means that Macorabas location on the trade route from Yemen to Syria, south of Yathrib (Lathripa), could only point to Mecca. However, the author of Quranic milieu totally ignored the map of Ptolemy in his zest for the hypothesis. [8: ]

Contemporary Non-Muslim sources: There are numerous Non-Muslim sources dating 7th, 8th and 9th Centuries, referring to Prophet Mohammad and Islam. Robert Hoyland summarizes all Non-Muslim sources. He writes; Non-Muslim writers of the first century A.H. attest that it was strictly monotheistic (Sebeos, John bar Penkaye, Anastasi us of Sinai) and iconoclastic (anti-Jewish polemicists, Gerrnanus); that its adherents had a sanctuary, their "House of God" (Bar Penkaye), of Abrahamic association (Chronicler of Khuzistan, Jacob of Edessa), called the Ka'ba (Jacob of Edessa), towards which they prayed (Jacob of Edessa) and at which they sacrificed (Anastasius of Sinai) and reverenced a stone (Anastasius of Sinai, Germanus); and also that they followed Muhammad (Thomas the Presbyter, Sebeos, Chronicler of Khuzistan), who was their "guide" and "instructor" (Bar Penkaye). [footnoteRef:9] [9: - Hoyland, Robert. (1997). Seeing Islam as Others Saw It. p. 549 ]

The following Non-Muslim sources are selected as direct proof of the Prophets life in the Hijaz region. Theophilus of Edessa: This Muhammad, while in age and stature of youth, began to go up and down from his home town of Yathrib to Palestine for the business of buying and selling [footnoteRef:10] [10: - ibid. p. 130 ]

Jacob of Edessa,Letter to John the Stylite no. 14 "Your question is vain..for it is not to the south that the Jews pray, nor either do the Muslims (mhaggraye). The Jews who live in Egypt, and also the Muslims there, as I saw with my own eyes and will now set out for you, prayed to the east, and still do, both peoplesthe Jews towards Jerusalem and the Muslims towards the Ka'ba. And those Jews who are to the south of Jerusalem pray to the north; andthose in the land of Babel, in Hira and in Basra, pray to the west. And also the Muslims who there pray to the west, towards the Ka'ba; and those who are to the south of the Ka'ba pray to the north, towards that place. So from all this that hasbeen said, it is clear that it is not to the south that the Jews and Muslims here in the regions of Syria pray, but towards Jerusalem or the Ka'ba, the patriarchal places oftheir races.[footnoteRef:11] [11: - ibid. p. 565-566 ]

The story of Epiphanius, an Arab merchant, about the "new" and "strange" happenings in Arabia

In the desert of Ethrib there had appeared a certain man from the so-called tribe of Quraysh (Korasianou), of the genealogy of Ishmael, whose name was Muhammad and who said he was a prophet. [footnoteRef:12] [12: - ibid. p. 304 ]

Another Non-Muslim account stated;

In the year 933/935 of the Greeks, 11/12 of Heraclius, 30/31/33 ofKhusrau, Muhammad appeared in the land of Yathrib. On journeys to Palestine, he had gained some religious knowledge. He now called the Arabs to the worship of the one God. Muhammad gradually won over all the Arabs. Muhammad's followers waged campaigns beyond Arabia, while he remained in Yathrib [footnoteRef:13] [13: -ibid. p. 165 ]

Robert Hoyland observes that Jacob of Edessas statement made it clear that Muslims intended to direct themselves towards a specific site, which they called the Ka'ba. John bar Penkaye, a resident of Mesopotamia, called it Muslims House of God, the locality in the south where their sanctuary was situated.[footnoteRef:14] [14: -ibid. p. 567]

It seems that the author of Quranic milieu was probably unaware of the Non-Muslim sources, described in detail by Robert Hoyland in his book, Seeing Islam as others saw it. None of these historical accounts hint at the origin of Islam in the Levant region. On the one side, we have clear evidence in contemporary Non-Muslim accounts of the origin of Islam in Hijaz region and on the other side there is only a conjecture. Therefore, it is now abundantly clear that the hypothesis is nothing more than a hoax.

