L1.Plant Nutrients –definition, classification – importance in agriculture

Discovery of essential elements

SNo. Element Scientist

1 Carbon Priestly (1800)

2 Nitrogen Theodore De saussure (1804)

3 Phosphorus Von Liebig (1844)

4 Potassium Carl sprengel (1839)

5 Calcium Carl sprengel (1839)

6 Magnesium Carl sprengel (1839)

7 Sulphur Carl sprengel (1839)

8 Zinc Sommer and Lipman (1926)

9 Iron Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny(1931)

10 Manganese J.S. Hargue (1922)

11 Copper Sommer, Lipman and Mc Kenny(1931)

12 Molybdenum Arnon and Stout (1939)

13 Sodium Brownell and wood (1957)

14. Cobalt Ahamed and Evans (1959)

15 Boron Warring ton (1923)

16. Chorine Broyer (1954)

Essential elements

Mostly from air and water : Carbon (CO2) Hydrogen (H2O), Oxygen (O2 , H2O)

Mostly from soil solids : Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium

Sulfur

Micronutrients from soil solids : Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Chlorine

Cobalt, Molybdenum, Nickel

Criteria of essentiality – Arnon and stout 1939

In order to distinguish the elements which are essential from those which may be

taken by the plant but are not essential.

The plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the

absence of the particular element.

The element is specific and cannot be replaced by other.

The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

Functions of N:

1. N is an essential constituent of proteins and is present in many other

compounds of great physiological importance in plant metabolism.

2. N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary observer of light

energy needed for photosynthesis.

3. N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark green colour to plants.

4. It produces early green and delay in maturity to plants

5. It governs the utilization of K, P and other elements

Deficiency of N:

1. Loss of normal dark green colour due to insufficient chlorophyll synthesis.

2. Formation of pale yellowish leaves and premature defoliation.

3. Scorching of leaves starting from the tip.

4. Formation of slender stalks and branches.

5. Slow growth and poor development resulting in stunted growth.

6. Low yields.

Excess of Nitrogen (Toxicity)

When the N is present in excess the following conditions will be observed.

1. The re will be too much vegetative growth of the crop resulting in lodging.

2. The plants may be highly susceptible to pests and diseases.

3. The maturity will be delayed considerably.

4. The plants will be abnormally dark green in colour.

Forms of soil nitrogen

Inorganic forms and Organic forms of soil N

1. Ammonium NH4+ Amide form (NH2)

2. Plant absorbs N as both NH4, +, NO3

3. Elemental N (No)

N transformations in soils

N Mineralisation

Aminisation

Conversation of urea

N Immobilization.

N factor

Ammonification.

Nitrification

Denitrification

Organic fixation

Elemental N loss.

Nitrogen cycle.

PHOSPHORUS

The element was discovered in 1669 and was found to be widely distributed in the lithosphere as

phosphates. It occurs in most plants in concentrations between 0.1 and 0.4%. Plants absorb either

H2PO4 - or H PO4

2- ortho PO4 ions . Absorption of H2PO4

- is greatest at low pH values, whereas

uptake of HPO42-

is greater at higher values of soil pH, plant uptake of HPO4- is much slower than

H2PO4.

Sources

a. Mineral deposit: Apatite.

b. Soil organic matter

Loss of P in soil

Loss by crop removal

Loss by grazing animal

Loss by erosion

Functions of Phosphorus

It has a greater role in energy storage and transfer.

It is a constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids

It is essential for cell division and development

P compounds act as energy currency within plants. The most common P energy currency is

that found in ADP and ATP. Transfer of the energy rich PO4

molecules from

ATP to energy requiring substances in the plant is known as “Phosphorylation”

It stimulates early root development and growth and there by helps to establish

seedlings quickly.

It gives rapid and vigorous start to plants strengthen’s straw and decreases lodging

tendency.

It is essential for seed formation because larger quantities of P are found in seed

and fruit-phytic acid is the principle storage from of phosphorus in seeds.

It increases the activity of Rhizobia and increases the formation of root nodules.

Deficiency symptoms

Stunted growth of both shoots and roots.

Spindled or twisted growth of plants.

Premature defoliation of the older leaves.

Poor formation of lateral shoots and lateral buds which remain dormant.

Flowering is reduced and opening of buds and leaves delayed.

The leaves will turn to purple or bronze colour.

The leaves will have bluish green colour.

Leaf margins will show brown scorching.

Disease resistance is found to be decreased.

Toxicity of phosphorus

Profuse root growth i.e. laterals and fibrous root lets.

It develops normal growth having green leaf colour.

It may cause in some cases trace elements deficiencies i.e. Zinc and Iron.

POTASSIUM

Sources

1. Mineral deposits

2. Industrial by-products and

3. Synthetic potassium salts.

Losses of K

1. Loss by crop removal

2. Loss due to grazing animals

3. Loss by way of leaching and

4. Loss due to erosion

Functions of potassium

1. It plays a vital role in the uptake of other nutrient elements such as Ca, N and P.

2. It essential for photosynthesis, development of chlorophyll.

3. It is necessary for the formation of protein. It plays a role in the reduction of

nitrate to ammonia and finally to amino acids.

4. It improves vigour of the plants to enable to with stand adverse climatic

conditions.

5. Reduces lodging in cereal crops.

6. It regulates stomata opening and closing.

7. It regulates the movement of ions with in the plants and hence it is called traffic

policeman of the plant.

8. Activation of enzymes, enzyme synthesis, and peptide bonds synthesis.

9. It regulates H2O mechanism of plants.

Deficiency symptoms

1. Plant becomes stunted in growth with shortening of internodes and busy in

appearance.

2. K deficiency in plants show reduced rate of photosynthesis.

3. Chlorosis, yellowing of leafs and leaf scorch in case of fruits trees.

Forms of potassium in soils

a. Insoluble K.

b. Exchangeable K.

c. Solution K.

d. Lattice or increases reserve K.

Potassium equilibrium

The K equilibrium concept was proposed by Bray and DeTurk (1938). The problem of

quantifying the available K in soil or deficiency of K in soil is difficult. This equilibrium of K is

only on orbitary distinction and the boundary between these different forms is diffused.

Potassium fixation

K fixation refers to the phenomenon of the conversion of water soluble form/ available form of K

into an insoluble / unavailable form. It is in soils governed by:

1. Type of clay minerals

2. Soil moisture conditions

3. Soil pH

4. Base saturation %

5. Organic matter content

Available K in soils:

1. Readily available (exchangeable and water soluble K)

2. Slowly available (fixed K)

3. Unavailable (lattice mineral K).

Luxury consumption of K

Luxury consumption is defined as the nutrient concentration range in which added nutrient will

not increases yield but can increases nutrient concentration. The indiscriminate absorption of K

by the crops over and above their requirements is called as luxury /excessive consumption of K.

It results in and accumulation of the element in plant without a corresponding increases in

growth leading to inefficient and uneconomical use of that particular element.

Factors affecting uptake of K by plants

Soil moisture

Soil CEC

Interaction of exchangeable cations

Soil pH

Soil aeration

CALCIUM

The calcium content of the soil ranges from 0.5 -5.0 %. It found in soil in three dominant forms.

1. Insoluble Ca

2. Exchangeable Ca

3. Soluble Ca.

Sources of soil calcium

Earth crust contains about 3.64%. The important source of calcium is anorthite (Ca Al2 Si2O3).

Generally arid region soils contain high amount of Ca regard less of texture, low rainfall and

little leaching. In arid and semiarid regions Calcite (CaCo3)Dolomite (Ca Mg(Co3)2),Gypsum

(CaSo4, 2H2O) are the main sources of Ca.In humid regions, even the soils formed from lime

stone are frequently acid in the surface layers because of the removal of Ca and other cations by

leaching.

Functions of calcium

It is a constituent of cell wall. As such it increases the stiffness of straw/stem in plants.

Promotes early root development and growth

It is immobile in plants and hence the deficiency is observed in younger leaves.

It is a constituent of cell wall and increases in stiffness of plants.

Helps to translocate the sugar in the plants.

It involves chromosome stability and that it is a constituent of chromosome structure.

Affects translocation of CHO in plants.

Encourages seed production.

Activates enzyme phosphate and kinease.

Accumulated protein during respiration by mitochondria and it increases their protein

content.

It involved in cellular organization by regulating the permeability of cell membranes.

Deficiency of calcium

Leaves with irregular margin, often shown brown scorching or spotting effects.

Thin chlorotic marginal bands in leaves will appear.

Root may become short, stubby and brown.

Causes acidity of soil.

Cell may become rigid and brittle.

Young leaves of cereals remain folded.

Factors affecting Ca2+ availability

o Total Ca supply: Sandy acidic soils with low CEC have less Ca.

o Soil pH: In acid soils Ca is not readily available to plants

o High Ca2+ saturation indicates favourable pH for plant growth and microbial activity.

o Type of soil colloid: 2: 1 type requires higher Ca saturation than 1: 1 type.

o Ratio of Ca2+ to other cations: Increasing the Al3+ concentration in soil solution reduces Ca

uptake in plant.

MAGNESIUM

Sources

Magnesium occurs as carbonates fairly similar to that of Ca and held in soil as exchangeable Mg.

It occurs in soil as mineral Mg in the form of CO3, chlorides, sulphates, etc. The primary

minerals of mg include mica, hornblende, dolomite, serpentine and the secondary minerals are

chlorite, vermiculite, etc.

Losses of Mg

It is leached by soils and it depends on the Mg content, rate of weathering, intensity of

weathering and uptake of plants.

Availability of Mg in the soil

1. It occurs predominately as exchangeable and solution Mg.

2. Coarse text soil exhibits the greatest potential for Mg deficiencies.

3. Competition bet NH4 + and Mg2+ also lower the Mg2+

availability to crops.

Functions of Mg

o Mg is an important component of chlorophyll in plants helps to maintain dark green colour in

plants.

o Imports dark green colour in leaves.

o It serves as structural components in ribosomes and stabilizing the ribosome configuration for

protein synthesis.

o It involves numbers of physiological and biochemical function.

o It activates phosphorylating enzymes in CHO metabolism.

o It acts as a cofactor for certain enzymes other than Po4 transfer enzyme.

o Increases in the oil content of oil seed crops.

o It regulates the uptake of other nutrients.

