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This study report was undertaken in collaboration with the University Grants Commission (UGC) Nepal within the UNESCO’s regular programme on “Advancing Policy Options for Higher Education: Improving Transition and Access to Higher Education in Nepal”. This paper was prepared by a team of experts including Tirtha Raj Parajuli, Bidya Nath Koirala, Prithu Charan Baidya, Ram Krishna Maharjan, Pramila Rai and Umesh Kumar Mandal. The authors are responsible for the choice and presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinion expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designation employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of UNESCO concerning legal status of any country, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries. Published in 2008 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Office in Kathmandu. ISBN:-978-9937-8075-1-7 © UNESCO Office in Kathmandu Printed by Lusha Press, New Baneshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal For more information please contact: UNESCO Office in Kathmandu P.O. Box 14391 Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, NEPAL E-mail: kathmandu@unesco.org Tel: +977-1-5554396/769 Fax: +977-1-5554450 http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

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ADVANCING POLICY OPTIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Improving Transition and Access to Higher Education in Nepal

Study Team Tirtha Raj Parajuli Bidya Nath Koirala Prithu Charan Baidya Ram Krishna Maharjan Pramila Rai Umesh Kumar Mandal

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC) UNESCO OFFICE KATHMANDU SANOTHIMI, KATHMANDU, NEPAL JAWALAKHEL, LALITPUR, 2007 KATHMANDU, NEPAL

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study team has produced this report with the generous help of several people and organizations. The team expresses its sincere gratitude to the following contributors:

University Grants Commission (UGC) and UNESCO for financial and technical support.

Dr. Kamal Krishna Joshi, Chairman of UGC, and Prof. Dr. Vinod Kumar Shrestha, Member Secretary of UGC, for their continuous initiative and support.

Members of the Steering Committee: Mr. Kedar Bhakta Mathema, Prof. Dr. Dibya Man Karmacharya, Prof. Dr. Timila Yami, Dr. Lawa Dev Awasthi, Prof. Dr. Sudha Sharma, Prof. Dr. Purushottam Basnet and Mr. Tap Raj Pant, for their critical comments.

Office of the Controller of Examination of SLC, Nepal Government, and Office of Higher Secondary Education Board, Tribhuvan University, for providing necessary secondary data.

Respondents of Diyalo Samuha, Chitwan; Tharu Yuba Jagaran Samuha, Chitwan; Labor Group, Chitwan; participants of Regional Seminars conducted in Palpa and Sunsari; representatives of Janajati and Dalit; faculty members of Agriculture, Forestry, Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, Management, Science, Engineering and Medicine; for their active participation in discussions and substantial information required for the study.

Students of Rampur Campus, Chitwan; Institute of Forestry, Pokhara; Janapriya Campus, Pokhara; Shiksha Mahavidyalaya, Pokhara; Tribhuvan Multiple Campus, Palpa; Butwal Multiple Campus, Butwal; Padma Kanya Multiple Campus, Kathmandu; Sharada Campus, Bhaktapur; Khwopa College, Bhaktapur; Sanothimi Campus, Sanothimi; Patan Multiple Campus, Lalitpur; University Campus, Kirtipur; Thakurram Multiple Campus, Birganj; and Harikhetan Campus, Birganj; for their cooperation in filling in the questionnaire.

Participants of the National Seminar deserve thanks for critically commenting on policy options.

Study Team

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BPKIHS: B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences CEO: Chief Executive Officer ICT: Information Communication Technology KU: Kathmandu University MOES: Ministry of Education and Sports M.Phil: Master of Philosophy MSNA: Medical Science National Academy NCED: National Centre for Education Development NNEPC: Nepal National Education Planning Commission NSU: Nepal Sanskrit University OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PCL: Proficiency Certificate Level Ph. D.: Doctor of Philosophy PoU: Pokhara University PU: Purbanchal University SAT: Science Aptitude Testing UGC: University Grants Commission UIS: UNESCO Institute for Statistics UN: United Nations UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USA: United States of America WCHE: World Conference on Higher Education WEI: World Education Indicators

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Higher Education in Global Context 1 Situation of Accessiblity 3 Situation of Equity in Access 5

2. Higher Education Institutions in Nepal 7 Current Universities in Nepal 8

3. Objectives 11 4. Methodology 11

Study Design 11 Sample of Respondents 12 Data Collection Procedure 13

5. Current Status in Higher Education 15 Level of Programs Run in Different Universities and Academies 15 Number of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses 15 Number of Students in Different Universities and Academies 16 Number of Students Constituent and Affiliated Campuses 18 Level-wise Share of Students 19 Number of Students in Technical and General Education 20

6. Access to Higher Education 21 Magnitude of Access in terms of Age Group 21 Magnitude of Access in terms of Gender 21 Magnitude of Access in terms of Social Groups 23 Access in terms of Economic Status 26 Students' Response on Accessibility 26

7. Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 32 Social Factors 32 Economic Factors 33 Psychological Factors 34 Managerial Factors 35 Admission Process Factors 36 Parental Factor 37 Curricular Factor 37

8. Policy and Programmatic Options 38 Immediate Policy Options 38 Intermediary Policy Options 44 Long-Term Policy Options 47

9. References 52

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Number of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses in Universities and Academies 16 Table 2 Number of Students in Different Universities and Academies 16 Table 3 Students number in Different Levels of TU Constituent Campuses 18 Table 4 Number of Students in terms of Constituent and Affiliated Campus 2005/2006 18 Table 5 Number of Students in terms of Educational Level 2005/2006 20 Table 6 Number of Students Technical and General Courses 2005/2006 20 Table 7 Proportion of SLC Pass and +2 and PCL Students by Age-Groups 21 Table 8 Proportion of Students in Higher Education by 20-24 Age-Groups 21 Table 9 Percentage of Students' Enrolment at Different Levels of Education by Sex 22 Table 10 Number of Students in Universities and Academic Level and Gender-wise 22 Table 11 Percentage of Students at Different Levels in terms of Social Groups 24 Table 12 Student Enrolment in TU Technical Institutes in Terms of Social Groups

24 Table 13 Student Enrolment in Janapriya Multiple Campus, Pokhara (Affiliated toTU) 25 Table 14 Economic Status and Accessibility to Education 26 Table 15 Distribution of Students Faculty/Institute-wise 26 Table 16 Distribution of Sampled Students by Educational level 26 Table 17 Distribution of Sampled Students by Social Groups 27 Table 18 Characteristics of Students Gap-wise in Educational Attainment 27 Table 19 Magnitude of Gap in terms of Social Groups and Sex 27 Table 20 Magnitude of Gap by Educational Level 28 Table 21 Magnitude of Inaccessible Students by Level of Education 28 Table 22 Distribution of Respondents in terms of Responses toward Course Integration 29 Table 23 Distribution of Responses toward Solving the Livelihood Problems in terms of the Subject/Descipline Chosen 29 Table 24 Factors Affecting Inaccessibility to Higher Education 30 Table 25 Suggestions to Increase Access of Marginalized Groups to Higher Education 31 Table 26 Suggestions to Increase Access of Disabled Groups to Higher Education

31 Table 27 Social Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 32 Table 28 Economic Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 33 Table 29 Psychological Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 34 Table 30 Managerial Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 35 Table 31 Admission Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education 36

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Growth of Higher Education Institutions and Students in India 5 Figure 2 Proportion of Students in Universities 17 Figure 3 Proportion of Students in terms of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses 19 Figure 4 Enrolment of Boys and Girls in Technical and General Subjects 28

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ABSTRACT

By and large, higher education in Nepal has been confined to a privileged class. There has been some change after the restoration of democracy in 1990. Now Nepal has entered a multi-university era to make education accessible to the people of various groups and regions. This study focuses on the importance of higher education with a view to enhancing the nation’s capacity in higher education in today’s highly competitive globalized market. The objective is to pinpoint the current situation of accessibility as well as equity in access that will help in framing the education policies in the future. The study started with a visit to different parts of the country to collect data, interview the people directly concerned and meet experts and specialists in education. The output is this comprehensive report on the magnitude of accessibility in terms of gender, age group, social group, and economic status which shows the various factors hindering access to higher education: social, economic, admission process, parental, and curricular. The study group believes it will help in understanding the problems in accessing higher education in Nepal and the factors limiting it to a few groups. By reflecting upon the data and information obtained from both the primary as well as secondary sources, the study team has come up with certain policy options. Some of these policy options have immediate action, some others are intermediary, and others are long term in their priorities. Immediate policy options include awareness and advocacy, tutorial support, and improvement in physical facilities in educational institutions. Career counseling, student placement system, quota allotment for marginalized groups, multi-lingual material production, and reform in exam system are some other features of immediate policy options. Likewise, intermediary policy options cover the area of research and teacher training, financial support, curriculum update, and free schooling for the marginalized students. The study team has come up with long-term policy options too. They are food for education, work for education, and excess to superhighway, i.e., internet and email facilities. The study shows that irregularity is the problem of students. This reality demands Open Mode/Open School/Open University, and e-learning system, which eventually helps irregular students and the students of remote areas as well as working people willing to pursue higher education. The country is heading towards a federal system in which people opt for colleges and universities in their proposed federal provinces as well. In such a situation, there is a need of minimum number of colleges and universities in each province.

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PREFACE

Accessibility, quality, and relevancy are the major areas of concern for the planners and implementing agencies of higher education in Nepal as they are anywhere else. This country has now more than a seven decade-long history of higher education, but it was during the last one-and-half-decade, when this sector saw a tremendous change in terms of growth in the number of institutions and students. Today, more than three hundred thousand students are pursuing their higher studies in around six hundred colleges and campuses. However, the growth remained unbalanced in the sense that access to tertiary education remained largely skewed in favor of the upper class and advantaged urban-based population. Available information shows that a huge proportion of the youths from the marginalized and disadvantaged communities based in rural areas or semi-urban centers face difficulties in accessing higher education. As a large part of this country is made of rugged mountainous terrain reaching the population in far flung districts becomes a quite challenging task. Today, increasing number of educationists and administrators have been talking about adopting the distance mode of learning using the modern technology of communication so that this access gap could be bridged in the shortest possible way. It is a matter of great satisfaction to see the UGC and UNESCO/Nepal joining their hands to conduct a study on the issues of access to higher education. The study team has now completed its mission and a whole set of policy recommendations have been presented in this covering issues such as quota allotment for marginalized groups, reform in examination system, bridge courses, scholarship programs, the open and distance mode of learning etc. In the coming days, detailed discussions and deliberations will be required in different forums on the recommendations to pick up the most feasible options for implementation. Equally important is the preparation of implementation strategy and mobilization of the resources needed for the purpose. The appearance of this report at a time when the state is at the threshold of a critical transition to a more inclusive, democratic, and developmental state is a happy coincidence and one can hope that the planners in the days to come will be able to take a serious note of the findings and suggestions that this report forwards to optimize the benefits that are likely to ensure from the new mode of planning. We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to UNESCO/Nepal for initiating the idea and for their support in this study, and for the publication of the report. Our heartfelt thanks go to all the members of the study team including the coordinator for their untiring effort that led to the production of this report. Prof. Vinod Kumar Shrestha Member-Secretary University Grants Commission, Nepal.

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FOREWORD

Nepal is in transition from the legacy of a medieval Shangri-la to a modern state wherein education figures as a very important factor as a trend setter and a drive. The development of higher education is expected to reveal the scopes and prepare people for better options for development. National education development plans have been prepared and implemented by the government; people are investing in education; and international communities are supporting the country towards better achievements. One of the most important elements in this process is participation of all sections of the society. The available statistics, however, indicates that this is not the case-large sections of people are not able to access higher education. Questions therefore arise -- what are the major issues and what are key stakes? How could they be addressed? It is very important to know and critically understand the situation and take corrective measures. This study is a step taken by the UGC with the collaboration and cooperation of UNESCO Nepal towards seeking the answer to the questions. The research team undertook review of documents, survey and research reports, made field visits, and organized workshops in accomplishing the study. The study outcomes indicate that women, dalits, ethnic groups, people from the remote and rural areas, and, most importantly, the poor have either very little or no access to higher education. One important reason behind poor access is the fact that a large section of the disadvantaged are unable even to enroll in a school; many of those who are enrolled at the primary level drop out at the secondary level before completing school education. As mentioned, poverty is one of the main reasons behind this situation-- apart from the cost of education, the opportunity costs are too high for many people to step out from their daily toil for survival to get education. This is further heightened by the divide of the private and public education. The quality and relevance of education are other factors; the step rise in the number of unemployed graduates distracts the disadvantaged further and poses another major challenge for policy reform. National initiatives already there to address the situation at the primary and secondary level with the support of friendly countries, donors, and development partners since the 1990s and the government have given priority to the development of primary education in terms of policy, budget, and program. But the issues related to higher education development still need to be attended. This report lists the study outcomes and findings in detail and critically analyses the policy options. I hope the report will help all concerned in developing a clear and critical understanding of the situation and in formulating effective policy measures. UNESCO has been helping Nepal in its efforts at educational development by providing technical and knowledge support and through strategic support of the UN forums to rally the support of the world community. I would like to take this opportunity to extend my grateful appreciation to the UNESCO and thank the cooperating staff of UNESCO Nepal for the support provided in undertaking this study. My sincere thanks go to the members of the participating campuses including the Campus Chiefs, teachers, and students as well as the community members for their valuable feedback and information. I would also like to extend thanks to the research team members including the Coordinator and the resource persons for successful accomplishment of the study, and to the support, logistics and management staff of the UGC for successful undertaking of the study. Dr. Kamal Krishna Joshi Chairman UGC, 2008

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HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT

This chapter deals with the changing concepts in higher education and problems faced by underprivileged groups in terms of accessibility. It is only after the second half of the twentieth century that a drastic change has taken place regarding the functions of higher education worldwide. During the1960s, higher education focused primarily on the needs of elites as well as the creation of knowledge. In his article “Higher Education: Vision and Action for the Coming Century”, Dias writes, 'The events of May 1968 in the countries of Europe and in a number of countries on other continents marked the end of a period, when higher education, and universities in particular, could be reserved for elites and not for contributing to finding answers to the major problems of society as being their chief priority" (1998:367). The original definition of the university then did not include research, graduate training or the myriad functions now accepted as integral part of an academic institution. Analyzing the trends of higher education of the past three decades, Dias (1998) has listed the following basic tasks of higher education:

- Generation of new knowledge (the research function) - Training of highly qualified personnel (the education function) - Supply of services to society - Ethical function, implying social criticism.