Epigraphic sources:

Robert Hoyland mentions the following Islamic inscriptions discovered in Hijaz, belonging to the first century of Hijra (emigration of the Prophet);[footnoteRef:15] [15: -Hoyland, Robert.(October 2006). New documentary texts and the early Islamic state: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies / Volume 69 / Issue 03 / p. 395-414. ]

a. The foundation document of the new movement, the so-called Constitution of Medina, refers to its signatories as "believers" (Mumineen) a term found in a number of early Arabic inscriptions where the leader of the community is styled as "commander of the believers" (Amir al-Mumineen).

b. The inscription of Zuhayr (Hijaz), the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AHAD 644645), showing the date of Caliph Umars death

c. The inscription of al-Batha, located between Mecca and al-Taif, was one of the oldest dated Muslim Arabic inscription (40 AH) from Saudi Arabia.

d. The inscriptions of Abdallah ibn Dayram from Wadi Sabil by Najran, dated 46 AH.

e. The inscription ofal-Khashna, on the Zubayda pilgrimage road near Mecca, dated 52 AH.

f. Inscription of Muawiya on the Saysad dam at al-Taif, dated 58 AH.

Since, the above mentioned inscriptions pertain to the earliest period of Islam and all belong to Hijaz region; therefore, its a proof that Islam originated in Mecca (Hijaz).

Kaaba (Mecca) as the direction for prayer:Strangely, the author of Quranic milieu has completely misconstrued the observations of Jacob, Bishop of Edessa, regarding the early Muslims direction of prayer. Jacob had clearly mentioned;So from all this that hasbeen said, it is clear that it is not to the south that the Jews and Muslims here in the regions of Syria pray, but towards Jerusalem or the Ka'ba, the patriarchal places oftheir races. [footnoteRef:16] [16: - Hoyland, Robert. (1997). Seeing Islam as others saw it. p.566 ]

Jacobs statement mentioned the word places rather than place which could only mean that Jews and Muslims have different patriarchal places as the direction of their prayer i.e. Jerusalem for Jews and Kaaba for Muslims. Robert Hoyland also confirms that Jacobs statement was a testimony to Mecca (Hijaz) as the direction of Muslims prayer. He states;Fortunately, we can call upon a seventh century witness to help us, namely Jacob, bishop of Edessa (684-88).What he makes abundantly clear is that the intention of the Muslims was to direct themselves towards a specific site, which they called the Ka'ba. This is presumably to be identified with the "House of God," "the locality in the south where their sanctuary was," which is mentioned by Jacob's contemporary, John bar Penkaye, a resident of north Mesopotamia. [footnoteRef:17] [17: - ibid. p.567 ]

While explaining the variations in the direction of prayer during the early period of Islamic history in different Muslim cities, Hoyland observes;Walid may genuinely have been striving to impose greater accuracy of alignment towards Mecca, at least for congregational mosques. Certainly in Syria increased precision was achieved: the mosques at 'Amman, Qahr all{harana, Jabal Says, Qahr al-l:Iayr al-Sharqi, Qahr al-l:Iayr al-Gharbi and Ruhafat Hisham are all oriented towards Mecca with an error of 9 degrees or less, the deviation becoming smaller as time went on.The issue then may not be so much what the Muslims were directing themselves towards, as how they established what that direction was From the late eighth century onwards we find Muslim astronomers busily devising trigonometric and geometric solutions to the problem of determining the Qibla for any given locality...The problem was that "the greater the distance involved, the greater the error in the qibla.[footnoteRef:18] [18: - ibid, p. 569]

Robert Hoyland has aptly explained the matter and it should be sufficient to effectively silence the dispute regarding variations found in the Muslims direction of prayer during the early period of Islamic history.Misconstruction of Quranic text: The allusion in Meccan verses of the Quran to agricultural products, Prophet Lot remains, ancient nations, and certain metaphorical expressions was interpreted literally and out of context to make way for the hypothesis. In the following part, the odd construction of Quran shall be scrutinized to expose its fallacies.Quran alludes to agricultural products:The hypothesis postulates that Meccan verses of Quran allude to an agriculture milieu for the pagans. Since Mecca was a barren place; therefore, it might have been somewhere in the North-Western fertile region of the Levant instead of Hijaz. The hypothesis, however, unwittingly excludes other alternative constructions of the text which are more consistent with the message and context of the Quran; Quran is an eternal book; therefore, the message in the allusions to agriculture products was for all times to come, irrespective of a particular time and space. Quraysh leaders of Mecca owned farms in the neighbouring oasis of Taif and in the suburbs of Syria where agriculture products were cultivated. Meccans also travelled to the fertile regions of Syria and Yemen in connection with trade where crops of different kinds could have been observed. Agriculture was an age old means of sustenance in societies and part of the collective memory of mankind; therefore, Meccans might have been familiar with the cultivation of the agricultural products, not that they were themselves the growers. Mecca was barren during the times of Prophet Abrahim, as attested by the Quran, but in the 7th century there may have been sort of agriculture, albeit, at a limited scale.