Deficiency of Magnesium

1. Appearance of chlorosis in between veins

2. Stiff brittle, twisted leaves, wrinkled and distortion of leaves.

3. In cotton – lower leaves may develop a reddish purple finally necrotic spots (Reddening of

leaves)

4. In brassica, Chlorosis with interregnal mottling uniformly distributed in older leaves while the

other vascular tissues remain green. This condition is called “Puckering”.

5. It causes ‘Grey speck’ in oats, ‘marsh spot’ in peas ‘speckled yellow’ of sugar beet.

Forms of Mg in soil

Mg in primary and secondary minerals.

Exchangeable Mg

Solution Mg

SULPHUR

Sulphur is an anionic secondary nutrient. Lithosphere contains 0.06 % S and the soil contains on

an average 0.05 % S. The available S in Indian soils was reported to be 5-100 ppm. More than

70-90% of soil sulphur is in the organic form (as that of N) in combination with C and N. The

inorganic sulphur (10-30%) is present as sulphates/sulphides form. Sulphates can be consumed

by the plants directly. The optimum ratio of C: N: S ratio is found to be 120:10:1 and the soil has

a stabilized ratio of 100: 10:1.

Sources

Three major sources of S in soil include

Soil minerals: Sulphides of Fe, Ni, Cu, etc.

Sulphur gases in atmosphere- SO2, H2S, and Carbonyl sulfide.

Organically bound sulphur - ester sulphates , Carbon bonded S fractions

Plants absorb S as SO3 -- and SO4-- anions.

The soluble sulphates contribute largely to the readily available form of sulphur to plants.

Functions of sulphur

1. It essential for synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine.

2. It is an essential constituent for synthesis of other metabolites including Coenzyme A., Biotin,

and Thiamin of vitamin B and Glutothione.

3. It necessary for chlorophyll formation.

4. It is a vital part of ferredoxins i.e. Fe – S – protein occurring in the chloroplasts.

5. Responsible for the characteristic smell or odor and taste of mustard, onion and Garlic

(Punchy smell)

6. Enhances the oil formation in crops

7. Increasing root growth.

8. Stimulate seed formation.

9. Promote nodule formation – Leguminous species.

Deficiency of sulphur

Interveinal chlorosis appear in young leaves first and then spread to older leaves.

The stem and petiole become brittle

Poor seed set in rapeseed.

Sclerenchyma, xyllum and collenchymatous tissues formation get increased

Factors affecting transformation of Sulphur

Microbial activity

Temperature

Soil properties

Effect of Rhizosphere

Soil moisture

MICRONUTRIENTS

Micronutrient elements are found in the host of naturally occurring minerals in soils. Hence, the

distribution of micronutrients in soils depends on the composition of rocks from which the soils

have originated. They are present as part of mineral complexes or in the exchangeable complex

or in solution.

The list of micronutrients includes the non metals (Bo, Cl), light metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn) as

well as heavy metal (Mo). Based on the form in which the micronutrient elements are present in

soil, they are classified as

1. Lithopile elements: elements present in silicate form

2. Calcopile elements: elements present in sulphate & sulphide form

3. Sideraphile elements: elements present in metal ore form

ZINC

Zinc is found to exist as oxides and carbonates in the soil as its mineral forms. The average Zn

content of the soils is 10-330 ppm and that of the available Zn is <1.0 to 50 ppm. It behaves

differently in different soil pH conditions viz., behaving both as an acid and alkali metals and

hence it is said to be amphoteric in nature. It also as a cation as well as anion and hence its

behaviour in soil is unpredictable.

Sources

Zn is present in soil in divalent form and released as Zn 2+ ion during weathering. It is a faster

moving element in the soil profile in all directions in nature. The Zn containing soil minerals are

Sphalerite (oxide) and smithsonite (carbonate).

Functions of Zn

It is a constituent of L-lactate dehydrogenase, triosephosphate dehydrogenase and carbonic

anhydrase in which Zn is bound in ionic form and those of D- 2 + hydroxyaacid dehydrogenase

and D-lactate dehydrogenase in which Zn is bound to flavin, forming the prothetic group of the

enzymes.

It is required for the photosynthetic and N metabolism of plants

It helps in reproduction of plants.

Stabilise ribosomal fractions.

It is essential for the synthesis of Tyyptophan, a precursor of IAA.

Influence the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes

Involves in auxin metabolism like tryptophan synthetase.

Deficiency of Zn

Retardation of growth of plants due to it requirement to produce the growth

hormone IAA (auxin).

Light yellow or white areas bet the veins of leaves particularly older leaves.

Death of tissue, discolored and mal formation of fruits

Reduced growth hormone production.

Common symptoms in plants:

1. Cotton : White bud (or) little leaf

2. Citrus : Mottle leaf

3. Potato : Fern leaf

4. Fruit trees : Rosette

5. Paddy : Khaira

Remedies:

a. Soil application of ZnSO4 @25-50 kg/ha or Zinc chelates (Zn-EDTA, etc) @ 5kg /ha.

b. Foliar spray of 0.2 to 0.5% ZnSO4 twice or thrice.

c. Root dipping of seedlings (eg. Rice) in 1-2 % ZnO suspension.

d. Use of zincated fertilizers viz., zincated PO4, zinc ammonium phosphate, etc.

Factors affecting Zn availability

1. Soil pH: Available Zn decrease with increase in soil pH. Zn def occur in neutral

and calcareous soil.

2. Organic matter: it promotes the availability of Zn.

3. CaCO3: More common in calcareous soils due to it adsorption.

4. Soil P level: Zn deficiency in high PO4 soils have been observed frequently.

5. Clay minerals /type of other accompanying cations

IRON

Fe is one of the commonest elements in the earth crust and also in soils. It absorbed by plants

roots as Fe2+, Fe3+ and chelated irons. Sufficiency range of Fe in plant tissue is 50-250 ppm.

Sources of iron

Earth crust contains about 5%

Primary and secondary minerals such as

1. Olivine, 2. Pyrite 3. Hematite, 4. Goethite, 5. Magrulite and 6. limestone

Functions of Iron

It helps in the synthesis of chlorophyll.

It acts as a catalyst in the production of chlorophyll

It is structural component of porphyrin molecules like cytochromes, hematin, hemes,

ferrichrome and hemoglobin. These substances are involved in oxidation-reduction reactors in

respiration and photosynthesis.

It acts as a co - factor for many of the enzyme.

It is essential for protein formation.

Constituent of enzyme systems eg. cytochrome oxidase, catalase, nitrogenase reaction in

plants.

Component of flavoprotein like FMN ( Flavin mono nucleotides) and FAD (Flavin Adenosine

Dinudeotide).

Deficiency symptoms

Deficiency symptoms occur in younger leaves since Fe is immobile element in plant.

It occurs in soils of calcareous or alkaline soils and poorly drained water logged soils.

Younger leaves develop interveinal chlorosis with progresses rapidly over the entire leaf.

Severe cases entire leaf turns yellow colour.

Forms of iron

Fe occurs in four major forms in soil.

1. Primary and secondary minerals of Al & Fe

2. Adsorbed Fe

3. Organic Fe and

4. Solution Fe.

Factors affecting the availability of iron in soils

1. Soil pH

2. Presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, phosphate, Ca & K in soils.

3. Organic matter content of soils

4. Soil texture

5. Water logging or Submergence

6. Ionic imbalance in soils

Correction of Fe deficiency

Correction of soil pH and decreasing the carbonate content by the use of acidifying materials.

Application of Fe compounds to soil

Foliar spray of Fe compounds.

MANGANESE

Manganese has been found to exist in soils as water soluble, exchangeable and insoluble oxides

of Mn and these forms of Mn are in equilibrium in soils. The average Mn content of Indian soils

is 300-1600 ppm and the available Mn content is traces to 200 ppm. The Mn equilibrium in soils

in represented as follows:

Divalent Mn prevalent in acid soils

Trivalent Mn prevalent in near neutral soils

Tetravalent Mn prevalent in soils of high pH.

Functions of Mn

It helps/supports the movement of Fe in plants.

It helps in the chlorophyll formation

Involves in photosynthesis, particularly in evolution of O2.

Involves in oxidation - reduction - process in decarboxylation and hydrolysis reactions.

Involves in enzyme systems and various enzyme reactions in the citric acid cycle.

It is a substitute for Mg2+ in many of the phosphorylating and group transfer reactions.

Deficiency of Mn

Immobile in plant and def. starts in the younger leaves.

Interveinal chlorosis occur

Oats - Gray specks / streaks

Peas - Marsh spot

Sugarbeet - speckled yellow

Sugar cane - Pahala blight - midrib pale green and white.

Deficiency increases aspartic acid and decreases glutamine

Increases respiration

Accumulation N compounds mainly as amines.

Factors affecting Mn availability

1. Soil pH: Lower soil pH (<5.5) favours more of water soluble and exchangeable Mn in soils

due to the increased solubility of minerals of Mn. Hence, the problem of Mn deficiency is more

severe in alkaline soils.

2. Effect of CaCO3

Presence of higher CaCO3 in soils result in lower availability of Mn in soils due to adsorption

/precipitation reactions and hence calcareous soils will always show Mn deficiency.

3. Excessive H2O and poor aeration

H2O logging will reduce O2 and lower redox potential will increase soluble Mn2+. Poor aeration

increases Mn availability.

4. Soil Organic matter

Increases solution and exchangeable Mn.

5. Climatic factor

Increases soil temp during the growing season improves Mn uptake, because of greater plant

growth and root activity.

6. Texture and type of clay minerals: Fine textured soils have higher quantity of exchangeable

and active Mn than coarse texture soils.

Correction of Mn deficiency

Soil application: Inorgnic salts like MnSO4 or MnO2 @ 30-50 kg /ha to soils as basal application.

Foliar spray: Spraying of 0.5 -1.0 % solution of MnSO4 to plants grown in Mn deficient soils.

This is more effective in calcareous and alkaline soils.

COPPER

Copper is absorbed by plants as cupric ion Cu2+. Normal concentration in plants 5- 20 ppm.