Higher education is needed for strengthening communities and nations. Carls C. Dalstrom, the President and CEO of 2000-2007 United Student Aid Fund, too, opines, “Higher education should serve entire communities and the nation so that the country can get higher tax revenues, less unemployment, greater productivity, reduced reliance on public assistance, increased consumption, greater civic participation, less crime, better quality of health, civic life, and social cohesion” (quoted in Institute for Higher Education Policy, News Release, Washington, D.C., March 20, 2007) . The following three fundamental premises of the UN system relating to higher education also support the concept referred to by Carls:

- Everyone has the right to education (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 20, Para 1).

- Higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

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- States Parties shall make higher education equally accessible to all on the basis of individual capacity (Convention against Discrimination in Education, 1960, Article 4).

The three premises imply that no discrimination can be accepted in granting access to higher education on the grounds of race, gender, language, religion, economy, culture social distinction, or physical disabilities. Consequently, the World Conference on Higher Education (WCHE), convened by UNESCO in Paris in 1998, developed a comprehensive vision of higher education. The conference adopted the resolution related to higher education for the twenty-first century: its vision, action, and framework for priority action for change and development of higher education. It outlined a conceptual frame and a line of action for renewal and reform in higher education as per the commonly agreed principles with regard to:

- Broadening access and achieving higher education as a key factor for development, as a public good and human right;

- Promoting renewal and reform of systems and institutions with a view to enhancing quality, relevance, and efficiency through closer links to the society;

- Securing adequate resources and funding-both public and private-in keeping with the increased demands placed on higher education by the society as a whole; and

- Fostering international cooperation and partnerships. The diversified functions and the concept of human rights linked to higher education have brought a sea change in higher education. In July 2003, UNESCO organized a meeting of higher education partners in Paris to assess the progress achieved in higher education since WCHE. The meeting observed that major changes were taking place at all levels and in all countries. In a nutshell the 2003 July meeting saw the following situation:

Economic, political and social changes continue to pose major challenges to higher education everywhere. As a response to them, post-WCHE developments marked further escalation of the rate and the scope of reform and renewal in higher education. This trend is bound to continue. Current concerns are dominated by the search to secure adequate funding and other resources to facilitate expansion in response to increased pressure for more and better higher education. This goes hand in hand with the seeking ways to solve the quantity/quality dilemma, to cope with increased responsibilities of higher education in knowledge-based society, to make full use of ICTs, which are at present a major driving force of change in higher education. (UNESCO 2004: 10)

The meeting also saw the need of advanced knowledge and skills for larger sections of the population. To meet the need of present-day knowledge-based and increasingly

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globalized societies, the meeting decided to expand higher education considerably. The report of the meeting states:

Higher education needs to expand considerably. Current estimates figures indicate that enrolment rates around 40 to 50 percent of the relevant population group are needed in order to allow for a country to function well in a globalized, competitive world. The industrially developed countries have understood this requirement and have taken action to develop their higher education and research capabilities accordingly. Most of them have participation rates in higher education around or above 50 per cent. (ibid: 13)

Similarly, the meeting saw the impact of ICTs on higher education was more rapid, more complex and more pervasive than envisaged at the WCHE five years ago. The report says: ICTs, accompanied by advances in the cognitive sciences and in educational

methods, are changing fast the institutional structures, modes of delivery and, more particularly, teaching/learning methods and practices. The research function of higher education sees itself considerably strengthened as well.

At the same time, ICTs have made full proof of their potential to increase access to higher education, to reduce costs, and to facilitate international links and co-operation. The number of open universities established after the WCHE is impressive. They already account for a considerable share of student enrolments, especially at the undergraduate level. . . . Open and e-learning are becoming current practices at traditional universities as well. ICTs represent at present a unique chance for higher education, particularly in the developing countries. (ibid)

The discussion shows that universities are feeling pressure these days because of the shift of higher education from elites to the mass. The UNESCO report of 1985 reveals how countries like the United States and Japan have see an increase in the relevant age groups attending post - secondary educational institutions as an indicate or of the urge for universal higher education.

Situation of Accessibility To meet the demand for increased access, higher education has continued to grow in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Referring to the expansion of higher education in Europe and America, Trow (2000) notes:

The history of higher education since the Second World War both in the United States and Europe has been a history of the expansion of access and its consequences. In Europe, the growth was initially beyond the tiny numbers enrolled in a few European universities before the war to the 30 to 40 per cent of the age grade currently enrolled in all forms of postsecondary education.

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The most recent statistics reported by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) show that there has been significant progress in 19 middle-income and developing countries (World Education Indicators [WEI] Countries1). The Highlights of UIS Report (September 2007) state: In 2005, more students entered and graduated from universities in the 19 WEI

countries than in the 30 Member States of the OECD combined. About 5.7 million WEI students attained a tertiary (type A) degree compared to 5.2 million from OECD2 countries. This figure does not include data from India, which are currently not available. According to newly released statistics, China now has the most tertiary graduates in the world – 2.4 million in 2006.

Despite this surge in the absolute numbers of university graduates, graduation ratios remain lower in WEI countries than those of the OECD. In WEI countries, 19.7% of young people attain a university degree, which is just more than one-half of the OECD average. There are, however, some notable exceptions. The graduation ratio reaches 42.9% in the Russian Federation, which ranks among the top six OECD countries. It is followed by Jordan (31%), Thailand (25%), Egypt (23%) and the Philippines (19%).

Similar to OECD countries, WEI countries report a strong trend with tertiary studies attracting more women than men. Women account for 56% of university graduates (type A) in WEI countries, which is just one percentage point less than the OECD average.

There are about three women for every two men graduating from tertiary type

programmes in Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Uruguay. In Brazil, almost two out of three graduates are female. Women account for 48% of graduates in Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, and Tunisia. China is the only WEI country reporting a substantially lower share, 44% of female graduates.

India has registered a sharp growth in the number of higher education institutions and students (see the table below). However, the gross enrollment ratio in higher education, as reported by the Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh's media advisor Sanjaya Baru, is estimated around 9.1%. The government has a target to raise this ratio to at least 15% by 2012.

1 WEI Countries refer to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Jordan, Malaysia, Paraguay,

Peru, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and Zimbabwe. 2 OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries refer to Australia, Austria, Belgium,

Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Germany FR, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, and USA.

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Fig. 1: Growth of Higher Education Institutions and Students in India Source: Paper presented by Shashi K. Shrivastava in Washington Symposium NAFSA: Association of International Educators (28March 2006)

The given above evidence indicates that new challenges and difficulties have emerged despite the unprecedented growth in higher education enrolment. Gender, socio-economic, and ethnic disparities have been noticed in higher education admissions. Likewise, significant differences remain in the rate of participation in higher education between the developed and developing countries. A UIS January 2005 report says that one of the most significant divides between the world's richest and poorest countries relates to the amount of schooling a child can expect to receive. It further says a part of this difference is due to the provision of tertiary education. Other challenges and difficulties include equity of conditions during skill-based training, enhancement, and preservation of quality in teaching, employability of graduates etc.

Situation of Equity in Access Despite significant progress in many countries and regions, the participation of women in higher education requires further action to make it equitable. However, women outnumber men in total enrolments in a number of countries. They lag behind in participation in the major countries of Asia (India, 36.2 percent; Bangladesh, 38.0 percent; Republic of Korea, 38.5 percent), and in other countries (UNESCO, 2004:16). It is realized that incentives and other measures to increase access of women have borne fruit in many countries. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has helped considerably in raising the participation of women in higher education to a level that is comparable to

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

1947- 48

1950- 51

1960- 61

1970-71

1980-81

1990-91

2000-01

2005-06

Year

N u m b e r o f I n s t i t u t i o n s 0

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000

E n r o l m e n t s

Total Enrolment('000)

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that of the Republic of Korea. Many donors increase their support funds to institutions on a basis proportional to the number of women they enroll. Inequality in access to higher education is not limited to developing countries alone. For instance, in a recent article published in the New York Times, Edward M. Kennedy, US Senator from Massachusetts, says, "Today 400,000 qualified students a year don't attend a four-year college because they can't afford it" (February 15, 2007). He is reported to have made a point to fix the federal student aid system for the poor. In a study Studley has shown that if the socio-economic factor in pre-college achievement is systematically accounted for, colleges can substantially reduce disparities in higher education. He writes, "Empirical findings using California data confirm this result: socioeconomic circumstance is strongly related to pre-college achievement and much of the ethnic disparity in achievement, as measured by SAT I scores and high school grade point averages, can be attributed to circumstance" (Studley, 2003). In a round table discussion held in September 2000 among leaders and policymakers, several key points were made in the University of Vermont regarding the access problem and solutions. It was found that the lack of access to post-secondary education “for low-income and minority students” undermined the economic growth, aggravating income inequality. The meeting also felt the access problem is “complex, sequential, and multi-faceted” with financial, academic, and cultural dimensions. It suggested for access as the top federal priority in post-secondary education. The suggested strategy to improve access financially was to restore the purchasing power of need-based grant programs to minimize the unfulfilled need, work, and loan burden of low-income students. The meeting opined that “Addressing the serious financial aspects of unmet need is a necessary condition for ensuring access, but it is not a sufficient condition. There must be a simultaneous federal investment in academic preparation: early intervention, remediation, support services and retention.” Now it is realized that different approaches should be applied to handle the inaccessibility problem of higher education. Accordingly, this study has been carried out to examine the Nepali situation in higher education and suggest policy options to ensure the access of marginalized groups to higher education.

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HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN NEPAL

This chapter focuses on the historical background of modern higher education institutions followed by a short introduction to the existing universities in Nepal. The establishment of Tri-Chandra College in 1918 marked the beginning of modern higher education in Nepal. Eight students were members of its first batch. It was basically a liberal arts college with programs in science, commerce being added later' (Graham, 1985: 49). Until the dawn of democracy in 1951, progress in education in general and higher education in particular remained slow. The total number of students enrolled in higher education between 1918 and 1951 did not exceed 500 (Pande, 1982). 'The 1952/54 census of population reported 19, 652 or 0.2% of the total population with some educational gains. Of these, 67% were primary, 25.5% secondary, and 13.3% tertiary level'(Gurung, 1987:32). Besides, until the establishment of its own university in 1959, the Tri-Chandra College and seven other colleges set up in latter years had to follow the syllabus of Patna University, and the students had to take the final examinations conducted by that university. The students of the Sanskrit colleges used to go to Queens College in Banaras, India, for their examination. Hence, till the first half of the twentieth century, higher education in Nepal was the privilege of the selected few only. After the dawn of democracy in Nepal in 1951, education was viewed as a panacea for national and individual development by the government and the general public. During 1950s a number of Liberal Arts, Sanskrit, Science, and Commerce colleges were established by the public. The College of Education and Law College were established to provide professional education. As a first step for the development of education, the Nepal Government set up a Board of Education in 1952. The major accomplishment of this Board was the recommendation that the Government create a National Commission for Planning Education, which was appointed in 1954. Regarding higher education, the Nepal National Education Planning Commission of 1954 recommended that a national university be established by 1965. The Commission also stipulated that the higher education enrollment should not exceed five percent of the secondary school enrollment, fearing that a more rapid expansion of enrollment would result in extensive unemployment for college graduates (1956). Accordingly, a high-level university commission was set up on 31 March 1956, which decided to name the university after the late King Tribhuvan. After the promulgation of Tribhuvan University (TU) Act in 1959, it was formally established in July of the same year. By a provision in the law, TU became the only authorized institution to conduct

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postgraduate classes, award academic and honorary degrees, and grant affiliation to the colleges spread all over Nepal. Hence, all the colleges established before 1959 and thereafter were taken as constituent campuses of the Tribhuvan University. TU started holding its own examinations up to the master's level from 1961. The first Ph.D. degree of the university was awarded in 1970. However, the institutions of higher education were concentrated only in urban centers, particularly in the Kathmandu valley. By 1969 the total number of colleges had increased to 22 and they were located in Kathmandu valley (Pande, 1882). Similarly, people with higher education were concentrated in the valley. Referring to 1952/54 census, Gurung (1987) has noted that Kathmandu valley with a population share of 4.9% of the total has 55.9% of all those with higher education. It may be due to this reason that the All-Round National Education Committee formed in 1961-expressed concern for providing higher education in each of the country's fourteen political zones. In 1971, Nepal implemented the National Education System Plan (NESP). Under the Plan all existing colleges became a part of one national university and all the affiliated colleges of the time became constituent campuses, making it a teaching university. However, in 1979 private campuses were affiliated to it once again, and TU renewed the role of affiliation to meet the needs of students seeking admission to college. At present, TU has more than four hundred affiliated campuses and sixty constituent campuses spread all over Nepal. Furthermore, in 1982 a Royal Commission was set up to review the organization of higher education in Nepal and make recommendations regarding its future structure. It suggested a multi-university concept to downsize TU and bring quality improvement in higher education through competition among the universities. Accordingly, new universities came into existence after the second half of 1980s in Nepal.