Quran alludes to two Seas: The allusion in the Quran to the words Two Seas (Quran 35:12) is metaphorical, which has been construed differently by the exegetes. Any metaphorical description in the Quran is liable to different constructions; therefore, it could not be made the basis for a radical theory regarding the origin of Islam.Quran alludes to the remains of Prophet Lot: The theory is based on the views of Patricia Crone who quotes a verse of Quran with reference to the remains of Lot's people, you pass by their ruins by day and by night (Quran 37:137-138). Since, it was not possible for the people living in Mecca, hundreds of miles away, to pass by the remains of Lot by the day and by the night; therefore, she infers that the Quranic text may imply a close proximity for the Meccan pagans to Prophet Lots remains.[footnoteRef:19] Hence, by relying on dubious construction of the Quranic verse, Mecca was relocated to the Levant by ignoring the clear evidence in other verses of the Quran, as explained in the preceding part. [19: - Crone, Patricia. (1985). Meccan Trade and the rise of Islam. Princeton and Oxford. p. 163]

The verse of Prophet Lot could not be interpreted in isolation by disconnecting it from other related verses of Quran. Now lets examine Prophet Lot verse in its proper context;And indeed you pass by them, by their remains, and [the remains of] their dwellings during your travels, [both] in the morning, that is, during the daytime, and at night: Will you, O people of Mecca, not then understand? What befell them and so take heed therefrom?[footnoteRef:20] (Quran 37:137-138) [20: - Hamza, Feraz (trans) (2007). Tafsir aljalayn. Amman: Institute for Islamic thought ]

All the exegetes agree that the words pass by the day and by the night merely mean during the regular trading journey and should not be interpreted literally out of context. Literal translation of idioms makes meaning of the sentence upside down. Quran alludes to ancient nations: Quran mentions ancient nations like Aad, Thamud and Sehba etc. so that people may learn from their fate. Most historians of the medieval period agree that pre-Islamic Arabian society excelled in poetry, folklores, tales and storytelling which were transferred orally from generation to generation. Therefore, tales of ancient people, folklore and mythology circulated in the living memory of the desert inhabitants. Robert Hoyland writes that the pre-Islamic Arabs of Hijaz were familiar with tales of those ancient nations to such an extent that their names became part of Arabic idioms and sayings as evident from Arab poetry;Both tribes are familiar to pre-Islamic Arab poets, Ad a byword for antiquity (ever since the time of Ad. . . ) and Thamud the supreme example of the transience of all things (men that were of outstanding generosity and courage are now the company of the people of Thamud: Ikh. 87: Abu Zubayd al-Tai). [footnoteRef:21] [21: - Hoyland, Robert. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the coming of Islam. London and New York: Routledge. p. 224]

Hence, Pre-Islamic Arabs were familiar with the legends of ancient nations irrespective of their geographical origin; therefore, a Quranic allusion to them might not have been peculiar to the Meccans (Hijaz).Influence of Judeo-Christian traditions on Quran:The theory of Judeo-Christian influence on the Quran is rooted in a flawed assumption that Quran was a piece of literature created by human intellect which must have been influenced by the prevailing cultural milieu. Quran is the word of God, which precludes any external influences. However, the Quran speaks to its audiences in language and manner better known to them. In the 7th century Christianity was the dominant faith, backed by Byzantine and Ethiopian rulers, in the surrounding regions of Syria, Ethiopia and Najran; therefore, it was one of the major audiences of the Quran.

Gerhard Bowering writes;

The theory that Quran borrowed from the Christian tradition does not seem convincing as no single collection of biblical writings, normative, apocryphal or midrashic, however, has been identified as the major source in which the Quran may have been rooted. To the best of our present knowledge, the Bible had not been translated into Arabic by the time of Muhammad, either in its entirety or in the form of single books. [footnoteRef:22] [22: - Bowering, Gerhard. (2008). Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran. In Reynolds et al(ed). The Quran in Its Historical Context. London: Routledge. p.70 ]

On the issue of influences on the Quran, Sydney Griffith aptly concludes by saying; It [Quran] addresses an audience which is already familiar with oral versions in Arabic of earlier scriptures and folklores. The Quran does not borrow from, or often even quote from these earlier texts. Rather, it alludes to and evokes their stories, even sometimes their wording, for its own rhetorical purposes. Earlier discourses appear in it not only in a new setting, but shaped, trimmed and re-formulated for an essentially new narrative.[footnoteRef:23] [23: -Griffith, Sydney. (2008). Christian lore and the Arabic Quran: the Companions of the Cave in Surat al-Kahf and in Syriac Christian tradition. In Reynolds et al (ed).The Quran in Its Historical Context. London: Routledge. p.116 ]