Sources of copper

1. Igneous rock 10-100 ppm of Cu.

2. Sedimentary rock 4 - 45 ppm

3. Primary minerals contains

1. Chalcopyrite

2. Chalcocite

3. Bornite

4. Sedimentary minerals

Oxides, Carbonates, Silicates, Sulphates and Chlorides.

Functions of copper

1. It is the constituent part of several enzymes participating in the electron transport form

chlorophyll to NADP or water to chlorophyll during photosynthesis.

2. Essential for the synthesis of vitamin A.

3. It act as a catalyst in respiration

4. Act as an “electron carrier” in enzyme which brings about oxidation reduction reactions in

plants.

5. It is a co-factor of terminal aerobic respiration.

Deficiency of copper

1. Chlorosis, withering and distortion of terminal buds.

2. Dead tissue appears along the tips and edges of leaves.

3. Multiple bud formation in the leaf axils and mal formation of leaves.

4. Guava - cracking of fruits and terminal bud die back.

5. Heavy liming, excessive application of N and P - induces Cu deficiency

Forms of soil copper

1. Soil solution - ionic and completed

2. Cation exchange sites of clay and organic matter

3. Occluded and co-precipitated in soil oxide material.

4. Specific adsorption sites

5. Inorganic matter and living organisms

Factors affecting Cu availability

1. Soil texture

2. pH

3. CEC

4. Org matter content

5. Hydrous oxides

Correction of Copper deficiency

Soil application: Application of Cu in the form of CuSO4 or copper ammonium phosphate or

copper frits to soil @ 10-50 kg/ha can be practiced.

Foliar application of soluble salts of Cu viz. CuSO4 or Cu- chelates @ 0.25 - 0.5 % solution

neutralized with lime.

BORON

Boron occurs in most soils in extremely small quantities, ranging generally from about 20-200

ppm.

Sources of boron

The primary source of boron in soils is the silicate mineral of boron called tourmaline which in

quite insoluble and resistant to weathering. The total boron content of Indian soils ranged form 7

to 630 pm and that of the available boron traces to 12 ppm.

Functions of boron

1. It concerned with Ca metabolism of plants. Ca uptake and its utilization in plants

2. New cell development in meristematic tissue.

3. It promotes growth hormones and starch formation.

4. Pollination, fruit / seed set.

5. Translocation of sugars, starches, N and P

6. Synthesis of proteins and amino acids.

7. Nodule formation in legumes

8. Regulation of CHO metabolism.

Deficiencies of Boron

1. Since it is immobile, deficiency Symptoms occurs in terminal bud growth.

2. Flowering and fruit development are restricted.

3. Sterility and mal formation of reproductive organs.

4. Thickened and curled leaves.

5. Discoloration, cracking or rotting of fruit, tubers or roots

Apple - Internal cracking.

Break down of internal tissue in root crops given rise to darkened areas referred to Brown

heart / black heart : cotton - weeping disease.

Correction of Boron deficiency

Soil application

Application of borax, calcium borate, solubar or boron frits @ 10-25 kg/ha.

Foliar spray

Boric acid or borax solutions can be sprayed on plants @ 0.1-0.25 % to correct the deficiency. In

irrigation water contains about 0.5 ppm of boron and it by itself act as a source of boron to crop

plants.

MOLYBDENUM

Non metal anion absorbed as molybdate (MoO4). It is weak acid and form complex polyanions

such as phosphomdybdate. Plant contains <1 ppm Mo.

Sources of Mo

The soil contains Mo in

1. mineral form

2. salt and organic complexes

3. exchangeable Mo and

4. Water soluble /solution form.

Functions of Mo

1. Essential component of enzyme NO3 reductase, which catalyses NO3 to NO2.

2. Structural component of nitrogenase enzyme - involved in N fixation.

3. Essential for absorption and translocation of Fe in plants.

Deficiency of Mo

1. Inhibits flower formation

2. Imbalances various Amino Acids in plants.

3. Reduce activity of symbiotic and non symbiotic N fixation.

4. Cauliflower - Whip tail.

Forms of Mo

Earth crust 2 ppm: and range from 0.2 to 5 ppm.

1. Non exchangeable Mo in primary and secondary minerals.

2. Exchangeable Mo held by Fe and Al oxides.

3. Organically bound Mo.

4. Mo in soil solution .Mo in solution occurs mainly as Mo4

Factors affecting Mo availability

1. Soil pH and liming

Mo availability increases with increasing pH. Liming to correct acidity will increase Mo

availability. Mo avail decrease with application of acid forming fertilizers like (NH4)2 SO4.

2. Reaction with Fe and Al

Strongly absorbed by Fe and Al oxides.

3. Interaction with other nutrients

Mg and P enhance Mo absorption by plants. High level SO4 decrease Mo absorption by plants.

Cu and Mn decrease Mo uptake by plants.NO3-N encourages Mo uptake. NH4-N reduces Mo

uptake. The beneficial effect of NO3 nutrition is related to the release of OH ions.

CHLORINE

Chloride occurs in sol as chloride salts. All chloride salts are highly soluble and mobile in the

soil very freely. The ionic form of chloride (Cl-) is absorbed by plants. Soil gets chloride from

the parent materials or from the sea by wind and rain. Normal concentration in plant is about 0.2-

2.0 %.

Functions of chloride

1. Essential for biochemical reactions Osmotic cation neutralization reactors.

2. Act as a counter ion during rapid K fluxes.

3. Involves in the evaluation of O2 in photosynthesis.

4. It creates disease resistant by increase osmotic pressure in cell sap.

Deficiency of Cl

1. Partial wilting and loss of turgidity.

2. Necrosis, leaf bronzing and reduction in growth.

Sources of Cl

i. Igneous and metamorphic rocks

ii. Soluble salts such as NaCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2.

iii. Earth crust 0.02-0.05%.

It is mobile with in the plant it can be rapidly recycled through soil systems.

COBALT

Normal concentration of Co in dry matter - 0.02 - 0.5 ppm.

Functions of cobalt

Essential for microorganisms that fixes atmospheric nitrogen.

Improves growth, transpiration and photosynthesis.

VANADIUM

Low concentration of Vanadium is beneficial for growth of microorganisms.

Vanadium acts as substitute for Mo in N fixation by Rhizobia.

Involves in Biological - oxidation reduction reactions.

NICKEL

Nickel content in pt 0.1 - 1.0 ppm dry matter basis.

Taken by plant as Ni 2+

High levels of Ni may induce Zn or Fe deficiency

1. Ni - metal component of urease that catalyse reaction.

2. Essential for N metabolism.

3. Stimulates nodule weight and yield of crops.

SODIUM

Sources of Na

Earth crust (2.8%) and minerals.

Functions

1. Essential for maintaining turgor and growth of Plants.

2. Helps oxalic acid accumulation in Plants.

3. Helps in stomatal opening and regulate NO3- reductase activity.

Forms of Na in soil

Solution, exchangeable Na and in silicate minerals.

In arid and semi arid soils Na exist in silicates, NaCl, Na2SO4

Na salts accumulating in poorly drained soils of wild and semi arid regions and causes

soil salinity and sodicity.

Effect of Na on soil properties

Dispersing action of Na+ on clay and organic matter reduces soil aggregation,

permeability to air and H2O, germination and root growth.

Silca

Functions of silica

1. Contributes structure of cell wall.

2. Contributes drought tolerance to crops.

3. Regulates photosynthesis.

4. De activates invertase enzyme activity in sugarcane resulting grater sucrose production. Larger

amounts of Si are accumulated in intracellular deposits known as ‘plant opals’.

5. Increased available P.

6. Responsible for plant disease resistance.

Sources of silicon

Earth crust: 27.6% most abundant element in earth crust. In soils it accounts 23-35%. Its major

source from primary and secondary minerals and quartz.Quartz is the most common mineral in

soil, comprising 90-95% of all sand and silt tractions.

Factors affecting Si availability

1. High H2O content encourages Si uptake

2. Heavy application of N decreases Si concentration

3. Liming decreases Si uptake in plants.

4. Acidification increases Si uptake

5. Fe and Al oxides influence Uptake of Si by plants.

Si fertilizers

1. Calcium silicate slag (CaAl2 Si2O4) - 18.21% Si

2. Calcium silicate (CaSiO3) - 31% Si.

3. Sodium metasilicate NaSiO3 - 23% Si.

Lecture IIManures- Types-composition and value - sources

Manures can be defined as any materials which are organic in origin, bulky or concentrated in

nature, containing plant nutrients in relatively low concentration. They are derived from plant,

animal and human residues. Manures may be called as low analysis organic fertilizers.

Manures may be classified as

The term bulky organic manure generally includes those materials of natural origin, organic in composition having greater volume per unit content of nutrients and being used to increase the nutrient status of the soils as well as organic matter content of soils. They are obtained mainly as natural products. The materials included in this group are farmyard manure, compost, sewage sludge and green manure. Of these FYM, compost and green manure are the most important and widely used bulky organic manures.Farm yard manure

“Consists of decomposed or partly decomposed mixture of dung, urine and the litter. It is

a mixture of vegetative refuse from the farm and it mostly consist of the nutrient elements

required by the plant.

It is very good source of manure to repliance the deficient of nutrient.

Composition of dung

75 – 80 % is made up of moisture.

20 – 25% is insoluble materials of fodder or food. Chief components of insoluble

materials cd be woody fibre, starch, fats, bile pigments, mucus. In addition to this it also may

contain skatole and Indole by product derived from the digestion of food material. It also

contain Fatty acids, Ca, Mg PO4, Alkaline soap etc.

Nutrient content of dung %

Horse Cattle Buff Sheep Pig Poultry

H2O 76.5 80.0 81.0 61.9 80.7 57.0

Organic Mater 21.0 15.2 12.7 33.1 17.0 29.3

Mineral matter 3.3 3.8 5.3 4.7 3.0 5.6

N 0.47 0.30 0.26 .70 .59 1.46

P2O5 .38 .18 .18 .51 .46 1.17

K2O .30 .18 .17 .29 .43 .62

Lime (CaO) .17 0.36 .46 .46 .07

Poultry manure is very rich in nutrient content compare to others. Next to poultry sheep

manure is fairly rich, cattle and buffaloe dung is poor in nutrient content.