Current Universities in Nepal Currently, six universities and two academic institutions equivalent to universities function in Nepal.

a. Tribhuvan University (TU) b. Nepal Sanskrit University (NSU) c. Kathmandu University (KU) d. Purbanchal University (PU) e. Pokhara University (PoU) f. Lumbini University (LU).

The two academic institutions equivalent to universities are: a. B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) b. Medical Science National Academy (MSNA).

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Tribhuvan University (TU) The oldest and biggest university in Nepal, established in 1959, Tribhuvan University consists of five institutes and four faculties. The Institutes are technical in nature offering courses in various specialized technical fields and natural sciences while the faculties are generally liberal arts and social sciences. The five institutes are:

- Institute of Science and Technology, - Institute of Engineering, - Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, - Institute of Medicine, - Institute of Forestry.

The four faculties are: - Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, - Faculty of Management, - Faculty of Education, and - Faculty of Law.

TU runs its academic programs through affiliated and constituent campuses. The number of affiliated and constituent campuses in 2005/2006 is presented in Table 3. The affiliated campuses and constituent campuses are spread all over Nepal. In addition 36, Central Departments are running under four faculties and five institutes. In terms of students’ number, T.U. occupies more than 90% of all the higher education institutions in Nepal (see Table 4). Nepal Sanskrit University (NSU) Formerly known as Mahendra Sanskrit University, Nepal Sanskrit University (NSU) was established in 1986 with a view to enriching Sanskrit language, eastern culture, and philosophy. NSU is now running academic programs related to Sanskrit language, literature, education, and Ayurvedic medicine. It has 12 constituent campuses and 17 affiliated campuses (Table 2) with less than one percent students of the total higher education student population (Table 3). Kathmandu University (KU) KU is a higher education institution established under private initiative in 1991. It has run programs related to science, engineering, management, medicine, arts, and education. It has, at present, 6 constituent and 11 affiliated campuses (Table 2). KU occupies about two percent of the total higher education student population (Table 3).

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Purbanchal University (PU) PU was established in 1994. It runs programs related to management, science and technology, medicine, arts, law, and education. It has 86 affiliated and 3 constituent campuses (Table 2) with about three-and-half percent of the total higher education student population (Table 3). Pokhara University (PoU) Established in 1997, PoU runs programs related to science and technology, humanities, and management. PoU has 3 constituent and 23 affiliated campuses (Table 2) with more than two percent students of the total number of higher education institutions (Table 3). Lumbini University (LU) Established in 2005, LU is now the youngest university in Nepal. It has run no academic programs till date and has targeted to provide education related to Buddhist philosophy. B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) Established in 1993, BPKIHS has a target to provide education in the area of medical science and social development. But, till now this single campus academy is providing education related to medical sciences. Medical Science National Academy (MSNA) Like BPKIHS, MSNA is a single campus academy. The academy was established in 2002 with a view to improving capacity of the human resources related to medical sciences. It runs post-graduate program on medical science only. The above scenario of higher education in Nepal highlights some questions that need to be answered:

• What is the magnitude of access in higher education in Nepal? What is the magnitude of access in terms of social groups?

• Is the problem of access greater as the level of education increases? • What are the problems/factors relating to access to higher education, especially in

the context of the socially disadvantaged and marginalized groups? • Is the quality of education a big problem, creating difficulties for most of the

students to cross the level? • What mechanism or policies can increase the access of the disadvantaged and

marginalized groups? The answers to these questions will be useful for two reasons. First, it will help in streamlining higher education in an equitable manner. Second, in view of the lack of systematic study in this area, it will be both informative and of interest to find out the extent of participation in higher education by different sections of the population.

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OBJECTIVES

This study used one to assess the higher education situation in Nepal with the following objectives:

• To identify the magnitude of inaccessibility to higher education in Nepal; • To identify the problems/factors relating to inaccessibility to higher education in

terms of curricula, entry requirements etc., especially in the context of the socially disadvantaged and marginalized groups;

• To suggest inputs for policy directions with strategic options and alternative choices;

• To identify the current status of accessibility to higher education in Nepal; • To identify key factors contributing to inaccessibility to higher education; • To recommend policy directions and options for reform in higher education.

METHODOLOGY

Study Design As per the task mentioned in the TOR, the study is primarily based on secondary data. However, some primary data have also been collected to triangulate the analysis made in the secondary data. According to the TOR, two regional conferences were held, one in Palpa, another in Sunsari. Surveys and discussions were done to collect primary data from the communities as well as reflections from various representatives. The respondents included in the discussions are teachers, students, and other stakeholders of Chitwan, Pokhara, Butawal, Palpa, Kathmandu, and Itahari (Sunsari). Views of teachers, students and their unions, Dalits, political organizations, ethnic federations and local community organizations (women and ethnic organizations), and labor organizations were also collected through group discussions. Educational documents found in the Department of Education, SLC Board, Higher Secondary Education Board, Universities, and University Grants Commission were also studied to ensure the number of educational institutions, students, and the magnitude of accessibility. Students were also asked to fill up questionnaire forms to get an idea about the inaccessibility of their dropout and other friends not admitted into higher education. These approaches were used to draw quantitative and qualitative data to address the issues covered in the objectives of the study.

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Sample of Respondents This study collected data and generated information from the following sources: Discussion with Faculty: To collect views of faculty members of various institutes and faculties on, reasons for inaccessibility and possible options for access, discussion was held with the Faculty of Rampur Agriculture Campus, Chitawan; Forestry Campus, Pokhara; College of Education, Pokhara; Janapriya Campus, Pokhara; Butawal Multiple Campus, Butawal; Siddhartha Gautam Buddha Campus, Butawal; Faculty of Education, TU; Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, TU; Faculty of Management, TU; Institute of Engineering, TU; Institute of Science and Technology, TU; and Institute of Medicine, TU. Information obtained from these sources was analyzed to get fresh idea about access in different campuses and reasons for inaccessibility with a view to identify the possible options for improving access in higher education. Discussion with Students: The researchers generated field information from the selected students of Rampur Agriculture Campus, Chitawan; Forestry Campus, Pokhara; College of Education, Pokhara; and Butawal Multiple Campus. The data obtained give significant information about the access situation of the students. Filling of Questionnaire from Students: This study collected hard as well as soft data from the students of Rampur Agriculture Campus, Chitawan; Forestry Campus, Pokhara; College of Education, Pokhara; Butawal Multiple Campus; Padma Kanya Multiple Campus, Kathmandu; Khwopa College, Bhaktapur; and Thakur Ram Multiple Campus, Birgunj. The questionnaires obtained from the students were thematically analyzed. Discussion with Community Organizations: The researchers obtained field-related information from the executive members of community organizations like Diyalo Samuha - Women Community Group, Gunjanagar, Chitawan; Tharu Yuba Jagaran Samuha, Banagai, Chitwan; and Labor Group, Chitawan. The discussion held with them generated more information about particular groups, reasons for inaccessibility, and the ways to improve access of any specific group. Organization of Regional Seminar: Two regional seminars were organized in Palpa and Itahari (Sunsari). Faculty members of university, social workers, students, representatives from political organizations, and women organizations were the participants. The objective was to acquaint them about the recent trends of higher education and find out their views regarding factors hindering access and the ways to improve it.

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Meeting with Janajati Representatives: To solicit the perceptions of the marginalized ethnic groups about in access to higher education, researchers organized meetings with the representatives of Janajati organizations at NEFIN. Meeting with Dalit Representatives: Dalits representing political organizations and students belonging to the community were also consulted to solicit their perceptions about their low access to higher education and also to know their opinion about the policy options for improving access. Tools used The following tools were used: Questionnaire for Students: The questionnaires contain background information about the students and their classmates, subjects of their specialization, reasons for continuing or discontinuing by them and their friends (see Annex 1). FGD Guidelines for Teachers and Other Stakeholders: FGD was used to conduct focused group discussions with university faculty, students, and community people, especially the marginalized ones. The FGD guideline tries to explore their views on access situation, factors hindering access, causes of dropouts and discontinuity, and possible options for reducing inaccessibility of socially and economically marginalized groups. (See Annex) Preparation of Slides: Slides were prepared on the basis of the status of accessibility to higher education to help participants understand the accessibility situation. The tool was especially used in the regional seminars and consultation meetings with ethnic groups and faculty members. Document Collection and Study: Information regarding accessibility situation around the globe and in Nepal was collected from library study, campus records, and internet search. Secondary data and information helped in identifying access and drawing policy options for improving accessibility.

Data Collection Procedure To collect and generate data, the following procedures were adopted: Presentation on Methodology of the Study: A presentation was made on the methodology of the study by the study team to get inputs from the standing committee members. Changes necessary were made in the methodology according to the suggestions given by the committee.

25

Finalization of Tools and Modality: The research team discussed and finalized the tools and modality of the study before going to the field. The secondary data were collected from sources to make presentations in the regional seminars. Field Visit: The study team visited Chitwan, Kaski, Palpa, Rupandehi, and Sunsari districts and collected information from various groups such as university faculty, students, members of trade unions, community members, and women groups. Regional Conference: Regional seminars were conducted in Palpa and Sunsari to get a fresh view on the field data and information. Discussion Meetings in Kathmandu: After returning from the field, the team held consultation meetings with Janajati, Dalits and other faculty members of various faculties and institutions in Kathmandu to draw their perspectives on higher education in general and access of the subalterns particularly.

26

CURRENT STATUS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Level of Programs Run in Different Universities and Academies The programs run by the universities can be divided into three broad categories: general, technical, and professional. General stream of higher education is related to humanities and Sanskrit. Management, law, and education are categorized under the professional stream of education. Programs related to engineering, medicine, agriculture, forestry, and science fall under the technical stream. The universities in Nepal run programs at different levels. TU, NSU, KU, and BPKIHS are running the following four levels of higher education programs:

1. Proficiency Certificate (PCL); At the pre-university level, a two year program equivalent to grades 11 and 12 of higher secondary school education, is run in TU, NSU, and KU. (Earlier there was no higher secondary level school education in Nepal; these courses are run as the continuation of the earlier provisions). PU, PoU, and NAMS do not have PCL program.

2. Bachelor's: All the five universities and BPKIHS have a Bachelor's Level program, in Science (B.Sc.), Commerce (B.Com.), Arts (B.A.) Business Administration (B.B.A.), Education (B.Ed.), Law (B.L.), Engineering (B.E.), and Medicine (M.B.B.S.) of 3 to 4 years course at the under-graduate level.

3. Master's: Master in Science (M.Sc.), Commerce (M.Com.), Arts (M.A.), Business Administration (M.B.A) constitute graduate-level programs, each of two years duration run by all the universities and academies. NAMS runs courses at only this level.