Dynamics of Islamic History; Sectarian split and civil wars: The hypothesis in Quranic milieu builds on the idea that Umayyads re-invented Islam to get legitimacy for their imperial and political agenda. This is a much generalized view without taking into account the dynamics of theological and political developments of the time. In this regard the remarks of Fred Donner are very pertinent. He writes; At no time the Islamic community has been free from religious, political and social tensions and disagreements-not at least since the first civil war (AH 35-40/656-61 CE). From that early date onwards there existed not one, but several competing political and theological points of view (e.g.. Khariji, Shia, Umayyads and Murji perspectives, to take only the most obvious candidates for the first two centuries) all of these were espoused by significant sub-community. Yet the fact remains that on most central features of the traditional origin story, these different orthodoxies show marked agreement, a fact that the sceptical school never addressed. [footnoteRef:24] [24: -Donner, Fred. (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The beginnings of Islamic historical writing. New Jersey, Princeton: The Darwin Press, Inc. p.25-27.]

In the wake of so many political and religious splits resulting in civil wars and theological dissents, how was it possible that all of them acquiesced and consented to moving Islam's greatest shrine from Levant to Mecca (Hijaz)? It was simply not possible that Shia and Khawarij could have seen eye to eye on massive redaction of Islamic History and tradition by Umayyad rulers. Only someone completely unfamiliar with the dynamics of early Islamic history could venture to postulate theories like Quranic milieu Criticism of revisionist theory by Historians:The theory of Quranic milieu is nothing but a revisionist theory which remained a minority view, although these days it is a favourite theme of Islamophobes and polemics.Fred Donner criticizes the theory on the basis that it was simply not possible to recreate the Islamic tradition on core topics of faith, keeping in view the theological and political chasm in the early Muslim community, particularly after the first civil war (A.H. 35-40/656-661 C.E). Islam did not have any central ecclesiastical authority to totally implement the so called official doctrine of Umayyad rulers.[footnoteRef:25] [25: -ibid. p. 26-27 ]

Robert Hoyland (Seeing Islam as Others Saw It) has published an exhaustive account of the earliest Non-Muslim references to Islam. He concludes that these sources confirm rather than call into question the traditional Islamic accounts.[footnoteRef:26] [26: -ibid. p. 591-592 ]

Explaining the shortage of coins and inscriptions of the prophetic period and early caliphs, Robert Hoyland says;. the historical memory of the Muslim community is more robust than some have claimed. For example, many ofthe deities, kings and tribes of the pre-Islamic Arabs that are depicted by ninth-century Muslim historians also feature in the epigraphic record, as do many of the rulers and governors of the early Islamic state. This makes it difficult to see how historical scenarios that require for their acceptance a total discontinuity in the historical memory of the Muslim communitysuch as that Muhammad did not exist, the Quran was not written in Arabic, Mecca was originally in a different place etc.can really be justified.[footnoteRef:27] [27: -Hoyland, R. (October 2006). New documentary texts and the early Islamic state. P.411 ]

Conclusion;The evidence of early Non-Islamic sources and epigraphic discoveries, mostly corroborated rather than falsified the traditional Islamic accounts, which render the hypothesis of Quranic milieu nothing more than a cavil. Moreover, considering the fact that Levant was overwhelmingly Christian and ruled by the Byzantine Empire, how was it possible that Christian Church and Byzantine official accounts missed to record the inception of Islam, an important event happening in their domain under their eyes? Is it enough to posit a radical theory about the inception of Islam by merely relying on disputed construction of the Quranic text, mishmash of some extensions and lots of speculation? No, there has to be supporting contemporary historical accounts and epigraphic evidence so as to make the hypothesis plausible to any degree. Even Patricia Crone in her essay has acknowledged the fact by saying; we probably know more about Mohammed than we do about Jesus (let alone Moses or the Buddha), and we certainly have the potential to know a great deal more.[footnoteRef:28]. That there was a place called Mecca, where Mecca is today may well be true; that it had a pagan sanctuary is perfectly plausible (Arabia was full of sanctuaries), and it could well have belonged to a tribe called the Quraysh.[footnoteRef:29] [28: 28- Cone, Patricia. What do we actually know about Muhammad? P.1 ] [29: 29- ibid. p.4]

It is as close as Crone comes to saying that Mecca might still be the Mecca (Hijaz). The author needs to take a leaf from Crones book and reconsider his views in Quranic milieu.