Urine

It contains 96% H2O and A% is made up of dissolved substances primarily urea derived

from the protein catabolism in the blood and partly from leucine and tyrosine as a result of

tryptic digestion in the intestine. It is also derived as a by product of disintegration in the

various organs of the animal body. Other was to subs in urine in addition to urea are uric and

Hyppuric acid.

Inorganic salts a. sodium chloride – 1%.

b. Sodium hydrogen Po4

c. Ca and Mg Po4 in varying proportions.

d. K and Na So4

Nearly 50% of N content of FYM comes form Urine.

Composition of Urine

Horse Cattle Buff Sheep Pig

H2O 89.6 92.6 81.0 86.3 96.6

Organic Mater 8 4.8 - 9.3 1.5

Mineral matter 8 2.1 - 4.6 1.0

N 1.29 1.21 0.62 1.47 0.38

P2O5 .01 .01 Traces 0.05 .10

K2O 1.39 1.35 1.61 1.96 .99

Lime (CaO) .45 .01 - .16 .01

Litter

It is used as a bedding material in foreign country. In Indian condition it refuse to rejects

and waste materials. It includes straws of cereals, stalks of sunflower etc. If is used to conserve

the loss of NH3 from urine. If urine is treated with soil (or) soil is soaked with urine (or) matured

straws of sorghum, Cumbu, there is a wide range of C : N ratio.

Eg. Sorghum 50 : 1

Factors affecting the composition of manures

1. Kind of animal

2. Age and condition of animal

3. Kind of food or fodder.

4. Litter use and its composition.

5. Handling and storage

6. Products derived from the animal.

Young animals poor in nutrient.

Old animal rich in nutrient.

More food – rice in nutrient.

50% of the dung is used as fuel. Urine is not properly utilized.

Milch animals and laying hen’s poor in nutrient.

Sick animal- more nutrient, working animal poor in nutrient.

Amount of manures obtained from different animals

Tan Manure / year / 1000 1b of body wt.

Weight of excrement

Horse : 9.0 Pig : 15.25

Cow : 13.5 Sheep : 6.25

Hen : 4.75

Heidev in Germany arrived a formula to derive the total amount of manure

Total amount of manure = Dry matter in fed + Dry matter used as bedding x 4

3

where 3 = 2/3 of dry matter is lossed during digestion I is body and 1/3 is excreted in

the from of dung, urine.

4 = Final manure will have 75% of moisture. Remaining 25% have manure i.e.

dry matter.

Characteristics of Farm yard manure

a. Moisture :

75% is made up of moisture. In general moisture content is 50-80% and dry matter 20-

50%

b. It is low analysis manure :

one lone of FYM will supply 5 kg N, 2.5 kg P2O5 , 5 kg K2O.

c. Residual effect of FYM

In FYM nutrients are present in complex form as proteins or microbial tissues. During

the process of decomposition the microbial tissues are decomposed and farm a source of N. In

well decomposed FYM about ½ N, K, 1/6 P readily available to first crop.

Remaining part will left in the soil for the succeeding crops. In well decomposed FYM

the C:N ration is 12-15 : Partly decomposed FYM the C:N ration is 20 :. IN such case the

residual effect is more for 2 or 3 succeeding crops.

d. Nutrient is unbalanced.

FYM is poor in NPK content is particularly P2O5. So it is considered as unbalanced.

FYM is mixed with super (or) Rock PO4 before addition not the field, P2O5 content can be

increased.

FYM + super → Rein forked. So it is considered us complete manure. It also supplied

secondary and micronutrients.

Chemical changes that are taking place during the process of decomposition

FYM consist of 1. Liquid material - Urine and H2O

2. Solid material - Undigested material, bedding material, Farm

sweeping, weeds and leaves.

Liquid material

Urine – Urea, Uric, Hippuric acid.

Uro bacteria

Co(NH2)2 + H2O → (NH4)2 CO3

Urobacteria involved in the conversion of urea into simple cpd. Urobacillus duclauxii

is capable of decomposing 4000 times by weight of its body.

(NH4)2 CO3 is unstable cpd, easily decomposed into

(NH4)2 CO3 → 2 NH4 ↑ + CO3=

2 NH3 ↑ + C02 + H2O.

The conversation of urea into ammonium Co3 is a continuous process. Normally it

should be completed with in 4 – 5 days.

Uric Acid is converted into Urea and Ammonium cpd.

Hippuric acid is converted into Benzoic acid, amino acetic acid and finally in to

ammonium compounds.

Solid portions

It consists of complex nitrogen compounds namely protein. This complex from is broken

into simple forms.

Protein → Protose → Peptose → Poly petides → Aminoacid → Ammonia → Nitrate.

a. Aminisation

Process in which most complex N compounds are converted into Amino compound (or)

protein to Amino Acid.

b. Ammonification

The simple organic amino compounds converted into ammonia. The organisms involved

in this process is called Ammonifier.

Enzymes

R + NH2 R – OH + NH3 + Energy

Hydrolyses

c. Nitrification

Process in which Ammonium compounds are converted into Nitrite and Nitrates.

Enzymes

First stage 2NH3 + 3O2 2NO2- + H+ + energy + 2 H2O.

Oxidation

It is brought out by Nitrosso monas and Nitrosso coccus.

Second stage

Enzyme

NO2 + O2 NO3- + energy.

Oxidation

It is brought out by Nitrobacter.

Factors influencing the nitrification

1. Adequate temperature : Optimum temperature for enchancing nitrification

30-35°C.

2. Moisture content : Moisture content is less nitrification is low.

3. Aeration : If excess moisture, aeration is limited. So the

nitrification process is inhibited.

4. pH : Neutral or slightly alkaline pH is necessary for

nitrification. Under acidic condition bacterial

growth is affected.

5. Bases : In the process of nitrification, librates H2, combines

with NO3 to from HNo3 acid. It should be

neutralized by presence of some basic substances

like Ca, Mg salts.

6. Darkness : Nitrification is a dark process. If too much light

reduces the nitrification.

7. C:N ratio : If under C:N ratio nitrification will be affected. So

enhance the nitrification process low C/N ratio is

needed.

8. Micro nutrient : Need small amounts for microbial action.

9. Ammonia : Unless Ammonia we would not get NO3 from.

Denitrification

“Denitrification is the reverse process of nitrification”.

NO3 → No2 → Various oxides of N, NO, N2O → N2 ↑→ NH3

It takes place under unaerobic condition. The organism that are responsible for

denitrification is called as Denitirfiers.

In paddy field 1- 2 cm top soil is considered as oxidized zone. Below that it is called

reduced zone. If No3 is present in the oxidized zone nitrification process takes place. (NH3 →

NO3). In reduced zone NO3 → No2 which is toxic to the crop. So NO3 from nitrogenous

fertilizers are not recommended to the paddy crop.

Decomposition of Non nitrogenous compounds of manures.

It includes (a) Fates and waxes, (b) cellulose and hemi cellulose (c) sugars, starch, gum

(d) Mineral matter P, K, Ca, Mg, compounds.

a. Fats and waxes

Fats and waxes are hydrolysed into fatty acid and Glycerol. Glycerol is very easily

converted into methyl alcohol, Butyric acid, Acetic acid and formic acid. This changes are

brought out by aerobic organisms.

b. Cellulose and Hemi cellulose

About 60-70% is destroyed in alimentary canal of the animal. Remaining is recovered in

the form of excrete’s.

Under aerobic condition Produce CO2, H2O, energy

Fast reaction

Unaerobic condition Methane, CO2, various organic acids.

Slow reaction.

c. Sugars, Starches and Gum

Aerobic condition → Lactic acid, Butyric acid, Hydroxides, CO2 and H2O.

Unaerobic condition → Butyric acid, Ethyl alcohol

When the decomposition is complete, the C:N ratio is 12 : 1 to 10:1. this is the criteria

for judging the material completely decomposed.

d. Mineral compounds

P is present either in organic or inorganic from it is simply converted into inorganic

from.

K : Higher proportion of K is excreted through urine. It is H2O soluble. Acidity is

produced during decomposition.

Ca<Mg Insoluble compounds of ca<mg are converted into soluble compounds during

decomposition.

Factors affecting decomposition

1. Temperature 2. Aeration 3. Moisture 4. pH 5. Supply of N

6. Basic material 7. composition of refuse.

Advantages of farm yard manure

1. It is a complete manure. It supplies major, micro and trace elements.

2. It improves soil fertility.

3. It improves physical, Chemical, Biological and Properties of soils.

Green Manures

Green manure :

Growing the plants i.e. sun hemp and ploughing insitu (or) adding green matter obtained

from the field.

Green leaf manure

Addition of green or plant tissues obtained from trees, herbs, shrubs pruning and

unwanted weeds.

Green manure N P2O5 K2O

Sunhemp 0.5 0.1 0.4

Danicha 1.1 0.2 0.4

Sesbania 0.7 0.1 0.6

Pelli pesera 0.7 0.2 0.4

Cluster bean 0.3 0.1 0.3

Cow pea 0.7 0.2 0.6

Green leaf manure

Kolungi 0.7 0.1 0.4

Calotropis 0.3 0.1 0.6

Pungam 1.2 0.2 0.8

Glyricidia 0.8 0.1 0.7

Puvarasu 0.8 0.2 0.9

Benefit of Green manure or Green leaf manures

a. Addition of organic matter.

b. Adds Nutrient – Macro, Secondary and micro elements.

c. It improves physical condition of soil.

d. It is useful for the reclamation of problem soils.

e. It act as a cover or catch crop prevent soil erosion, conserves moisture, prevent

nutrients, Leaching.

f. When leguminous GM is grown they fix the atmospheric – N by the roots and

improves N status of the soil.

Characteristics of Green manure

1. It should have rapid growth.

Farmers can fit the GM in the crop rotation because of shorter duration – sun

hemp grown very faster than other GM crops with in 45 days it attains 4-5’ ht.

2. It should be abundant and succulent.

GM should be heavy yielder and succulent. It contains more of H2O and less dry

matter, decomposition will be rapid and easy.