4. M. Phil. and Ph.D.: - TU, NSU, and KU run these programs in various areas,

except the technical ones. The types and levels of program run by the universities are given in Annexes 3 and 4. Number of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses Table 2 shows that the number of affiliated campuses has increased substantially whereas the number of constituent campuses has remained almost same between 2001/2002 and 2005/2006. Currently, the number of the affiliated campuses exceeds the figure for the

27

constituent campuses. There is a sharp increase in the number of affiliated campuses in TU, NSU, and PU between 2001 and 2006. The decrease in the number of affiliated campuses in other universities is related to technical arrangements. Table 1: Number of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses in Universities and Academies

Constituent Campuses Affiliated campuses Universities and academies

2001/02 2005/06 2001/02 2005/06 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Tribhuvan University (TU) Nepal Sanskrit University (NSU) Kathmandu University (KU) Purbanchal University (PU) Pokhara University (PoU) B. P. Koirala Health-Science Academy (BPKIHS) National Academy of Medical Science (NAMS)

60 13 6 2 1 1

Not established

60 12 6 3 3 1 1

191 NA 12 42 28

348 17 11 86 23

Total 83 86 273 485

Source: UGC Annual Reports 2001/02 and 2005/06 Number of Students in Different Universities and Academies In 2006, 254,138 students enrolled in the institutes of higher learning (Table 2). Of them, 91 % were enrolled in Tribhuvan University (TU). Other institutes in terms of proportion of students enrolled are Purbanchal University (3.5 %), Kathmandu University (2 %), Pokhara University (2.2 %), Nepal Sanskrit University (0.8 %), B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (0.28 %), and National Academy of Medical Science (0.05 %). Table 2: Number of Students in Different Universities and Academies

University and academy Student number Percent

Tribhuvan University Nepal Sauskrit University Kathmandu University

231,539 2164 5162

91.11 0.85 2.03

Purbanchal University Pokhara University B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences National Academy of Medical Science

8812 5615 721 125

3.47 2.21 0.28 0.05

Total 254,138 100.00

Source: Data derived from UGC annual report 2005/06

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Fig. 2: Proportion of Students in Universities Percent

91.11

0.85 2.03 3.47

2.21

0.28

0.05

TU NSU KU PU PoU BPKIHS NAMS

Adding the figures for students at grades 11 and 12 equivalent of Proficiency level of universities, gives a very high number in the academic year 2005/2006 it was 268,744, compared to just over two thousand, eleven years back (HSEC, 2007).

Rapid growth in student population can be noticed in a number of different universities. In TU, for instance, enrolment grew at a fast pace, about 7.8 % per year, in the last 24 years, from 1974/75 to 1998/99 (Tribhuvan University: The Strategic Vision for Twenty Years, June 2000), the figure was 231,539 in 2005/2006 (UGC Annual Report 2005/06) compared to just 20,178 in 1974/75. Table 3 shows an average annual increment of more than five percent in TU constituent campus students over the last eleven years. The highest increase is seen at Bachelor level (nearly 13% per annum) followed by Master level students (nearly 7%). The lowest percentage of increase (less than 1% per annum) is seen at the proficiency level, due to rapid increase of students at the higher secondary level. This means more students are pursuing higher levels of education than before. According to a document (TU, 2000) the combined enrolment at Bachelors and Masters in TU is about 3.4% of the age group of 18-24 years. The share of different levels of students at TU has also changed markedly at the Bachelor and PCL. The share of PCL students decreased by more than 17 % and that of Bachelor increased by more than 16 % during 1994-95 and 2005-06 (Table 3).

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Table 3: Students number in different levels of TU constituent campuses

Levels 1994-95 2005-06 % of change Proficiency certificate level % of share Bachelor level % of share Masters’ level % of share

54,082* 55.78

31,001* 31.98

11,868* 12.24

57,801** 37.90

73,831** 48.41

20,873** 13.69

6.88 138.16 75.88

Total 96,951 152,505 57.30 Source: * Tribhuvan University: The Strategic Vision for Twenty Years, June 2000 ** UGC Annual Report 2005/2006

Number of Students in Constituent and Affiliated Campuses Of the total students, just over 62 % were enrolled in the constituent campuses of the main universities and academies with the remaining (38 %) enrolled in the affiliated campuses (Table 4). About 66 % of students in TU, 78 % in NSU, 48 % in KU, 3 % in PU, and 7 % in PoU study in the constituent campuses. This means that PU and PoU mainly function through the affiliated campuses. BPKIHS and NAMS have no affiliated campuses, as they are single campus academies. Table 4: Number of Students in Terms of Constituent and Affiliated Campus 2005/2006

University and Academy Total Number

Constituent (%) Affiliated (%)

Tribhuvan University

Nepal Sauskrit University

Kathmandu University

Purbanchal University

Pokhara University

B.P. Koirala Health Science Academy

National Academy of Medical Science

231,539

2,164

5,162

8,812

5,615

721

125

153,132

1,686

2,476

272

408

721

125

66.14

77.91

47.97

3.09

7.27

100.00

100.00

78,407

478

2686

8540

5207

33.86

22.09

52.03

96.91

92.73

Total 254,138 158,820 62.49 95318 37.51

Source: Data derived from UGC annual report 2005/06

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Fig. 3: Proportion of Students in Terms of Constituent and Affiliated Campuses

0 20 40 60 80 100

TU

NSU

KU

PU

PoU

BPKHSA

NAMS

Total

Constituent (%)

Affiliated (%)

Level-wise Share of Students

Level-wise, the share of students in the different universities and academies was about 32 % in PCL, 58 % in Bachelors, 9.8 % in Master’s, and 0.3 % in M.Phil. and Ph.D. PCL was available in TU (97.7%), NSU (1.3 %), KU (0.9 %), and BPKIHS (0.03%). Of the total students enrolled in Bachelor (147,343), 87.8 % were enrolled in TU, 0.5 % in NSU, 2.6 % in KU, 5.3 % in PU, and 3.4 % in PoU. Of the total students enrolled in Master’s (24,707), 89.9 % were enrolled in TU, 0.9 % in NSU, 2.0 % in KU, 4.0 % in PU, 2.1 % in PoU, 0.5 % in BPKIHS, and 0.5 % in NAMC. Only 675 students were enrolled for M.Phil., and Ph.D., of which 627 (92.8 %) were in TU, 18 (2.6 %) in KU, and 30 (4.4 %) in PoU (see Table 5).

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Table 5: Number of Students in Terms of Educational Level 2005/2006 Universities and Academies PCL Bachelors Masters M.Phil./Ph.D. Total

TU

NSU

KU

PU

PoU

BPKIHS

NAMS

79404

1088

740

30

-

129308

742

3852

7823

5061

557

-

22200

232

503

989

524

134

125

627

102

18

-

30

-

-

231539

2164

5162

8812

5615

721

125

Total 81262 147343 24707 826 254138 Percentage by level 31.98 57.94 9.75 0.32 100.00

Source: Data derived from UGC annual report 2005/06

Number of Students in Technical and General Education

Of the total number of students (254,138) in universities and academies, 37,856 (about 15%) were in technical subjects and the remaining 85% in general subjects in 2005/2006 (Table 6). Among the number of students studying in technical subjects, TU had about 70% share followed by KU and PU (10% each) and PoU (7%). Other two academies and NSU had a total share of about 3% only. However, in terms of the total number of students enrolled in technical courses, TU and NSU had less than 12 % and KU had the highest (75%), followed by PoU and PU (45 and 44 percent respectively).

Table 6: Number of Students in Technical and General Courses 2005/2006 Universities and Academies Technical (%) General (%) Total

TU

NSU

KU

PU

PoU

BPKIHS

NAMS

26,471

243

3,891

3,888

2,517

721

125

11.43

11.23

75.38

44.12

44.83

100.00

100.00

205,068

1,921

1,271

4,924

3,098

X

X

88.57

88.77

24.62

55.88

55.17

85.10

231,539

2,164

5,162

8,812

5,615

721

125

Total 37,856 14.90 216,282 254,138

Source: Data derived from UGC annual report 2005/06

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ACCESS TO HIGHER EDUCATION

The steady expansion of higher education system in Nepal reflects the increased demand for educational opportunities, especially at the upper secondary and tertiary levels. There are, however, several issues to be seriously addressed. The goal is not only to expand the number of students but also to develop a more efficient, effective, and equitable system. One major problem relates to disparities in access created by geographical region, gender, social groups, and economic level. Transition of students from a lower grade to a higher one and from a lower level to a higher one is another important issue. This section describes the access situation in higher education in terms of age, gender, social status and economic level. In some cases, data related to school education are given to show the patterns sequence and help in interpretation.

Magnitude of Access in terms of Age Groups

About 30 % of the 14-15 years age group passed SLC exams, and only half of the SLC-passed students (about 16 % of the total) completed their PCL or +2 studies in 2005/2006 academic year (Table 7). This implies that about 53 percent of the SLC passed had access to +2 or PCL in 2005/2006.

Table 7: Proportion of SLC Pass and +2 and PCL Student by Age- Group Age group (14-15 yrs) 2001 census

SLC pass in 2003 & 2004

Percentage of the age group

Students in PCL and +2 in 2005/2006

Percentage of the age group

1,065,164 319,093 29.96 168,730 15.84

Of the projected total students of 20-24 years age group in 2006 (2,457,240 age group population), only 172,804 (or 7 %) could obtain higher education (Bachelor and above) (Table 8). Table 8: Proportion of Students in Higher Education by 20-24 Age Group Age Group 2006 (20-24 years) Students in Bachelors and

above % in terms of Age Group

2457240 172906 7.04

Magnitude of Access in terms of Gender Table 9 shows the percentage of student enrolment at different levels of education by sex.

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Table 9: Percentage of Students' Enrolment at Different Levels of Education by Sex

Sex Primary* Lower Secondary*

Secondary* Higher Secondary*

University**

Boys

Girls

51.7

48.3

53.4

46.6

53.9

46.1

56.7

43.3

64.8

35.3 Total 100 100 100 100 100

Source: * Department of Education, Flash 1 report 2006/2007 ** University Grants Commission annual report 2005/2006

Table 9 shows that at no level the percentage of girls outnumber boys, though the female population exceeds the male population in Nepal. Moreover, the ratio of girls' participation decreases as the level of education increases. The ratio of difference between boys and girls (boys outnumber girls) is 3.4 at the primary level whereas the ratio of difference is 7.8 and 25.6 at the secondary and university levels. If we compare this ratio with the sex ratio (i.e., number of males per hundred females) of the age group population, the ratio at the primary level is found close to equity (because the sex ratio of the 5 to 9 years age group is 103 as per the census data 2001) whereas at the university level the difference is much bigger than the observed difference.

In terms of the level of education in higher education institutions, about 36 % students were girl students at PCL and Bachelors, 27 % Masters, at the and 22 % at M.phil., and Ph.D. (Table 10).

Table 10: Number of Students in Universities and Academies - Level and Gender-wise Education Level

PCL Bachelor Master M.Phil./Ph.D. Grand Total Universities & Academies

Total Girls%

Total Girls%

Total Girls%

Total Girls%

Total Girls%

Tribhuvan University Nepal Sanskrit University Kathmandu University Purbanchal University Pokhara University B.P. K.I.H.S NAMS

79,404 1,088 740

- -

30 -

36.37 24.72 32.57

- -

NA -

129,308 742

3,852 7,823 5,061 557

-

36.61 13.88 39.77 34.76 28.71 NA

-

22,200 232 503 989 524

28.82 134 125

27.37 8.62 29.89 21.33 NA NA

627 102 67 -

30 - -

21.85 -

22.22 -

20.00 - -

231,539 2,164 5162 8812 5,615 721 125

35.61 19.01 37.62 33.25 28.63 NA NA

Total 81,262 36.18 147,343 36.20 24,707 27.03 826 21.78 254,138 35.27

In terms of the area of study, on an average, 15 % of the students enrolled for higher educations are studying technical subjects. Whereas among the girls, 10 % are studying these subjects, the same figure for the boys is 17 % (Fig.3).

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Figure 4: Enrolment of BOYS and Girls in Technical and General Subjects

Whereas, in the technical courses the proportion of girls is 24 %, in the general courses, it is 37%, overall, their share 35 % students. Comparatively, more girl students are studying in the technical courses in PoU, followed by PU, TU, KU, and NSU as shows in Fig. 4.

Magnitude of Access in terms of Social Groups No anthropological/linguistic survey has been done so far in Nepal show the status of the various ethnic/caste groups, their distribution, and population size. The exact number of ethnic/caste groups and their population size (Dahal, 2003: 89). Altogether, 100 caste/ethnic groups have been recorded by the 2001 census, the only reliable source of data till date. In this study, they are broadly categorized into D alits, Janajatis, and others for convenience. The proportion of access to school education of the three social groups is presented in Table 11.

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Table 11: Percentage of Students at the School Level in terms of Social Groups

Social Group Primary Lower Secondary Secondary Higher Secondary University Dalits

Janajatis

Others

17.7

38

44.3

9.5

38.6

51.9

5.3

29.9

64.8

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

Total 100 100 100 Source: Department of Education, Flash 1 report 2006/2007

Table 11 shows the proportions of Dalits and Janajatis as encouraging at the primary level. However, participation of Dalits at both lower secondary and secondary levels is very low. Janajatis register encouraging participation up to the lower secondary level (more than 38%), but goes down by more than eight percent at the secondary level (29.9 %). Regarding enrolment rate of Dalits and Janajatis in higher education, the data available are sketchy. Hence, sample data were collected from some campuses for discussion.