3. It should have ability to grow poor soils.

Alkaline soil will able to grow Danicha

Factor affecting decomposition

a. Organisms present - Bacteria, Fungi, Actinomycetes

Aerobic - Rapid decomposition

Anaerobic - Slow decomposition.

b. Temperature : Optimum temperature for decomposition is 30-35°C under

this condition the growth of organism will be more.

c. Aeration : Multiplication of organism is more, aerobic condition

decomposition is fast.

d. Moisture : Proper decomposition and growth of organism H2O is

needed.

e. Soil factors : Physical chemical and biological clay soil decomposition is

slow.

f. Nature of GM : If it is succulent - quick decomposition

Non- succulent - slow decomposition

Changes taking place when GM is added to the soil

Aerobic condition

1. CHO, Starch and Cellulose

C6H12O6 + 602 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy.

2. Protein → Polypeptides → peptides → peptone →AA → NH2 → NO3.

3. Mineral compounds → Complex subs → simple inorganic substances

Under anaerobia condition

1. CHO → Acetic acid

Lactic acid + CO2

Alcohol

Methane

2. Protein = No nitrification but Ammonification and Amminisation taken place.

3. Mineral compounds. = Less soluble into more double cpd.

Sl.No. Agricultural wastes N P2O5 K2O

1. Sugarcane Begass 0.25 0.12 .20

2. Sugarcane Begass compost 1.40 0.45 0.60

3. Sugarcane Begass Press mud 1 – 1.5 2.0 -

4. Press mud – compost 1.5 1.5 -

5. Saw dust Traces 0.2 - 0.25

6. Tobacco waste 0.5 – 1.0 0.8 1.0

7. Tabacco seed cake 4 – 4.5 7 – 15 5 – 5.5

8. Tea waste 2.8 – 3.6 03. – 0.4 1 – 2

9. Cotton dust 1 – 1.5 - -

10. Textile waste 1 – 1.5 - -

Concentrated organics

1. Oil cakes

2. Various meals is Blood meal, Fish meal, Bone meal, Salughter house.

3. Sullage : It contains waste waters received from. Bath room and kitchen

waste

H2O only.

Sewage : Night soil with water.

Sludge : Solid portions of Night soil. It is allowed for fermentation.

Oil cakes

In India about 2m.t. of oil cakes are produced / year. Out of this only 85% is edible and

15% is non edible portion. The nutrient present in the oil cakes are insoluble in H 2O but which

are readily available to the plants. (with in 10 days). The Mahuva cake takes 1- 1 ½ month

time for perfect mineralization. The nutrient content of the oil cake.

N = 2.5 - 8.0 %

P2O5 = 1.0 - 3.0%

K2O = 1.0 - 2.0%

Nutrient content of different concentration Organic.

Sl.No. Oil cake N P2O5 K2O

1. Groundnut cake (Decordicated) 7.8 1.5 – 1.9 1.4

2. Lin seed cake 5.5 1.4 1.2

3. Mustard cake 4.5 1.5 1.0

4. Neem cake 5.2 1.0 1.4

5. Niger cake 4.8 1.8 1.0

6. Pungam cake 2.5 1.0 1.0

7. Safflower (decordicated) 7.8 2.2 2.0

8. Sesamum 6.2 2.0 1.2

9. Castor 5.8 1.8 1.0

10. Coconut 3.2 1.8 1.7

Slaughter House wastes

1. Blood meal 10 – 12 1.2 1.0

2. Meat meal 10.5 2.5 0.5

3. Fish meal 4 -10 3 – 9 0.3 – 1.5

4. Horn – Hoff meal 13 - -

5. Leather - waste 7 0.1 0.2

6. Hair and wool waste 12.3 0.1 0.3

7. Sewage water 25ppm 5 ppm 15 ppm

8. Sludge 1.5 – 3.5 0.75 – 4 0.3 – 0.6

Sewage is produced @ 6600 million lit/ day.

This will able to supply 0.6 MT N

0.12 MT P2O5 day

0.36 MT K2O

Benefits of organic manures

1. It increases the yield of crop through the supply of nutrient.

2. It improves soil fertility through promoting the physical chemical and biological

properties.

3. It corrects the deficiency of secondary and micro elements.

4. Oil cakes and various meals are equally or slightly even better than inorganic

fertilizers.

5. Slow acting. It may not be completely decomposed state. So the loss of nutrients are

minimized.

6. Quality of crops are improved particularly fruit and vegetable.

Factors affecting the efficient use of fertilizers and manures

I. Soil factors II. Climatic and environmental factors

a. Total nutrient content a. Temperature

b. Availability of nutrient b. Rainfall

c. Soil reaction c. Irrigation

d. Soil Erosion d. Evaporation

e. Soil texture e. Length of growing season

f. Soil drainage f. Intensity of sunlight

g. Soil management practices g. Duration of sunlight.

h. Presence of impermeable layers

III. Crop factor IV

.

Systems of farming

1. Nutrient requirement of crops V. Fertilizer characters

2. Crop sequence

3. Crop adaptability to soil factors

4. Crop production practices

5. Crop residues

Compost (or) Artificial FYM

(or) Synthetic FYM

“Dark coloured powdered material derived from decomposition of plant refuse by the

microbes in the presence of little amount of soluble nitrogen”.

History

During 1921, Rotham Stead, Hutchinson and Richards they produce the material called

as synthetic FYM from straws. They mix the straw with soluble N, P, Ash and allow to

decompose under aerobic condition. The Organism which is responsible is “Cytophaga

hutchinsoni”. Finally they got a manure which is closely resemble to FYM which is called

Artificial or synthetic FYM.

Lecture 4. Composting Techniques – Coir composting, vermin composting and sugarcane

trash composting

Composting is a process of biological decomposition and stabilization of organic material;ls in

wastes under conditions that allow development of thermophilic temperatures for a minimum

duration of 3-4 weeks. The biologically produced heat in this process sanitizes the material and

minimizes the generation of odourous compounds and leachates. It leads to a final product of

pre determined quality that is stable, free of pathogens and plant seeds and can be beneficially

applied to land. Different types of microorganisms are active at different times and sites in the

composting mixture depending on the food availability , oxygen supply and moisture content.

Principles in compost making

a. Composition of refuse material

It consists of (a) Cellulose or Hemi cellulose : 60 – 80%

(b) Lignin : 15 – 20%

(c) H2O soluble material : 5 – 12%

(d) Protein : 2 -3 %

b. Mechanism of the decomposition brought out by micro organic.

c. The knowledge of the metabolism of the micro organic involved.

Factors affecting the compost

1. Refuse materials - Obtained from farm, straw leaves, Garbage, street

sweeping materials.

2. Suitable starter / inoculum's

- Which will provided fungi or bacteria for efficient

decomposition.

3. Soluble N - Which increases the bacterial activity.

4. Aeration

5. Moisture

6. Temperature

Methods of compost making

a. ADCO process - Hutchin son and Richards

b. Activated process - Fowler and Rege.

c. Indore Process - Howard and ward.

d. Bangalore Method - C.N. Acharya.

e. Coimbatore Method - AC & RI.

a. ADCO process

Agriculture Development Company – ADCO. They use ADCO powder for rapid

decomposition. The plant refuse (or) which can not fed to cattle is used. The refuse material is

spread uniformly on the floor to a thickness of 9 – 12”. Then the adco powder is sprinkled @

7% ie. 7kg/ 100 kg of material.

Adco powder contains soluble N, AM SO4, AM – CO3 certain amounts of P2 K, lime,

rock PO4, Ash, KCl. This material is moistened. This can be repeated normally 6 layers.

Periodically moistened for quick decomposition. It can be allowed for 3 – 4 months. It is

aerobic and Heap method. For proper decomposition this material is turned or moistened and

restate in the form of heap.

b. Activated process

In this method, instead of adco powder, we use some inoculum or activator to decompose

the material quickly. It is a heap system and turning is given. The starter should be dung urine,

Urine mixed earth, sewage and sludge etc. The straw is uniformly spread and moistened and

added sewage sludge. This can start the reaction. This must be respected and after moistened,

the level was maintained and periodical turning is given. After 3 – 4 months, the entire mass is

converted into Brown colour. They called it as Starter. 1/3 of it is used for compost making.

c. Indore Process

Materials – Cattle dung, wood ash, H2O and urine soaked earth.

- It is aerobic method. The composting is made in trenches of suitable size 33’

x 14’ x 2’. Spread the refuse materials uniformly to a thickness of 9 – 12” and after moistening

3” dung slurry or urine earth along with wood ash is spread over the refuse material. This can be

repeated till the heap raise to 1-2’ above the ground level. This is allowed to undisturbed

condition for 15 days.

First turning was given 14 days after filling.

Second turning was given 14 days after first turning.

Third turning was given 2 months after filling.

All the mass is removed from the trenches and rebuilt in the earth in the form of Heap. It

is ready after a month.

d. Bangalore Method

In this method the starter used is Night soil.

Composting is done in trenches

Refuse materials are Garbage and Street sewage.

The size of the trenches various depending upon the availability of Night soil and refuse

material. The depth of the trench is 3”. But length and breadth varies. Garbage is uniformly

spread to a thickness of 9 – 12”. Later on Night soil is spread or float on the garbage to a

thickness of 3”. This can be repeated upto 1 – 1½’ above the ground level. During filling certain

amount of aeration is there. For about a week it cannot be plastered. After one week time, the

top layer of the garbage is covered with earth to athasim of 3” to eliminate the fly breeding.

High temperature is developed that will kill the pathogens and destroy the viability of weed

seeds. At the end of 7th day the whole heap is completely plastered. The sides of the walls are

also covered with garbage to avoid contact of Night soil with the walls. High temperature is

maintained inside the trench which facilitate the destroying of weed seeds and pathogen. About

4 – 5 months it is ready for application.

No turning is given - First week aerobic Afterwards anaerobic.

e. Coimbatore Method

This is similar to Bangalore method of composting. Composting is done in trenches.

The waste materials are from farm refuse, dung slurry a long with urine soaked earth. Some

times super Po4, Rock Po4 are also used. The trenches is filled up above the ground level to a

height of 1 – 1½ . After two months it is mixed and restate on the surface on the surface of the

earth and allowed for one month. First it is aerobic and in trenches anaerobic. In this method

mixing and restating is done. It should ensure more homogenous manure and decomposition is

also enhanced. After 3 months the manure is ready for application.

Comparison of Inorganic and Organic fertilizers / manures.

1. Composition Definite and fixed Varied

2. Nutrient High Low

3. Volume of material, unit

kg of nutrient

Low High

4. Source Synthetic Natural

5. Nature Simple salts Compound / complex

6. Response to crops Readily Slowly

7. Residual effect N Longer time

8. Nutrient added 1 or 2 or 3 All nutrients elements

9. Organic matter addition No It adds organic matter

to soil

Differences between Heap method and Trench methods

Heap method Trench method

1. Condition Aerobic Anaerobic

2. Yield of manure Low High

3. N content Low High

4. Carbon content Low High

5. C/N ratio 1 : 10 - 12 1 : 15

6. H2O requirement High Low

7. Mixing Done Not

8. Labour charge High Low

9. Time required Quick Slow

10. Materials drying Quickly Do not dry up

11. Uniformity of manure Less homogenous More homogenous.

Composting of sugar cane Thrash

Raw materials

1. Trash : 100 kg / one tonne

2. Pleurotus : 3 bottles

3. Trichoderma viridi : 20 grams

4. Urea : 5Kg

Final compost contains

N = 0.70 %

P2O5 = 0.25%

K2O = 0.70%

→ 20 kg dugongs 60 lit H2O

→ 100 kg S. trash

→ 100 g Trash derma

→ 100 g S. trash

→ 1 kg urea

→ 100 kg S. trash

→ 1 bottle pleurotus

→ S. Trash - 100 kg

Composting is done in trenches. The size of the trench will be 5 x 3

m.

S. trash was cut into small spices and spread uniformly on the floor

under shade.

As in figure.

Like wise 10 layers may prepared and finally covered with 250 Kg

of clay soil or Red soil for compacting the beds Sprinkle the H2O once in a week.

Limitations in compost making and usage

The detrashed material should be shredded into small pieces for quicker composting.

If the detrashed materials are put as such for composting cannot be obtained.

Many farmers don’t have separate land for composting the sugarcane trash. In that case

shredding and in-situ composting inside the sugarcane field is the only option

Composition of sugarcane trash compost

Nutrient Per cent composition

Nitrogen (N) 1.60

Phosphorus (P) 1.10

Potassium (K) 0.50

Calcium (Ca) 1.00

Magnesium (Mg) 0.60

Sulphur (S) 0.48

Iron 2710 ppm

Manganese 450ppm

Zinc 370ppm

Copper 80 ppm

C:N ratio 22:1

Preparation of sugarcane trash compost using Yeast sludge

Sugarcane trash collected from sugarcane field has to be cut into small bits using chaff

cutter or shredder to a size of 1-2 cm. For every tone of sugarcane trash 200 kg of pressmud and

10 kg of yeast sludge and 10kg of rock phosphate are added and mixed thoroughly. Moisture is

maintained at 60%. Te heap is formed to a height of 1-1.5m. Within 45-50 days sugarcane trash

will be ready for application to crops. The sugarcane trash compost consists of N-1.2%, P-0.7%,

K-1.5% and considerable quantities of micronutrients. This compost can be applied at the rate of

5 t/ha.

Composting of sunflower stalk

→ 100 kg sunflower stalk.

→ 1000/g urea + 1 bottle bacillus 50 lit H2O.

→ 100 Kg sunflower stalk.

→ pleurotus 1 bottle

→ 100 kg s. stalk

→ 1kg urea + 1 lit bacillus in 50 lit H2O.

→ 100 kg s. stalk

→ pleurotus 1 bottle

→ 100 kg s. stalk

On last uniformly spread dung slurry (20 kg dung in 60 lit H2O).

Finally plaster it with 250 kg of clay or sand soil.

Final compost contains N = 1.03 % ; P2O5 = 0.2% ; K2O =

0.50% C:N ration = 18 : 1 ; C: B ratio = 1: 5

Coir pith Composting

→ 100 kg coir pith

→ 1 bottle pleurotus

→ 100 kg coir pith

→ 1kg urea

→ 100 kg coir pith

→ 1 bottle pleurotus

→ Coir pith 100 kg

Nutrient content of Raw and Composted coir pith

Sl. No. Nutrient Raw Composted

1. Nitrogen 0.26 1.06

2. Phosphorus 0.01 0.06

3. Potassium 0.78 1.20

4. Lignin 30.00 4.80

5. Cellulose 26.50 10.10

6. C : N Ratio 112 : 1 24 : 1

7. Carbohydrates 29.00 24.90

8. Iron (PPM) 0.07 0.09

9. Manganese (PPM) 12.50 20.00

10. Zinc (PPM) 7.50 15.80

11. Copper (PPM) 3.10 6.20

Vermicomposting

Vermi composting

The term “vermin composting” had recently been coined to mean the use of earthworms

for composting organic residues. Earthworms can consume practically all kinds of organic matter

and they can eat their own body weight per day; thus, for example, one kilogram of worms can

consume one kilogram of residues every day. The excreta or “castings” of the worms are rich in

nitrate, available forms of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The passage of soil

through earthworms promotes bacterial and actinomycetes growth; actinomycetes thrive well in

the presence of worms and their content in worm casts is over six times more than in the original

soil.

Vermiculture in India

Preparing vermicompost

Materials - breeder worms, a wooden bed and organic wastes.

The bed should be 2.5 ft. high x 4 ft. wide x any length desired. Apply worms for every

part of waste.

Sieving and shredding- Decomposition can be accelerated by shredding raw materials

into small pieces.

Blending- Carbonaceous substances like sawdust, paper and straw can be mixed with

nitrogen rich materials such as sewage sludge, biogas slurry and fish scraps to obtain a

near optimum C/N ratio of 30:1 / 40:1. A varied mixture of substances produces good

quality compost, rich in major and micro nutrients.

Half digestion- The raw materials should be kept in piles and the temperature allowed to

reach 50-55oC. The piles should remain at this temperature for 7 to 10 days.

Moisture, temperature and pH- The optimum moisture level for maintaining aerobic

conditions is 50-60%. Proper moisture and aeration can be maintained by mixing fibrous

with nitrogen rich materials. The temperature of the piles should be within 20-30 oC.

Higher or lower temperatures will reduce the activity of micro flora and earthworms. The

height of the bed can help control the rise in temperature. The pH of the raw material

should not exceed 6.5 to 7.

After about a month the compost is ready. It will be black, granular, lightweight and

humus-rich. To facilitate separating the worms from the compost, stop watering two to three

days before emptying the beds. This will force about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the bed.

The rest of the worms can be removed by hand. The vermicompost is then ready for application.

Earthworms have been on the earth for over 120 million years. Their purpose is simple

but very important. They are nature’s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues back

to living organisms. Referring to an earthworms Darwin said, it may doubted whether there are

many other animals in the world which have played sop important a port in the history of the

world as have these lowly organized creatures. Earthworms play a key role in soil biology by

serving as versatile natural bioreactor to effectively harness the beneficial soil micro flora and

destroy soil pathogens, thus converting organic wastes into valuable products such as

biofertilizers, biopesticides, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics and proteinaceous worm biomass.

Earthworm often called “Ecosystem engineers” because they are actively redesigns the physical

structure of the soil environment.

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting is the process of degradation of organic wastes by earthworms to

achieve three objectives:

1. To upgrade the value of organic waste material so that it can be reused

2. To produce upgraded materials in situ

3. To obtain a final product free of chemical or biological pollutants.

Benefits of Earthworms

Earthworms help in the preparation of compost maintaining soil health as follows :

1. Improvement in fertility of soil.

2. Amelioration of physical condition of soil.

3. Mixing of sub-soil and top soil.

4. Correction of undetermined deficiencies in plants.

5. Use of earthworms in recycling of city and rural wastes, sewage waste waters and sludge,

and industrial wastes eg. paper, food and wood industries.

6. Supplementing traditional feeds

Characters of earthworm suited for vermicomposting

1. Capable of inhabiting in high percentage of organic material

2. Adaptability with respect to environment factors

3. High fecundity rate with low incubation period

4. Smallest period of interval from hatching to maturity

5. High growth rate, consumption, digestion and assimilation rates

6. Least vermistabilisation time (period of inactivity after initial inoculation organic wastes)

Epigeic earthworm like Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus are

some of the popularly used worms for vermicomposting (Kale et al ., 1982). Eudrilus eugeniae a

tropical earthworm commonly called African night crawler is large in size grows rapidly breeds

fast and is capable of decomposing large quantities of organic material into valuable

vermicompost.

Rearing of earthworms

The worms are reared and multiplied from a commercially obtained breeder stock in

shallow wooden boxes of 45 cm x 60 cm, provided with drainage holes and stored on shelves

and tiers. A bedding material is compounded from miscellaneous organic residues saw dust,

cereal straw, rice husks, sugarcane trash, bagasse, paper, cardboard, coir waste, grasses etc. and

is moistened well with water. The wet mixture is stored for 30 days covered with a damp sack

and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete, chicken manure and

green matter eg. Leucaena leaves or water hyacinth is added. The material is placed in the boxes

in sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and should be able to retain moisture. The

proportion of the different materials will vary according to the nature of the material but a final

nitrogen content of about 2.4% should be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is

necessary and the boxes should be kept at temperatures between 200C and 300C. At higher

temperatures the worms will aestivate and at lower temperatures they hibernate. for each 0.1 m 2

of surface area 100 g of breeder worms are added to the boxes. In spite of their being able to eat

the bedding material, the worm at this stage are regularly fed @ 1 kg of feed a day for every kg

of worms. The feed stuffs used are again various types of organic matter and include partially

digested cow dung, chicken manure, Leucaena leaves, vegetable waste and water hyacinth. Some

form of protection against predators like birds, vats, ants, frogs, leeches and centipede is

provided to the worms.

Methods of vermin composting

1) Solid waste materials are spread out over the soil surface, for incorporation directly into

the soil by earthworms for burial and decomposition.

2) Wastes are sacked into heaps or placed in pins, where they are treated like compost heaps

and earthworms are released. Earthworm activity results in the production of large quantities of

earthworm casts, which are widely used as manure.