Access of Social Groups in Campuses: As there were no data on access for social groups in higher education, the figures for some technical and non-technical campuses collected are presented in Tables 12 and 13.

Table 12: Student Enrolment in TU Technical Institutes in terms of Social Groups

Social Groups Campus Program Total

Brahmin/Chhetri Janajati Dalit Others

Rampur (Agriculture)

M.Sc. Agri. B.V./A.H. B.Sc. Ag.

72 32 56

63 27 52

7 3 0

0 1 0

2 1 4

Hetauda (Forest)

I.Sc. B.Sc.

43 20

28 11

12 1

1 1

2 7

Pokhara (Forest)

I.Sc. B.Sc. M.Sc.

43 36 14

27 24 8

2 5 3

1 1 0

1 6 3

Total 316 240 33 5 26 Source: Data from the field visit of the campuses, 2007

The data (Table 12) show that only a small number of Janajatis (10.44 %) and negligible number of Dalits (1.58%) are studying in the technical campuses of agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry. The situation is not very different in one of the non-technical community campuses of Pokhara. In Janapriya Multipal Campus, the percentages of Dalits and Janajati students are 6.0 and 33.6 at PCL and 5.6 and 35.5 at the bachelors

36

level respectively (Table 3). The figures are higher for the Janajatis' as the campus lies where the population of two ethnic groups (Gurungs and Magars) is highest (Dahal, 2003), but their access is very low in technical courses like science (about 13%). The table below displays the gender-wise and other access of marginalized groups’ in different streams of higher education at one campus. Table 13: Students Enrolment in Janapriya Multiple Campus, Pokhara (Affiliated to TU)

Brahmin/Chhetri Janajati Dalit Others Total Level

PCL

Sex Number % Number % Number % Number % Total %

Science Boys Girls

65 27

82.3 71.0

7 7

8.9 18.4

5 2

6.3 5.3

2 2

2.5 5.3

79 38

100 100

Humanities Boys Girls

37 35

49.3 49.3

21 27

28.0 38.0

5 2

6.7 2.8

12 7

16.0 9.8

75 71

100 100

Management Boys Girls

154 54

48.7 49.54

131 40

41.4 36.7

18 8

5.7 7.3

13 7

4.1 6.4

316 109

100 100

Education Boys Girls

15 20

51.7 64.5

8 10

27.6 32.2

4 1

13.8 3.2

2 0

6.9 0.0

29 31

100 100

Total 251 33.6 45 6.0 748 Bachelor Science Boys

Girls 12 14

85.7 87.5

2 2

14.3 12.5

0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0 0.0

0.0 0.0

14 16

100 100

Humanities Boys Girls

18 16

64.3 37.2

10 20

35.7 46.5

1 2

3.6 4.6

9 5

32.1 11.6

28 43

100 100

Management Boys Girls

65 49

40.4 51.0

60 33

37.3 34.4

12 5

7.4 5.2

24 9

14.9 9.4

161 96

100 100

Total 127 35.5 20 5.6 358

The participation pattern of Dalits at higher levels, is not different from the secondary level. Out of total 748 students at the PCL, only 45 are Dalits (6%) whose number is 20 (5.6 %) at the bachelor level. Not a single Dalit student is there at the Bachelor level science (Table 14).

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Access in terms of Economic Status Nepal’s Living Standard Survey, 2003/2004, suggests that higher the economic status of the people, the higher their access to higher education (Table 10). That survey also shows that people at the fifth or highest quintiles have 88 percent share in university education, but only one percent of the people but at the first and second quintiles (Table 14). Table 14: Economic Status and Accessibility to Education Economic Quintiles Primary Secondary Higher secondary University First Second Third Fourth Fifth

21 23 22 21 14

6 13 20 31 31

1 3 9

18 70

1 1 4 6

88

Total 100 100 100 100 Source: Nepal Living Standard Survey, 2003/2004

Students' Response on Accessibility To receive views about break of time in their studies and the reasons behind questionnaires from 500 students representing the various geographical and development regions were collected. The following section describes characteristics of the students and the information derived from the response given. Table 15: Distribution of Students Faculty/Institute-wise

Institute/ Faculty Number Percent

Faculty Institute

334 166

66.8 33.2

Total 500 100.0

Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 15, which records the number and percentage of distribution of students in the various institutes and faculties, shows two-thirds of them are enrolled in faculties such as Humanities and Social science, Education, Management, and law. Table 16: Distribution of Sampled Students by Educational level

Educational Level Number %

Master Bachelor

PCL +2

94 240 138 28

18.8 48.0 27.6 5.6

Total 500 100.0

Source: Field Survey 2007

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Table 16 that records the number and percentage of sample students at the various levels of education shows almost fifty percent have been surveyed at the Bachelor Level. Table 17: Distribution of Sample Students by Social Groups

Social Groups Number %

Brahmin/Chhetri Janajati Madheshi Dalit Muslim Not Stated

258 110 102 7

13 10

51.6 22.0 20.4 1.4 2.6 2.0

Total 500 100.0

Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 17 reveals a certain correlation of the group figures with those on the distribution of University students by social group in (Tables 12 and 13) with slight difference. Table 18: Characteristics of Students Gap-wise in Educational Attainment

Educational Attainment

Gap % No Gap %No

response%

Total

Master Bachelor PCL +2

58 90 24 8

61.7 37.5 17.4 28.6

36 149 111 20

38.3 62.1 80.4 71.4

0 1 3 0

0 0.4 2.2 0.0

94 240 138 28

Total 180 36.0 316 63.2 4 0.8 500 Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 18 shows the characteristics of students with gaps of years in pursuing education. The survey shows with 36.0 percent of the total enrolled students in their educational in terms of educational attainment. The Bachelor claims the largest share (50%). But relatively, highest proportion of gap in studies is at the Master level (62%). Table 19: Magnitude of Gap in Terms of Social Groups and Sex

Social Groups Male % Female % TotalBrahmin/Chhetri Janajati Madheshi Dalit Muslim Not stated

52 20 40 1 3 1

60.5 44.4

100.0 50.0 75.0 33.3

34 25 0 1 1 2

39.5 55.6

0 50 25

66.7

86 45 40 2 4 3

Total 117 65.0 63 35.0 180 Source: Field Survey 2007

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Table 19 shows the magnitude of gap for social groups and sex in higher education and sex-wise, which is prominent in the males (65.0%), probably they are involved in external activities compared to female students. The females case of Madheshi presents a curious feature; a zero gap which implies non-involvement in higher education. Another remarkable feature is the percent of gap in female (55.6%) compared to Brahmin/Chhetri (39.5%). For other communities, the figure is insignificant because of the small sample. Table 20: Magnitude of Gap by Educational Level

Gap in Educational Level Number of Students %SLC to PCL PCL to Bachelor(BL) Bachelor to Master(ML) PCL to BL& BL to ML SLC to PCL & BL to ML Not stated

40 84 44 4 1 7

22.2 46.7 24.4 2.2 .6

3.9

Total 180 100.0

Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 20 gives the magnitude of gap by level of educational. Here the PCL to Bachelor level figures at the top 46.7% indicating a wide gap in curricular integration, particularly in humanities and education, compared to management. Weak economic status failure in examinations, and unavailability of institutions at the local level are some of the reasons. Table 21: Magnitude of Inaccessible Students by Level of Education

Education Level Number of

Respondents Total Number of Students

Without Access Average Number of Students

Without Access +2 PCL Bachelor Master National

28 138 240 94

500

173 958

1,318 444

2,893

6.18 6.99 5.54 4.77 5.79

Total 500 5,786 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 21 gives the total number of students without access and the average size across the levels of education, the prime objective of this study as mentioned in the TOR. On an average, the ratio of access to non-access to higher education is 1: 5 implying that for every six students, five do not have access to higher education. That ratio differs slightly across the various level of education and is higher for +2(1:6) and proficiency certificate level (1:7) and low for the Master level (1:4) suggesting that inaccessibility to higher education is severe due to various forces that need to be addressed by the national education policy.

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Table 22: Distribution of Respondents in terms of Responses toward Course Integration Magnitude of Vertical Integration Number of Respondents % No significant difference Well integrated Little integration Not stated

88 118 284 10

17.6 23.6 56.8 2.0

Total 500 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 22 illustrates the distribution of respondents by their perception on vertical integration of the curricula across the levels. More than fifty percent of the respondents claimed that the existing curricula were weakly, integrated with their previous levels possibly due to the lack of timely upgrading of the course and a deficit in horizontal and vertical integration. Table 23: Distribution of Responses toward Solving the Livelihood Problems in terms of the

Subject/Discipline Chosen Responses Number of respondents %

Yes Cannot tell No

313 170 17

62.6 34.0 3.4

Total 500 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2007 Table 23 presents the distribution of responses indicating perception about the fulfillment of livelihood problems by the subject/discipline chosen. More than one-third were found unable to say that their choice could same, implying that the courses should be revised to incorporate training components that equip them with livelihood options.

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Table 24: Factors Affecting Inaccessibility to Higher Education Factor Level of Response Number of Responses Percentage

Fee structure

Tolerable/Bearable Expensive Most expensive Total

143 270 87

500

28.6 54.0 17.4

100.0

Scholarship provision

Sufficient Not very sufficient Very insufficient No response Total

17 256 216 11

500

3.4 51.2 43.2 2.2

100.0

Physical facility

Sufficient No response Not very sufficient Very insufficient Total

50 13

265 172 500

10.0 2.6

53.0 34.4

100.0 Entry requirements Sufficient

Not very sufficient Very insufficient No response Total

66 256 159 19

500

13.2 51.2 31.8 3.8

100.0 Distance to Institute Easy access

Just OK Very hard No response Total

93 347 49 11

500

18.6 69.4 9.8 2.2

100.0 Desired program availability

Near Far Too far No response Total

90 249 156

5 500

18.0 49.8 31.2 1.0

100.0 Availability of educational institute

Yes Not adequate No No response Total

29 244 214 13

500

5.8 48.8 42.8 2.6

100.0 Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 24 explains the factors contributing to inaccessibility to higher education, such as the existing fee structure, scholarship provision, physical facilities, entry requirements, distance to the institute, availability of the desired program and educational institute. The highest frequency for each factor has been put in bold. Fifty-four percent claimed that the existing fee structure is expensive, particularly in technical education and as to scholarship provision and physical facilities, fifty-one and fifty-three percent of the respondents regarded as less than sufficient.

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Table 25: Suggestions to Increase Access of Marginalized Groups to Higher Education Suggestion Number of respondents %

Scholarship Increase in Program on education awareness Equal opportunities as for the non-marginalized groups Larger availability of educational institutes Fee Reduced Free higher education Economic Support Reservation Quota increased Appropriate opportunities Employment

122 66 55 49 42 39 27 10 10 8 6

24.4 13.2 11.0 9.8 8.4 7.8 5.4 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.2

Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 25 shows responses suggested about increasing the access to higher education of marginalized groups, such as Dalit, Janajati, Muslim, Females and Madheshi. Among the responses made only those strongly emphasized by most of the respondents are presented. Scholarships are limited and insufficient for the economically deprived groups and thus rank first, and awareness programs on the importance of education come second. Table 26: Suggestions to Increase Access of Disabled Groups to Higher Education

Suggestions Number of

respondents % Separate institutions Encouraging facilities Scholarship

695750

13.8 11.4 10.0

Free education of all essential expense No fee in higher education Economic support Awareness regarding importance of education Special class to be managed

3442212018

6.8 8.4 4.2 4.0 3.6

Source: Field Survey 2007

Table 26 presents the responses on the increase access of disabled groups in higher education. Only responses strongly emphasized by most of the respondents are presented: separate institutions, encouraging facilities, and sufficient scholarships based on the weight of frequencies.

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FACTORS HINDERING ACCESS TO HIGHER EDUCATION

As mentioned in the methodology, the research team held several discussions with stakeholders to identify the factors hindering access to higher education (see Annex A for the views expressed). The views expressed were tabulated to bring out a clear picture.

Social Factors One major factor hindering access to higher education is social including early marriage, family obligations, influence of friends, gender, and social discrimination. Table 27 presents the responses derived from the study. Table 27: Social Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education

Social Factors (Parameters) Respondent groups Early

marriage Family

obligation

Influence of

friends

Gender and social

discrimination

Lack of awareness

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Diyalo Samuha, Chitwan Tharu Yuba Jagaran Samuha, Chitwan Labor Group, Chitwan Members of Dalit Association Regional Seminar, Palpa Regional Seminar, Itahari Faculty members of Education Faculty members of Humanities Faculty members of Science

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √

√ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

Early Marriage: According to a UNICEF report (2001), early marriages are common in Nepal: 7 percent of them occur below the age of 10. This means childbearing among adolescent women is common; a situation that compels couple to bear responsibilities of child bearing. As a consequence, at a relatively early age, the students, especially the girls are forced to quit their studies.

However, early marriage did not come up in the discussions with Janajati as the hindrance. But the respondents did not forget it to mention as a hindrance for girls. Girls also faced the risk of unavailability of suitable partners after graduation, a situation that compels parents to marry their daughters before they complete their higher education.

Family Obligations: Census data show that most of the Nepalese live in a joint family where the family members must take care of various household chores. Consequently, the

44

students cannot concentrate their mind on their studies. Even the elder children in working class families have to look after their younger sibling and are thus unable to attend their classes without break. Such responses ware received in the course of the discussions with communities, especially from the women groups of Chitwan and regional seminars held in Palpa and Sunsari.

Influence of Friends' Circle: The study shows that students of higher education often come under the influence of their friends and colleagues, who discontinue their studies for many reasons. One reason was peer pressure for drug addiction and other antisocial activities, a problem particularly seen in the Tharu community and labor groups of Chitwan.

Gender and Social Discrimination: Most of the parents contacted showed preference for sons in schooling because they consider daughters as assets to be offered in wedding. So they are reluctant to send their daughhters for higher studies. This applies also to daughters-in-law whose parents-in-law do not want them to continue their education. Dalits are discouraged their because of the responses received. However, the respondents from Janajati did not mention any discrimination preventng from pursuing higher education. Economic Factors Table gives the responses that revealing economy as one hindering factor in access to higher education. Table 28: Economic Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education

Economic Factors (Parameters)

Respondent groups Poverty Already

employed Inadequate scholarship

Prevailing educated

unemployment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12

Diyalo Samuha, Chitwan Tharu Yuba Jagaran Samuha, Chitwan Labor Group, Chitwan Members of Janajati Communities Members of Dalit Association Regional Seminar, Palpa Regional seminar, Itahari Faculty members of Agriculture Faculty members of Education Faculty members of Humanities Faculty members of Management Faculty members of Science

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ √

45

Poverty: Statistics show that about forty percent of the people in Nepal live below the poverty line. It means the students of these families cannot afford higher education due to their poor economic condition, an issue raised by almost all the respondents in the discussion sessions except the Janajati. Employment: Some students discontinued their studies after getting employment at home or abroad. Students from the Janajati groups sought opportunities to join the Indian/British Army, rather than continue their studies. A response came from the similar teachers of the Faculties of Education Humanities and Social Sciences, Labor group, Tharu Samaj, and the women group of Chitwan.

Inadequate Scholarship: Annual Scholarship of Rs. 2400/- was regarded as adequate to meet the requirements of students’ food and room rents, though the tuition fee is modest in TU (Rs 480 for PCL, Rs 600 for Bachelor, and Rs 720 for Masters level). The lack of hostel facilities in many campuses create problems for girls from remote areas. The respondents put forth the economic problem as particularly severe their familiy joins higher studies when income-generating activities are not possible in their community.

Psychological Factors Some psychological factors also emerged during the discussions Table 29: Psychological Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education

Psychological Factors Respondent groups Fear of Failure

in exam Uncertain future Lack of learning

environment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Diyalo Samuha Tharu Yuba Jagaran Samuha Labor Group Members of Janajati Groups Members of Dalit Association Regional Seminar, Palpa Regional seminar, Itahari Faculty members of Education Faculty members of Humanities

√ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

Fear of Failure in Examinations: Students discontinue their studies if they frequently fail in the examinations, a situation prevalent especially in the lower grades. They complain that subjects like Mathematics and English are difficult to pass and create frustration. Also the students who fail their SLC examination are reluctant to continue in the same school (observed in Tharu community and women groups of Chitwan). In higher education, most of the students are found failing in compulsory English, that prompts the students to discontinue their studies.

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Uncertain Future and Unhealthy Learning Environment: Some students do continue their studies, without realising the importance of higher education, but the plight of their friends going unemployed with higher degrees discourage them. Students also discontinued studies citing lack of quality of the campuses which often suffer from overcrowded classes and inadequate number of teachers.

Managerial Factors Table gives the responses related to the location of the campuses, administrative problem, entrance examination, and inadequacy of physical facilities. Table 30: Managerial Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education

Managerial Factors (Parameters) Respondent groups Spatial

problem Administrative

problems Language problem in entrance

examination

Inadequate physical facilities

Unclear multi-

university concept

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

Members of Janajati Members of Dalit Regional Seminar, Palpa Regional seminar, Itahari Faculty members of Forestry Faculty members of Agriculture Faculty members of Education Faculty members of Humanities Faculty members of Management Faculty members of Science

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √

Spatial Factor: Institutes are often not located in strategic and accessible places for the students. Consequently, some students abandon their studies.

Administration in Technical Campuses: Students from the disadvantaged groups fail to be appraised in time about the admission programs since the constituent campuses of TU, especially the technical campuses, do not announce their admission procedures in the mass media. Moreover, the technical institutes are very few, and cannot enroll all the aspiring students. These reasons limit the access of students to higher technical education (revealed in the discussion in Rampur Campus and Pokhara Campuses)

Language Problem in Entrance Tests: The medium of entrance test in technical institutions is English. But the students from the public schools (known as community schools in Nepal) usually are poor in that language and score low marks in entrance tests. Besides, students from poor economic background cannot afford to pay for expensive bridge courses to help them do well at the campuses.

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Inadequate Physical Facilities: We often noticed that facilities such as classrooms, library, playground, and teaching learning materials in the educational institutions were far from adequate issue raised in a number of discussions, especially at the campus level by students and teachers.

Unclear Multi-University Concept: Some of the stakeholders regarded the multi-university concept as a vague one feel that there is a wasteful duplication in establishing new campuses and creates unfair competition among the campuses.

Admission Process Factors: Regarding admission procedures, which are different at technical and general education campuses, the responses obtained from the field are presented in table 31. Table 31: Admission Process Factors Hindering Access to Higher Education

Admission Factors (Parameters) Respondent groups Problem of

entrance test Inadequate

seats Linkage of curriculum

Unclear fee policy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Faculty members of Agriculture Faculty members of Forestry Faculty members of Education Faculty members of Humanities Faculty members of Science Faculty members of Medicine Faculty members of Engineering

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

√ √

Problem of Entrance Test: Entrance test is compulsory in the technical campuses, but students with poor performance cannot get admission. Besides, the poor performing students cannot admit themselves in the full fee system; they can't afford the high fees. The campuses of general education administer entrance tests; only as a formality and hence admission is easy. This means students from the low-income bracket have limited access to higher levels of technical education.

Inadequate Seats: Seats provided for the students are usually limited in the technical campuses. For example, there are only 43 seats in the MBBS program where more than four thousand students apply for admission. The Institute of Medicine decides its seats according to the number of beds available in the hospital. There is a provision of one student to seven beds ratio. The limit on beds in hospitals put a limit on the number of seats in IOM. On the other hand, the general education streams have overcrowded classes, which are extremely difficult to manage. A political pressure on admission aggravates the situation further.

Lack of Clear-Cut Fee Policy: Faculty members of Education and Humanities pointed out that there is a lack of clear-cut vision regarding the fee structure of the campuses, a

48

problem in the fee structure of private and public colleges starkly evident in the diference.

In addition to the above-mentioned problems, there are some area-specific factors hindering access.

Parental Factor Respondents claimed that parents are not aware of the importance of education. Consequently, they prefer low-income jobs rather than sending their children for education. Curricular Factor Respondents opined that curricula based on the local needs are lacking. Besides, examination system tends to be theoretical where students are assessed on the basis of summative evaluation procedures. The respondents said such assessments cannot properly assess the aptitude, discipline, and dedication of students. They also said that the Dalits are still involved in primitive traditional occupation, which needs to be updated with modern technology. But their skill training is not accredited (deliberations conducted in Chitwan, Pokhara, Palpa, Butwal and Kathmandu).

Linkage of Curriculum: Faculty members of technical campuses responded that there is a link between the preliminary and existing course, but the faculty members of education and humanities pointed out a gap between two level's curriculua, especially in English and Mathematics. The faculty members of all the streams agreed that a gap existts between the courses of PCL and HSEB. Such gaps create confusion among the students and deteriorate the quality of education. The respondents complained that the systems applied in differ private boarding schools and government schools, although students have to face the same standards of final examination in the SLC. Students' Union of Butwal pointed out that the numbers of educational institutions have not increased to meet the rise in the number of students.

Respondents from Janajati said that the children from the mountain regions go to Gombas for their education, which are not accredited by the government. They are reluctant to continue their studies because the degrees offered in the Gombas are not accredited. The discussion suggests that getting higher levels of education is difficult mainly for those who live in the remote areas or who come from the disadvantaged groups like Janajatis, Dalits, and females in particular. Poor access in terms of physical parameters such as distance and cost is one aspect. On the other hand, poor quality of education and its non-relevance for the unprivileged people is another issue.

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POLICY AND PROGRAMMATIC OPTIONS

Reflections upon the data and information obtained from the primary and secondary sources helped the study team to come up with the following policy options, some of which are immediate others priorities, others intermediate, and others long-term in their nature.

Immediate Policy Options a. Awareness and Advocacy This study found that parents of the marginalized community are inadequately aware of the importance of their children’s education, social justice education, and appropriate age for marriage. In such a situation, a policy to implement awareness and advocacy programs should be developed and implemented, programs that will encourage the parents to send and retain their children in schools. The policy can be translated into action through parental education, health/population education, and social justice education in the formal and non-formal education sectors. To implement it, the following strategies are proposed:

• Identification and preparation of volunteer groups at the local government level to reach the marginalized communities. The local governments, i.e., the VDC/Municipality can the responsibility to identify the volunteer groups. But it may not have the capacity to train the volunteers. Therefore, the local teachers, professors, and potential elites should be identified as trainers for the volunteer groups. The training should include contents like rapport building, effective communication, group formation, maintaining group dynamism, and reciprocity of learning. The trained volunteers should be supported with necessary materials for wall painting, hand mike, and stationery.

• Identification and preparation of volunteer groups at the level of the educational institution to reach the local government level: Educational institutions, i.e., schools, colleges, and universities should shoulder the responsibility to find out the volunteer students to work in the VDCs/Municipalities. Teachers and professors can train these volunteers. Their training should include contents like dealing with political leaders; ways to create synergy among different types of political orientations; mobilizations of human, physical, and material resources; and networking with the available agencies. After training, volunteers can be deputed to the concerned VDC/Municipality for their assignments.

• Use of mass media such as television, radio, telephone, internet, and website: Currently there are quite a few mass media that run public awareness programs on

50

health, income generation, and some other life-related information including education. The education programs thus aired and telecast should be expanded to reach the marginalized groups. This should be done through cassette listening club, radio listening club, internet and email sharing clubs, and community-miking groups at the local government level. Both educational organizations and local governments ought to take this initiative.

• Creation of consumers' group from among the educationally marginalized community: Though few, there are change agents in each marginalized community. Even if they are not there, NGOs, CBOs, and caste/ethnic groups are there, organizations that should be mobilized to raise the awareness of the marginalized groups, who need training to reach the people. Local government should coordinate these activities.

• Reorientation of the teachers, students, and professors on an inclusive approach to education for social justice: Though students are taught about social inclusion including disability and social justice, the process adopted is usually too, as a consequence of which students fail to be adequately sensitive to the marginalized fellow-beings. This suggests the need for students' reorientation on social inclusion including disability and social justice through curricular, pedagogical, and other measures. It would helpthe students to become a pro-marginalized force and would create hope for the students of the marginalized communities.

b. Tutorial Support Data show that the students of Jananati and Dalit communities score poorly less in comparison to others, a finding which demands remedial/improvement classes for them help increase their scores. This will ultimately increase the accessibility and attainment level of children in higher education. Such a policy can be implemented through the following strategies:

• Reorientation of the education institutions: Schools, colleges, and universities should be reoriented to make them pro-Dalit, Janajati, and other groups of the students who score less than the students of the mainstream. District Education Officer can initiate such a program for school teachers; the Higher Secondary Education Board for teachers of higher secondary schools; and Campus Chiefs for professors.

• Introduction of peer tutorial support system: Peers can communicate with each other more effectively than teachers. This means each education institution should find out peer volunteers to help the needy students of the marginalized communities. These volunteers should be oriented and equipped with peer counseling and tutoring approaches. The zeal of such volunteers should be maintained through the use of an effective reward system.

51

• Identification of tutorial support seeking students: Teachers and professors should identify the tutorial support-seeking students. Once they identify such students they should match the tutor and tutee. School, college, and university authorities should identify coordinators from among the teachers for implementation of such peer tutoring and tutee program.

• Identification of volunteer teachers for students' tutorial support: Heads of educational institutions should find out volunteer teachers and other groups of people who want to render their tutorial support to the needy students. School, college, and university authorities should encourage such teachers, professors, and other volunteers.