S. No Source of waste generation Utilizable waste for vermicomposting

1.

Agricultural waste

1.Agricultural fieldsStubble, weeds, husk, straw, and farmyard

manure

2.Plantations Stems, leaf matter, fruit, pulp and stubble

3.Animal waste Dung, urine and biogas slurry

2. Urban slid waste Kitchen waste from household and

restaurants, waste from market yards and

places of worship and sludge from sewage

treatment plants

3. Agro-industries waste

1. Food processing unit

Peel, rind and unused pulp of fruits and

vegetables.

2. Vegetable oil refineries Press mud and seed milk

3. Sugar factories Press mud, fine baggase and boiler ash

4. Breweries and distillery Spent wash, barley waste, yeast sludge

5. Seed production unit Core of fruits, paper, and date expired

seeds

6. Aromatic oil extraction Stems, leaves and flowers after extraction

7.Coir industries Coir pith

Containers

Any type of containers can be used. The numbers of earth warms widened on the

container size. A volume of 0.3 m3 (1m x 1m x 0.3m) can accommodate 2000 warms. The can be

constructed in brick masonry and cement, wood or even plastic trough can be used. Composting

has to be done under a roof to avoid direct sunlight and rain.

Bedding material

Saw dust or husk or coir waste about 3 cm layers each of fine sand and garden soil is

provided as bedding material inside the container. The composting material added above the

bedding material. The material should be partially decomposition before introduce into

vermicompost bed. The warms feeding actively assimilate only 5-10% for their growth and is

excreted as loose granules mounds or worm cast. In general abed of 1m x1m x 0.3m requires 30

to 40 Kg of bedding and feeding materials. This can support 1000 to 1500 earthworms which

would multiply and compost the matter from upper layers the first lot of vermicompost is ready

in 30-40 days only. According to available extrapolative estimates 1Kg of earthworm (1000 adult

nos) would produce 10 Kg casts in 60-70 days.

Precautionary measures.

Moisture level should be maintained around 50-60% 

Temperature should be maintained with the range of 20-30 C. 

Handle the earthworms gently to avoid injury.

Protect from predators like ants, rats etc.

      Use of decomposing cultures available like actinomycetes, phosphate solubilizing bacteria

for accelerating decomposition would speed up the operation.

Vermi composting in pits

A number of pits 2m x 1m with sloping sides are dug having suitable dimension. Vermi

composting is done in pits and in vitro. Both of these are discussed here.

Bamboo poles are laid in parallel row on the pits. Its floor is with a lattice of wood strips.

Necessary drainage is provided because worms can not survive in a waterlogged condition.

Alternatively to this and sand can be placed in the bottom of the pit to facilitate proper drainage.

Above this a thick layer (15-20 cm) of good loamy soil should be spread. The pit can now be

filled with available organic residues such as animal manure, leaves and green weeds, crop

residues etc. Moisture levels of the contents of pit is maintained through addition of required

amount of water. The worms from breeding boxes are introduced in the organic refuse, the

worms immediately burrow down into the damp soil.

The compost pit is left for 60 days. It should be shaded from hot sunshine and it must be kept

moist. Within 60 days about 10 kg of castings would have been producer per kg of worms. The

pit is then excavated to an extent of about two-thirds to three-quarters and the bulk of the worms

removed by hand or by sieving. This leaves sufficient worms in the pit for further composting

and the pit can be refilled with fresh organic residues and continued. The compost can be sun-

dried and sieve to give good quality compost. The average nutrient content of Vermicompost is

N 0.6-1.20%, P2O5 1.34-2.20%, K2O 0.4-0.67%, CIO 0.44% and Mao 0.15%. The excess worms

that have been harvested from the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other farmers for

compost inoculation, and may be used as animal and poultry feed or fish food.

Method of pit vermicomposting

Selection of earthworm: Earthworm which is native to the local soil and Vermicompost may be

used. Size of pit : Any convenient dimensions such as 2m * 1m *1m may be prepared. This can

hold 20,000-40,000 worms giving 1 tonne manure/month (30 days).

Preparation of vermibed : a 15-20 cm thick layer of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5cm) of

broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer is inhabited by earthworms.

Inoculation of earthworms : About 100 earthworms are introduced as an optimum inoculating

density into a compost pit of about 2m * 1m * 1m provided with a vermibed.

Organic layering : It is done on the vermibed with fresh cattle dung. The compost pit is then

layered to about 5 cm with dry leaves or hay. Moisture content of the pit without flooding is

maintained through the addition of water. Wet organic layering : It is done after 28 days with

moist/green organic waste which can be spread over it to a thickness of 5 cm. This practice can

be repeated every3-4 days. Mixing of wastes periodically without disturbing the vermibed

ensures proper vermi composting. Wet layering with organic waste can be repeated till the

compost pit is nearly full.

Harvesting of Vermicompost : At maturation, the moisture content is brought down by

stopping the addition of water for 3-4 days. This ensures drying of compost and migration of

worms into the vermibed. The mature compost, a fine loose granular mass is removed out from

the pit, dried and packed.

Collection of vermi compost

When Vermicompost and vermicasting are ready for collection top layers appear somewhat dark brown,

granular as if used dry tea leaves have been spread over the layer. Watering should then be stopped for 2-3 days and

gently compost should be scrapped from top layers or to a depth it appears vermi composted. This should then be

removed to a side and left undisturbed for 6-24 hours. Collected Vermicompost and casts if in bulk can be stored on

ground under shade. For commercialization Vermicompost should be packed in plastic bags.

Application of Vermi compost

Vermicompost application is to be done in same manner as conventional Farmyard

manure application. For one hectare of land 5 ton of Vermicompost is recommended for field

application. For garden pot soil 10-40 parts Vermicompost can be mixed in soil before filling

pots for transporting seedlings. Some experts even opine that 20-30% recommended dose of

chemical fertilizers be substituted with vermi compost. In horticultural plants Vermicompost

application is preferred and is applied by mixing equal quantity of cow dung manure.

Application quantity depends upon the age and size of plant. Method involves the preparation of

a ring around plant base of ½ to 1 feet depth and 1 to 2 feet wide. In this ring mixture of

Vermicompost and Farmyard manure or cow dung manure is filled. Over this thin layer of soil is

put and finally covered with organic matter comprising dry leaves, weeds, husk or coir. This

process completes important step of mulching and then watering should be done. Generally

application can be repeated every month or at conventional periodicity.

Rate of application : Mature vermicompost is recommended @ 5 tones/ha.

In-vitro vermicomposting

This is also called as bioconversion in soil. This involves the application of the basal dose (5

tones/ha) of vermicastings and covering with 2.5 cm. Layer of organic mater (cowdung or

pressmud) followed by 10 cm layer of sugarcane trash, crop residues or city wastes. The worms

hatch out within 10 days

To boost vermicompost production following suggestions should be followed :

(i) A mixture of cattle, sheep, horse dung with gram and wheat bran and vegetable wastes forms

the ideal feed for worms. (ii) Mixing of gram bran with dung mixture in 3:10 ratio increase the

biomass. (iii) Mixing of wheat bran to dung mixture in 3:10 ratio hastens the growth of worms.

Addition of kitchen waste in the same proportion increases the worm population. (iv) The biogas

sludge and poultry dropping in equal quantities enhance the worm population and the biomass

Inoculants for Composting

Many researchers and companies suggest they can determine the “health” of a compost product

and recommend inoculants to improve its quality or performance. However, there is no

conclusive evidence that the addition of any specific microorganism to cured compost will

improve any characteristic of compost. Native microorganisms may quickly dominate introduced

microorganisms. The introduced microorganisms may provide possibly nothing more than

additional nutrients to organisms already in the compost. Inoculants, if desired, can be added just

prior to application of the compost.

Efficient cellulolytic cultures, such as species of Trichoderma and Penicillium accelerate

composting for efficient recycling of dry crop residues with wide C/N ratio and to reduce the

composting period by about one month. Maximum decomposition of organic carbon in

sugarcane trash took place with the combined use of Penicillium sp., and Bacillus megatherium..

Composting with Mussorie rock phosphate and phosphorus solubilizers was found to increase

the available phosphorus content and this was further increased by inoculation with cellulolytic

fungi. Inoculation with Azotobacter also increased the nitrogen content in the compost.

Lecture 5. Fortified Organics, Enriched FYM, Zinc enriched organics – Preparation and

characteristics

Farm compost is poor in P content (0.4-0.8 percent). Addition of P makes the compost

more balanced, and supplies nutrient to micro-organisms for their multiplication and faster

decomposition. The addition of P also reduces N losses.

Preparation of P enriched FYM In black soils and calcareous soils due to calcareousness, P applied through fertilizers not

readily available to crops due to high P fixation by Ca. Hence, in dry land farming P is supplied

through enriched FYM for easy availability to crops.

Mix recommended dose of P as SSP or Rock phosphate with 750 kg FYM, moisten and

keep it in an anaerobic condition for 45 days (Refer Crop Production Guide).

Zinc enriched organics

Farm compost is poor in micro nutrients content especially Zn content. Addition of Zn makes the compost more balanced & supplies nutrient to micro organisms for their multiplication & faster decomposition.

The addition of Zn also reduces other nutrient losses.

Zn enrichment coverts the Zn in the unavailable form into available form namely chelated Zn & availability to a prolonged period of time to the crop.

The Zn occluded by free oxides is released by the dissolution of organic compounds present in the organic residues & it will be transformed to residual Zn exchangeable Zn & DTAP Zn.

Sl. No. Crop SSP to be added to 750 kg of

FYM (Kg/ha)

1. Rainfed Groundnut 25

2. Rainfed Cotton 50

3. Rainfed Sorghum 50

4. Rainfed Cumbu 50

5. Rainfed Ragi 50

Mix recommended dose of Zn as Znso4 with 1 tonne of FYM as per the corp. requirement. Maize (12.5 kg Znso4) ; (Rice 25 kg/ha)

Moisten the compost till the heaps attain 50-60% moisture & keep it in an anaerobic condition for 30 days.