• Creation of tuition support fund in each educational institution: Educational institutions should create a tuition support basket fund in each school/college/university. Both inside and outside donors can put their resource in such basket fund. Each education institution can administer this program.

c. Improvement in Physical Facilities Study shows that many educational institutions lack change room, toilet, and hostel facilities, especially for girls. This situation looks for physical facility improvement program. This program will help girl students increase their participation in higher education. Besides, it creates a secure and friendly teaching learning environment in the educational institutions. For this purpose the following strategies should be adopted:

• Partnership with local government and NGOs: Experience shows that both local government and NGOs are sharing their resources for infrastructure development activities. Besides, government has set rules for public-private partnership. For example, the Regional Education Directorate provides Rs. 70,000.00 for computer purchase if the school deposits Rs. 50,000.00. Such partnership offers are there even with the NGOs. This means we should encourage school and college authorities to extend their hands for public-private partnership. For this college, school, and university need information about the national and international individuals and organizations willing to support physical improvements. However, the government should bear the major responsibility to ensure a minimum level of infrastructure facilities in pubic schools, state colleges, and state universities.

• Information on and access to "where is resource": Educational institutions have inadequate information and access to resources. This needs publication and update of information on the whereabouts of resource. The Department of Education and Dean's Office should make such publications.

• Replication of best practices in infrastructure development: Students Unions have been found active in the development of infrastructure development as well.

52

Butawal Multiple Campus Students' Union is one example, whcih should be replicated in schools, colleges, and universities.

• Mobilization of the local resources: Field visit showed that there were a number of schools and colleges that could mobilize local resources for the construction of classrooms, libraries, and hostels. The experiences of such institutions should be shared for infrastructure development.

d. Career Counseling This study shows that students need study/job/works counseling in line with their aptitude. Such a policy will help them to choose the appropriate subjects and career paths including the job areas. For this purpose, the following strategies can be adopted:

• Establishment of career counseling cell in each school, college, and university: Teachers, students, and administrators should be identified as potential career counselors and volunteer elites may be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills. The counselors so trained should be updated through periodic orientation sessions, training, visits, experience sharing, email, and internet.

• Allocation of a person (s) as a career counselor: Schools and colleges have human resources with different abilities who can be groomed as career counselors, supported with the necessary knowledge, skills, and materials. Such persons can be given “extra salary" for their additional support. In the long run, each school, college, and university should have counseling centers.

• Networking of the career counselor: Once each school or group of schools employs a career counselor, s/he should be networked in different clusters. The clusters can be set up at the local government, resource center, campus cluster, and district levels, a network that is to be updated with training and exposure visits.

e. Collegial Learning Teachers get different kind of exposures in the course of along with the research and innovation works. But they lack forums to share their learning and experiences to promote effective teaching. For this purpose, the following strategies can be adopted:

• Identification of comfortable colleagues: Teachers and professors differ in their abilities, experiences, and learning but the tradition to share them at the institutional level hardly exists. The head of the school and college can encourage the teachers and professors to find out the groups of colleagues for reciprocal learning who can start in-group and post-learning sessions, and update their learning through the use of modern technology. Approaches like peer teaching, clinical supervision, and collaborative learning can ensure collegiality in the schools, colleges, and universities.

• Rewarding the updated colleagues: Schools, colleges, and universities should develop a reward policy to encourage colleagues in reciprocal learning and

53

sharing. Such rewards may be both material and non-material depending upon the ability and interest of the educational institutions.

f. Student Placement System The entrance test at the higher educations has been nominally operated. In order to revitalize the entrance system a standardized aptitude test should be implemented to satisfy the institutional needs/requirements. It will help in selecting appropriate candidates suitable for the respective programs of higher educations.

• At the same time, it helps students find an appropriate college/university. But the students from subaltern/marginalized/disadvantaged communities require pre-entrance preparation sessions to meet the need of students. To put this policy option into practice, the following strategies have been suggested:

• Development of a standardized ability test: Though there are various internationally known standardized test batteries, they do not match the Nepali context. Two ways can be suggested to develop standardized ability tests. The first is a battery of new tests to suit the Nepali context. The second is internationally known test batteries. While the first choice consumes time and resources consuming business while the second way is time. Hence the second approach should be adopted.

• Administering self-and institutionally regulated standardized test: Ability can be tested by anyone using the standardized test which may be followed by placement in the appropriate educational institution. If the approach is practical and reliable, an educational institution or the Dean's office or the University itself can introduce this test.

• Review of the policy of the 1970s' on students' placement: Back in the late 1980s Tribhuvan University had adopted students' placement policy for enrollment. That practice still prevails but the students' placement policy has been dropped out. It looks worthwhile to review the 1970's policy on student placement for implementation.

• Introducing an open mode program in schools/colleges/universities: Students unable to enroll in the regular program for some reason may be placed into the open mode program. The promoters of such an open learning system can provide educational support to the needy students.

g. Quota Allotment for Marginalized Groups Students from Dalit, Janajati, Madhesi, girls, and religious minorities have inadequate access to higher education, especially in the technical institutions.

54

In order to improve their access to higher education, two options are suggested. One is the search system for potential students from among the marginalized groups and the other is quota system for a certain time period. However, the students who get entrance from quota system may require remedial academic support to be at par with other students as a requirement. The following strategies may be adopted for the purpose: • Implementation of a time-bound quota system: Research around the globe shows

that affirmative actions have been taken for a specific period. Nepal also should follow this strategy to ensure educational justice to the marginalized groups of people. Individual educational institutions should introduce such a system. Once this system starts, there should be a provision for shared learning. Following such sharing sessions, individual education institutions will have to make the changes necessary in their rules and regulations.

• Compulsory remedial support to the needy students: Experience suggests that the quota system alone cannot do educational justice to the marginalized groups. The educational institutions need to provide remedial support to the marginalized groups.

• Database on the marginalized students: Each educational institution has its database, some of them disaggregated, which can be used for updating information about the students of marginalized community, and providing support to the marginalized groups.

h. Multilingual Materials Production Schools, colleges, and universities are not becoming more and more monolingual today and one can also notice a habit of switching from Nepali to English and English to Nepali, especially in the higher educations. Some teachers backed by the Janajati groups, have now implemented education programs in varnacular. But in classrooms, particularly in the schools and colleges of the urban areas, and even in the rural areas, a situation that demands schools have multilingual setting attention. Research in this regard shows that at the level of primary and secondary schools, students with their L2 (second language) background obtained lower score than the L1 (first language) students. Against such a backdrop, the study team recommends the adoption of the mother tongue in schools, a ploicy of coexistence beteen languages, language improvement, and language conservation approach to teaching and learning. For this purpose, the following strategies are suggested:

• Reorientation of teachers, students, and professors on the importance of mother tongue schools and language coexistence approach to teaching: Teachers, students, and professors should be reoriented so that they could understand the importance of mother tongue teaching and language coexistence in the classroom.

55

They should be encouraged to learn each other's language, culture, and context. Once they begin to learn from each other, they will develop reciprocal respect. This helps teachers and professors to apply student-centered teaching, particularly in the case of school students.

• Preservation and improvement of language: Some students, teachers, and professors are interested in preserving and improving the languages. They can be reoriented for immediate action that includes the identification and preservation of the endangered language and production of materials in different languages including a "Big Book" and a dictionaries/ multilingual communication books, and encyclopedias compiled by students.

• Exhibition of multilingual materials: The materials developed can be exhibited in places. Resource Centers at such as the schools and lead campuses at the college level.

• Use of local experts as resource persons: Often local experts remain unutilized for educational purpose. Some of them are "barefoot". In order to use their abilities, schools, colleges, and universities should develop and implement a plan for guest lectures.

i. Reform in Exam System The existing exam system has been severely criticized by everyone- the students, teachers, professors, parents, and others. But the appropriate alternative has not been suggested. The study team recommends alternative visioning sessions in all schools, college, and universities. Once these collected, they need to be categorized and discussed at the technical level. We have proposed the following strategies:

• Setting up of alternative exam system groups in each schools, colleges, and universities to envisions new alternatives.

• Collection and treatment of the visioned alternative exam system: Technical groups should collect the envisioned alternative exam system that systems should be handled by a technical flavor for wider sharing and finalized after group discussions.

• Testing the alternatives: The alternative exam systems should be tested and be made final for full-fledged implementation with a built-in feedback system before they go for wider application.

Intermediary Policy Options a. Research and Teacher Training Research and field discussion that suggest girls and other indigenous groups acquire knowledge and learn in different ways. This difference can be understood through research and bridged through the use of pro-girl and pro-dalit pedagogical approaches. This will also increase the pass percentage of the girls and the Dalits. In this context, the following strategies can be useful:

56

• Research to become compulsory in school education: Research has been mystified for years, a tradition that needs to be demystified by applying short-term classroom research. But this calls for a reorientation of the teachers. Some of the NCED-trained lower secondary and secondary school teachers have already been reoriented, as have been college/university teachers and students.

• Organizing sharing sessions: Teachers and students can organize research sharing sessions on findings linked with school, college, and university schedules. The "unheard researchers" can then share their findings in the course of their methodology and learning classes for further action.

• Publication of the "unheard researchers' findings": The study findings and areas of further learning should be published in the newspaper and magazine. Agencies like Education Journalist Groups at the private level and MOES at the public level can take responsibility for such publications.

• Theorizing the research findings: University and college academia can theorize the "unheard researchers' findings". This will help develop new knowledge for the higher learning. At the same time, students of the marginalized community can also bring their subjective and objective research to the public.

b. Financial Support Data show that less than five percent of the low-income bracket students join higher education. This means economically deprived students require financial support for access to higher education. The financial schemes could include (a) Adequate scholarships; (b) Loan for students; (c) Loan and support or income generating programs for parents; (d) On campus job; for students of higher education; (e) Funds for professors to employ research assistants, teaching assistants, and graduate assistants; and, (f) Collaboration with government and private organizations. The policy options discussed can be implemented in the following ways:

• Creation of a basket fund in schools/colleges: The Head Teacher and Campus Chief of educational institutions should be encouraged to create a basket fund in their organizations. The government should provide its mandatory fund and private agencies are supposed to channel their resource into it. Schools and colleges can raise money from the students, elites, and parents. This fund can be used to support needy students. Teachers also can use this fund for research on marginalized groups' access to education.

• Reorientation of research-funding partners: Funding partners often adopt the practice of funding big research. But they are hardly aware of the possibility of using "unheard researchers". Partners of large research projects can be reoriented in line with the Japanese Car Companies, which do not produce everything in one single place, but promote small companies to produce specialized goods for them. In like manner, large research works can be done with the help of the "unheard

57

researchers", students, and teachers. The money collected can be used to support the students of the marginalized communities. This also would help in alleviating the consultancy norms and in strengthening inter-and intra-departmental research in colleges and universities.

• Decentralization of Higher Education Project II: Since 2006 HEP has been implemented. But there has been inadequate effort to decentralize its resources. In such a context, the resources can be decentralized to the campuses and information can be made public for mass auditing.

c. Curriculum Update Both students and teachers demanded updating of the curricula to meet their academic requirements and the global and national market needs. In updating curricula full authority should be given to the teachers. Besides, stakeholder participation has to be ensured to establish the vertical and horizontal linkages of the updated curricula through the following measures:

• Reorientation of students and teachers/professors as local curricula developers: Students, teachers, and professors in Nepal are regarded as the "silent implementers" of the given curricula. For such a situation, students cannot provide creative feedback to the curriculum developers or help in preparing local curricula to meet the nationally prescribed objectives, this consider the strategy is proposed to enable students and teachers/professors to prepare local curricula and be come a part of the national curricula as effective feedback providers.

• Preparation of the students, teachers, and professors for localization of curricula: Currently two streams are in place for the development of curricula. One is internationalization of the national curricula. Another is on promoting of local curricula. A balanced approach will be students, teachers, and parents reorienting in localization of curricula, a hybridized approach to ensure linkages of local knowledge and skills with the international counterparts. Such a process can be introduced through curricular and pedagogical measures.

d. Free Schooling for Marginalized Students Free-ship for students of the weaker communities is a traditional practice in Nepal that practice exists from the primary to the university level. The SMCs rules for freeship at schools, Examples are HSEB policy of freeship at the higher secondary level; campus rules at the college and university levels; and Nepal government's regulation to offer free schooling up to the college level to the girl students of the Karnali zone. Recently UGC has also introduced and advocated freeship, students' loans, and scholarships for students of higher education following the earlier tradition. Against such a background, the study team recommends the continuation of freeships, fellowships, scholarships, and student loans. The following strategies need to be applied:

58

• Identification of the eligible students: Schools, colleges, and universities should identify the eligible groups of students for free schooling for which composite criteria need to be developed, that can be made general for all or be specific for a particular institution. Once developed, criteria they should be made public and transparent. Students who feel eligible can apply for free schooling. At the same time, they are responsible to report their socio-economic status to the educational institutions. In the case of rural schools, local governments can shoulder the responsibility.

• Networking of freeship winners: The freeship winners should be networked under different categories. They generate resources from different sources and make them available to the needy students.

• Establishment of a book bank: Back in the 1960's Nepal had implemented a book bank concept that for some reason could not be expanded. We recommend that at least the students of the marginalized communities should be supported with books for which a book donation program can be started. Elites can also contribute their resources and books. So far two organizations are working in this area; one is Varada in Kathmandu, another in Gulmi. Their experiences can be utilized and efforts can be made to establish a book bank to support the marginalized groups of students.

• Introduction of a compulsory school: Nepal experimented the idea of compulsory school in the late 1960's, 1980's, and in the 1990's in some VDCs and municipalities of the selected districts, but they did not grow. At this point, we recommend implementation of the compulsory and free school idea at least for the children of the marginalized groups. Local governments should take this responsibility.

Long-Term Policy Options 1. Food for Education Children of underserved communities usually do not join primary education, and even if they join, they drop out in their early grades to go for labor. Once they go for labor, their opportunity costs in rejoining school appear high for them. To address the problem, a food for education program should be initiated for the poor parents.

• Poverty-rated card: People of the marginalized communities often live in ghettos or in similar settlements. Some of them send their wards to schools and others do not. Who are they? This is a question that remains to be fully answered. Information can be generated by mapping communities with the help of students and teachers. The data collected will help identify the socioeconomic status of individual household. Households then be rated and given the identification cards. The cardholding students can get special support from the service providing

59

agencies. Another source of data can be VDCs/Municipalities. On the basis of the data available, households can be classified and treatment given accordingly. In the needy students thus identified programs such as should be supported with Food for Education. Local governments, schools, and colleges can initiate such activities.

• Expansion of the FAO program: Agencies like FAO have been implementing "Food for Work Program" over the years, focusing on specific areas rather than the households. We suggest change in the strategy "reaching the program for the poverty-ranked card holding students". But each educational institution has to pay attention to the ILOs rules and regulations regarding child labor.

2. Work for Education The poor parents can be identified through community mapping process and graded accordingly. Once the poor parents get job and earn their living, they can send their wards to school. Gradually, the children of such families can continue the education at the higher levels too. For all this, the following measures are suggested:

• Initiation of a work program for students: Children of poor families should be given work in schools/colleges/universities. Such work can be of light nature-small repairing, paper work, community support, and mini research. Students of poor families can apply for such jobs and after the completion of their works, they can be remunerated. Schools/colleges/universities should have such a provision.

• Networking of the working students: Working students can network and develop reciprocal helping programs, that help them in their work and education.

3. Access to Super-Highway (Internet/E-mail Facilities) Informants say that both teachers and students require updated knowledge and skills. Provisions should therefore be made to facilitate free access to super-highway, i.e., internet/e-mail facilities. The following strategies can be adopted in this area:

• Installing internet/email facilities in schools/colleges/universities: Scientific innovation and development have brought CDMA telephone and solar electricity even to remote villages creating opportunities to install internet/email facilities in schools/colleges/universities. Besides, the Regional Education Directorate is also providing computers to schools under its public private partnership, an opportunity that should be availed in a phasewise manner to ensure computer facilities to the schools and colleges with email and internet labs in them.

• Charging fees for email/internet users: Schools, colleges, and universities should charge users fee from the email/internet users, which can be a good base resource to maintain the email/internet facilities.

• Collecting computers from donation: Computer technology has been changing very fast. With this change developing agencies and even rich private schools are

60

replacing the earlier versions of computers with new versions. The replaced computers can be collected and distributed to the needy schools, colleges, and universities. Besides, there are also national and international agencies that donate computers. Such donations can be collected for distribution to schools and colleges to bridge the digital gap. Students of the digitally marginalized groups can in this way get access to the national and international pool of knowledge.

4. Open Mode, Open School, Distance Learning, Open University, and E-Learning

System The faculty members and students realize that irregularity is a problem usual join to the students. Students of the marginalized groups have to go for job and they are often unable to join the class regularly. This stark reality demands Open Mode/Open School/Open University and e-learning system, which can eventually help the irregular students and students of remote areas as also the working people willing to pursue higher education. For this purpose, the following measures are suggested:

• Introduction of open mode education program in selected schools/colleges/ universities: Interested and needy schools, colleges, and universities that want to introduce the open mode education program should be identified. The District Education Office (DEO), Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB), and the Dean's Office can take initiative in this area. DEO can identify primary, lower secondary, and secondary schools. HSEB can find the higher secondary schools. And the Dean's Office can trace out the colleges. Once the interested and needy schools, colleges, and universities are identified, the DEO, HSEB, and Dean's Office should reorient teachers, students, and parents. Following the orientation session, the selected schools, colleges, and universities should implement the open mode program, that address the learning and earning needs of the educationally marginalized people, including the Maoist soldiers living in the cantonments and government soldiers in barracks

• Establishment of Open University: For a decade or so, educationists have been trying to establish an Open University in the country. MOES at the government level, University Grants Commission at the university level, and SASODEL at the SAARC level are also making efforts to establish an Open University in Nepal. Recently, Nepal Government has announced the establishment of additional four universities. One of them is Open University. At this point, the study team recommends the establishment of an Open University, which can address the educational needs of the illiterate mass. The Open University can use the available educational structures of other universities, HSEB's regional offices, and the government's regional and district offices.

• Using media network: With the restoration of political democracy in the country after the Jana Andolan II, private agencies have established a number of media

61

houses. These houses include FM radio, television, telephone along with cell phone, magazines, newspapers, and many others. Some of these media houses have already initiated education programs and others are working in this direction. Besides the MOES has worked out an education media policy (2007) that proposes a blending of the indigenous and electronic media to reach the marginalized people. The Education Journalists' Group, a network of print and electronic media, is also working to reach the subalterns with its education programs. This means there is a room for the use of this network and promote the Open University program. Postal service can be another strategy to reach the people in the remote rural areas.

• Affiliation with national and international open universities: Agencies like the Open Education Program run under the Purbanchal University has started one-year B.Ed. program under its open mode initiative. HOPE is another organization conducting an educational program in affiliation with Indira Gandhi Open University. These initiatives can be expanded to other schools, colleges, and universities.

• Establishment of e-corners: Private agencies have been establishing electronic cyber cafes/stalls in the electrified urban, semi-urban, and rural areas of the country. But they are not used only for commercial purpose. Such commercial e-corners can also be used as alternative hands of the schools/ colleges/universities to run open education programs. For this purpose, the e-corners should be networked, reoriented, and entrusted to implement educational programs.

5. Provincial College/University The country is heading towards a federal system in which people opt for colleges and universities in their own provinces. In such a situations there is a need of minimum number of colleges and universities in each province. For this, the study team suggests the following strategies:

• Maintenance of a provincial balance in the establishment of universities and colleges: Currently there are 93 colleges of 3 universities and one academy (TU- 52, NSU-4, PU-26, BPKIHS-1) in the Eastern Development Region, 320 colleges of 5 universities (TU-237, NSU-9, KU-12, PU-57, PoU-12, NAMS-1) in the Central Development Region, 107 colleges of 5 universities (TU-76, NSU-11, KU-1, PU-6, PoU-13) in the Western Development Region, 28 colleges of 3 universities (Tu-25, NSU-2, KU-1) in the Mid-Western Development Region, and 23 colleges of 3 universities (TU-19, NSU-3, PoU-1) in the Far-Western Development Region. The ratio of students in each college of the regions varies from region to region. Statistics show that such colleges and universities are located in the city centers, most of them in the Kathmandu valley. In such a

62

situation, we recommend a balanced approach in establishing colleges and universities in the provinces with a specified number of constituents and affiliated colleges. These universities and colleges should be oriented to support the marginalized students.

• Opening of specialized universities and colleges in each province: Each province should have a specialized college and university. For this purpose, local educationists, politicians, industrialists, merchants, and others ought to join their hands for collective decision.

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REFERENCES

CERID. “An Analysis of Enrolment Pattern in Higher Education.” Education and Development Journal. Kathmandu: CERID, 1982.

Dias, M. A. R. “Higher Education: Vision and Action for the Coming Century.” Prospects xxvii.3 (September 1998): 367-375.

Graham, J.W. “Challenges of Higher Education in Nepal.” Education and Development. Kathmandu: Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development, 1985: 49-70.

Gurung, H. “Enrolment Pattern in Higher Education in Nepal.” Education and Development. Kathmandu: Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development, 1987: 32-61.

IBE/UNESCO. Reform and Innovation in Higher Education. Paris: IBE, Information File, Number 3, UNESCO, 1985.

Kennedy, Edward M. “Grant Access to Higher Education.” The New York Times, February 15, 2007.

NESP, 1971. National Education System Plan. 1971-1975. NNEPC. Education in Nepal. Kathmandu: College of Education, 1956. Pande, B.D. “Post-Graduate Education in Nepal.” Education and Development. Kathmandu:

Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development, 1982: 72-78. Shrivastava, Shashi K. Higher Education System in India: Challenges and Strategies for Reform.

NAFSA: Association of International Educators, 28 March, 2006. Studley, R. Inequality, Student Achievement, and College Admissions: A Remedy for

Underrepresentation. University of California, Berkeley: Center for Studies in Higher Education, 2003.

The Advisory Community on Student Financial Assistance. Challenges to Maintaining Access in Twenty-First Century: A Round Table Meeting (Briefing Document). Boston, Massachusetts: Boston University, April 2000.

Tribhuvan University: The Strategic Vision for Twenty Years, June 2000. Trow, M. A. “From Mass Higher Education to Universal Access: The American advantage.”

University of California, Berkeley: Center for Studies in Higher Education, 2000. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. World Education Indicators -2006. Montreal: UNESCO, 2006. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Highlights from the UIS Report: Education Counts

Benchmarking Progress in 19 WEI Countries, September 2007. www.uis.unesco.org/wei2007.

UNESCO. Final Report of the Meeting of Higher Education Partners (World Conference on Higher Education + 5), UNESCO, Paris, 23-25 June 2003. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. The World Conference on Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Vision and Action (Report). Paris: UNESCO, 5-9 October 1998.

64

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65

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66

Annex 2

Discussion Guidelines for Teachers and Other Stakeholders a. Purpose of discussion b. Experiences in access situation in terms of:

- gender - caste/ethnicity - other marginalized groups and - physically disadvantaged groups.

c. Experiences and views on factors hindering access: - admission requirements - fee structure - distance - security - program availability or campus/ school program choices - curriculum linkage with lower and upper levels (transitional problems of students

/weakest level in transition) - curricular relevance (job requirements, higher study etc.) - time schedule - job - alternative modes of education - school/campus physical facilities (classrooms, toilets, facilities for special needs

youths) - family background such as education, economic, and socio-cultural status etc.

d. Experiences and views on causes of dropouts and discontinuity at higher levels: - failure - job - going abroad for jobs - medium of instruction - inability to cope with courses - which level and subject? - courses too difficult - - which level and subject? - courses without linkage with the previous level-which level and subject? - inability to register in higher level courses (lack of upward mobility) - which level

and subject? - lack of alternative modes of education - financial problems - marriage - negligible usefulness of courses/program - which level and program? - transfer of family

67

- high fee - illness: personal and family, etc.

e. Opinions on the measures to reduce inaccessibility of socially, culturally, and economically marginalized groups: - Entry requirements - for which level and what? - Preparation courses - for which level, in what subject, and when? - Curricular provisions - what? - Educational facilities - what and for whom? - Physical facilities - what and for whom? - Financial and other support system - what and for whom? - Alternative to formal education.

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Annex 4 Programs of Higher Education in Nepal

Universities and Their Programs in Non-Technical Areas (2005/2006)

Program Level TU SU KU PU PoU Education PCL

Bachelor Masters M.Phil. Ph.D.

* * * * *

- * - - -

- * * * *

- * - - -

- - - - -

Humanities/Sanskrit PCL Bachelor Masters M.Phil. Ph.D.

* * * - *

* * * - -

- * - - -

- * * - -

- - * * -

Management PCL Bachelor Mastesr M.Phil. Ph.D.

* * * * *

- - - - -

- * * - -

- * * - -

- * * - -

Law PCL Bachelor Masters M.Phil. Ph.D.

- * * - *

- - - - -

- - - - -

- * * - -

- - - - -

Source: UGC Annual Report, 2005/2006 (* means the program is running; - means not available/not running)

69

Appendix 5 Levelwise Programs under Technical Streams (2005/2006)

Program Level TU SU KU PU PoU Agriculture PCL

Bachelor Masters Ph.D.

* * * -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

Engineering PCL Bachelor Masters Ph.D.

* * * *

- - - -

- * * -

- * * -

- - - -

Forestry PCL Bachelor Masters Ph.D.

* * * -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

Medicine PCL Bachelor Masters Ph.D.

* * * -

* - - -

* * * -

- * - -

- - - -

Science and technology

PCL Bachelor Masters M. Phil. Ph.D.

* * * - *

* - - - -

* * * * *

- * * -

- * * - -

Source: UGC Annual Report, 2005/2006 (* means the program is running; - means not available/not running) The two academies of health and medical sciences (MSNA and BPKIHS) provide bachelor and master degree programs.