Lecture 3. Manures – industrial byproducts – pressmud, bottom slag, ferrogypsum, flyash

and humic acid preparation and characteristics

Humic acid

Humic acid obtained from coal and lignite has assumed a greater importance. Humic acid

based fertilizers are quite popular in abroad and these fertilizers are being manufactured by USA,

South Africa, Greece and sold in trade names like Aactosol, Neogen, Fytomon, Phytormon,

Vetoliquid, Humotrel, and Anthormon. In India, the estimated lignite deposits are about 29,000

million tones. Out of these about 91 per cent is available in Tamil Nadu. The Neyveli lignite is

rich in humic acid and Neyveli Lignite corporation Pvt. Ltd is engaged in extraction of humic

acid from lignite and the test material is in the form of water soluble humate.

Humic acids were e~tracted from lignite in accordance with the classical fractionation

procedure of SteVenson (1982) making use of the properties of differential solubilities in alkali

and acid. The fine sieved lignite was dissolved in 0.5 M NaOH (lignite: NaOH = 1:10), the dark

brown coloured solution was filtered, the filtrate was collected in glass jars and acidified with

concentrated HCI to bring the pH of the solution to 1-2. The precipitate (Humic acids) was

allowed to settle and the supernatant liquid (Fulvic acid) was siphoned off. The precipitate was

purified by redissolving in 0.5 M NaOH and reprecipitating with conc. HCl. This process was

repeated several times. Finally, the humic acids were washed free of chloride, dried at low

temperature (40-45°C) under vacuum and ground to fine powder. Most humic acids are insoluble

in water and are not in physiologically active form. To produce forms which are active in plant

metabolism, the HAs are usually brought into solution as Na or K salts and the pH of the

resulting media is adjusted with a mineral acid. Accordingly, the humic acids should more

accurately be referred to as Na- or K-humates. Hence, required quantities of lignite-HAs were

dissolved in minimum quantity of dilute solution of KOH and the pH of the K-humate solution

was adjusted to just below 7.0. The K-humate solution thus obtained was used for soil

application, foliar spray, root dipping / setts dipping etc. to find out its effect on various crops.

Table. Characteristics of lignite humic acid

ParticularsBulk density (Mg m-3) 0.716Humic caid content 65CEC (c mol (P+) kg-1) 18.0pH 7.40EC (dsm-1) 10.30Chemical propertiesTotal N (%) 0.38Total P (%) 0.007Total K (%) 7.72Total Ca (%) 0.73Total Mg (%) 0.027Total S (%) 0.58Total Fe (ppm) 921Total Cu (ppm) 321Total Mn (ppm) 22Total Zn (ppm) 790Exchangeable Ca (c mol (p+) kg-1) 2.76Exchangeable Mg (c mol (p+) kg-1) 0.705Exchangeable Na (c mol (p+) kg-1) 0.59

Benefits of humic acid Improves soil physical properties

Holds exchangeable plant nutrients

Increases moisture holding capacity of the soil

Forms complexes with phosphorus and micronutrients which are easily assimilable by

the plants and thus increases the efficiency of mineral fertilizer utilization

Helps the plants to overcome the adverse pH condition of the problem soils

Increase the permeability of plasma membranes thereby enhancing the uptake of nutrients

more efficiently.

Stimulates seed germination and improves seed viability

Aids in uninterrupted growth of microorganisms.

Stimulates plant enzymes and hormones

Aids in root formation

Recommendations

Rice 100 % NPK +0.1 % FS +0.3 % RD +10 kg HA ha-1

Pulses 75 % NP +0.1 % FS +20 kg HA ha-1

Groundnut 100 % NPK +20 kg HA ha-1

Sugarcane 100 % NPK +20 kg HA ha-1

Cotton 100 % NPK +30 kg HA ha-1

Onion 100 % NPK +20 kg HA ha-1

Tomato 100 % NPK +20 kg HA ha-1

Fly ash

Fly ash is a waste from Thermal power station. Flyash is found to contain silica (49 %), potash

(8.3 %) , S (7.1%), FeO (4.6%), CaO (12%) and MgO (6.3%). Besides macro and secondary

nutrients, flyash is found to contain considerable quantities of B and heavy metals such as Cr, Ni,

Pd and Cd etc., Application of flyash is found to reduce the bulk density and increase the water

retainability. Since it is alkaline in reaction it could be used as a amendment in acid soils.

Bottom Slag

Bottom Slag is a thermal plant byproduct of Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC). It is estimated

that 91,000 tonnes of bottom Slag is generated annually. Bottom slag is basically an acid

material rich in total Fe and S resembling low grade iron pyrite.

The pH of the Bottom Slag range from 1.80-2.65 and were rich in total iron content (5.87 % to

15.41 %).

Bottom slag @ 16 t ha-1 was found to be effective in reclaiming sodic soil

Application of bottom slag in calcareous soil along with phosphor bacteria was found to increase

the yield of groundnut and sunflower.

Press Mud

Press Mud is a by-product of sugar industry. For every 100 tonnes of sugarcane crushed

about 3 tonnes of press mud cake is left behind as by-product. It has been estimated that 2.7

million tonnes of press mud is produced every year in our country. Sugar industry generates

Press mud, a low density, soft, amorphous waste material containing 1-20% N, 0.6-36% P and

0.3- 1.8% K. Average nutrient composition of one tone of pressmud is 10-15 kg N, 14-40 kg P,

5-20 kg K and 32-120 kg Ca. Press mud contains trace quantity of micronutrients The pressmud

could be further enriched by the addition of rock phosphate and zinc sulphate.

Prevents soil erosion, crusting and cracking,

Adjust soil pH,

improves drainage and

promotes normal bacterial and microbial growth in the soil.

It is used as both soil reclamant as  well as soil conditioner.

However, due to it’s bulky nature and wax content it usually give less benefit in the year of

direct application in the fields. Composting and vermicomposting could be an alternative to the

problem for promoting its use in agriculture.

Composition Raw Pressmud Composted

pH 6.0 – 7.0 7.1- 7.6

EC (dSm-1) 3.0 – 3.3 1.5-2.3

C:N 25-36 10-11.4

Nitrogen (%) 1.0 – 1.5 2.7 – 3.5

Phosphorus (%) 1.4 – 2.5 3.0 – 4.0

Potassium(%) 0.5 – 2.0 3.0 – 3.5

Calcium(%) 3.2 – 12.0 4.0 – 6.2

Magnesium (%) 1.0 – 2.0 4.0 – 6.2

Sulphur (%) 0.1 – 0.5 2.0 – 3.0

Organic carbon (%) 15.0- 36.0 30-40

Iron (%) 0.08- 0.3 1.6-1.8

Manganese (%) 0.01-0.3 0.21-0.22

Zinc (%) 0.14-0.4 0.19-0.42

Copper (%) 0.003-0.024 0.72-1.0

Ferro gypsum

Ferrogypsum is a byproduct of effluent treatment plants of the titanium industry where

TiO2 is manufactured using naturally occurring ilmenite ore (FeTiO3). Many countries in the

world manufacture TiO2 where ferrogypsum is also recovered from the effluent treatment plants.

During the process of manufacturing, ferrogypsum is obtained by treating the filtrate ferrous

sulfate with lime during the process of neutralisation. Ferrogypsum, which contains gypsum and

iron, may also be an effective amendment for sodic soils. The present investigation was carried

out with a view to determine the composition of ferrogypsum and to evaluate its effectiveness as

a soil amendment to reclaim sodic soils, when used alone or in combination with farmyard

manure or green manure, and its impact on soil properties.

L 6. Fertiliser industries in India & production capacity

The most widely used fertilisers include nitrogenous (N), phosphatic (P) and potassic (K). There are close to 60 large size plants in the country manufacturing a range of fertilisers. These companies contribute towards the development of agricultural production in India and they offer employment opportunities to the people and the career opportunities are rising in this sector.

Potassic fertiliser is not manufactured in India and is imported. The installed capacity of fertiliser industry in the country is about 12 MT of nitrogenous and 5 MT of phosphatic nutrients.

 Following is the list of top fertiliser companies in India

1. Nagarjuna Fertiliser           2. Coromandel International  3. Chambal Fertiliser             4. GSFC                              5. Rashtriya Chemical           6. Natraj Fertiliser                7. Zuari Industries                8. Fert. and Chem.               9. GNFC                            10.Deepak Fertiliser            11.Mangalore Chemicals     12.SPIC                             13.Khaitan Chemicals         14.Liberty Phosphates        15.Rama Phosphates          16.Basant Agro Tech.        17.Bharat Fertiliser            18.Shiva Global                 19.Dharamsi Morarji         20.Teesta Agro Ind.           21.MP Agro                    

List of Co operative Fertiliser companies in India.Gujarat State Fertilizer and Chemicals Limited (GSFC)Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) Krishak Bharati Cooperative Limited (KRIBHC)

List of Public Sector (PSU) Fertiliser companies in India.

Brahmaputra Valley Fertiliser Corporation LimitedHindustan Copper LimitedFCI Aravali Gypsum And Minerals India LimitedHindustan Fertiliser Corporation LimitedMadras Fertilisers LimitedNeyveli Lignite Corporation Limited

Paradeep Phosphates LimitedRashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers LimitedSteel Authority of IndiaThe Fertilizer Corporation of India Limited

Private Sector Fertiliser companies in India  

Basant Agro Tech India Limited

Bharat Fertiliser Industries Limited

Chambal Fertilisers and Chemicals Limited

Deepak Fertilizer and Petrochemicals Corporation Limited

Duncans Industries Limited (Kanpur Fertiliser and Cements Limited)

Gujarat State Fertilisers and Chemicals Limited

Indo-Gulf Fertilisers and Chemicals Corporation Limited

The Maharashtra Agro Industries Development Corporation Ltd     (MAIDC)

Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilisers LimitedMeerut Agro Chemical Private Limited

Dharamsi Morarji Chemical Co. Limited

Multiplex Fertiliser Private Limited

Nagarjuna Fertilisers and Chemicals Limited

Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertiliser Co. Limited

Shriram Fertilisers and Chemicals

Southern Petrochemical Industries Corporation Ltd.

Tuticorin Alkali Chemi and Fertiliser Limited

United Phosphorous Limited

Zuari Industries Limited - Fertiliser Limited 

Refer Presentation by Gayathri