8/20/2019 Oracles on faults: A probable location of a “lost” oracle of Apollo near Oroviai (Northern Euboea Island, Greece) viewed in its geological and geomorphological context

1/1

 Apollo in one of the inscriptions at the study site and thesite's proximity to ancient Oroviai , the hypothesis that theruins at the study site can be identified with the oracle of 

 Apollo mentioned by Strabo, in our view is avery plausible one. In Strabo's text of course, the epithetused for Apollo is “ ” , wher eas inscr ip tion No216isdedicatedtoApollo“ ” .Thetwoepithetsar enot interchangeable, raising the question whether the textof Strabo may refer to a different site than one where thei ns cr ip ti on r ef er ri ng t o w as f ou nd . T hename “Selinountios” could suggest a connection with thetowns of Selinous in Sicily or a minor town with the samename on the island of Peparethos, NE of Euboea (today'sSkopelos Island Figure 3). Etymologically, both words( a nd ) h av e t he s am e r oot : “

” ( = c el er y, b ot . ) , a p la nt t ha t i nantiquityhadgivenindeeditsnametorivers,lakes,towns,local deities or heroes in mainland Greece, the Aegean,

 Asia Minor and Sicily (RE, ÓÝëéíïò, Óåëéíïýò).Considering that: (1) Strabo was based often on earlier writtensources,(2)a literarytexttheoriginalofwhichisnotknown may have suffered changes through the centuriesby successive copiers, (3) the connections implied by theepithet cannotbetestif iedbyanyhistoricalor  

archaeological source, (4) that the epithet Selinaios isunknown from any literary or epigraphical source and that(4) the hypothesis that next to Oroviai there were twodifferent cult places dedicated to Apollo, bearing as

Selinountios

SelinountiosSelinaios

Selinaios Apollo

Selinountios Selinaios / selinon Apium graveolens

Selinountios

óÝëéíïí

epithets variations of the same root “ ” is perhapsmuch weaker than the hypothesis that the epithetmentioned in Strabo is a result of error of transcription,based on the data available at the moment, we tend tofavour the latter hypothesis. Furthermore, there is noreason to believe that a heavy dedicatory stele and afragmentary one, both referring to the sacred nature of aplace, are not related to the site or have been carried tosuchasteepplace.In an attempt to understand why especially the epithet

was given to Apollo, after a survey in ancientand early medieval greek literary sources, over 1220occurrencesoftheword“ ”anditsderivativeswerefound, attributing to celery various properties andsymbolisms. The great majority of texts either stress themedical properties of the plant or relate it, directly or indir ectly, with death and ( ear thly) power spersonified in various local heroes. Such a connectioninsinuate the fact that celery leaves were used to adorntombs (Plut., 26.1.2) while crowns made of celeryleaves were offered to the winners of the Pan-Hellenicgames at Nemea and Isthmia, in NE Peloponnese(Broneer, 1962), commemorating, in the first case, thedeathofthechild-heroOfeltes(Paus.,8. 48.2)killedbya

dragon that was protecting a spring, and at Isthmia, thechild-hero Melikertes-Palaimon (Gebhard, 1993) whowas worshipped in a temple with an undergroundpassage leading to an , as Pausanias (2.2.1)

selinon

Selinaios

selinon

chthonian

Tim.

adyton

Ilias Mariolakos , Evangelos Nikolopoulos , Ioannis Bantekas1 2 1 3

, Nikolaos Palyvos

1. Introduction

2. AcultplacededicatedtoApolloSelinaiosatAghiosTaxiarches and the oracle of Apollo Selinountiosmentionedby Strabo

Wepresent aresume ofthe availablearchaeologicaldataand the results of a geological and geomorphologicalreconnaissance of a recently discovered archaeologicalsite near Rovies, Íorth Euboea (or Evia) (Figure 1). Wepropose that the available literary, archaeological andgeographical data, support the hypothesis that this sitec ou ld w el l be t he o ra cl e of , m en ti on edbyStrabo(10,1,3) inhisdescriptionofthenorthernpartof 

theisland.The geomorphicandgeologicalcharacteristicsof the site are presented and compared to those of theoracle of Apollo at Delphi, in order to bring forward thesimilaritiesexisting betweenthe two.Since recentstudieshave established the strong connection between thegeological characteristics and phenomena at the oracleof Apollo at Delphi, and the particular use of the site inancienttimes(Piccardi,2000;deBoerandHale,2000;deBoer et al, 2001), this comparison provides further,indirect support to the hypothesis that the site discussedhereincanwellbethesiteofanoracle.

In2001,atthesteepwesternslopeofMt.Telethrion,inthe vicinity of the chapel of Aghios Taxiarches, near the

 ApolloSelinountios

Oracles on faults: A probable location of a “lost” oracle of Apollo near Oroviai (Northern Euboea Island, Greece)

viewed in its geological and geomorphological context

BCE(Nikolopoulos,2005).We have seen that, according to the epigraphical

material, a citizen of unknown provenance dedicated, atthestudysite,aslavetoa sanctuaryofApollo,bearinganepithet unknown from any literary or epigraphical source.Liberation via dedication to the services of a god was acommon practice in hellenistic and roman times,especially in east/central Greece, mainly in Boeotia,Phokis and Lokris, westwards of Northern Euboea. Over twohundredhellenistic andromaninscriptions referto thededication of slaves at sanctuaries, mainly of Asklepios,

Sarapis, Zeus, Herakles, Artemis Eileitheia and Apollo(Darmezin, 1999), all deities and heroes with healingpropertiesorrelated withmedicine.In Northern Euboea the cult of Apollo is mentioned only inone ancient source, in a passage of Strabo (10. 1. 3),where he mentions an oracle of 

Oroviai.Variousauthorsandsc holarsdedicatedto thetopographyofancientEuboeareferto thisinformation,buthavefailedto spot the location of the oracle. Following a modernlegend it was widely accepted - by historians and amongmonastic circles- that the oracle should not be next to

 Apollo Selinountioslocatedintheareaof 

describesit.

 According to t he dating of the two inscriptions and thesurfacepottery,thesitecouldhavebeeninuseforat leasttwo and a half centuries between the 4 and 1 centuriesBCE.Itisnotyetknownwhetheritsusewasuninterruptedduring this period, since our knowledge up to now isbased on surface finds and a single literary source.

Unless further field investigation is undertaken at the siteif this is technically possible an answer to this questioncannot be provided, since the archaeological dataavailable so far are not enough. The same holds true for determining the period it was founded, when it wasabandoned and why. What is sure, is that the site hassuffer ed sever e damages, so that on ly sparsearchitectural and epigraphical relics are remaining today.One natural- process of degradation is rockfalls, thepresent-day morphology suggesting that at least part of thesitemayhaveslidawayintodebrisnowat thebaseof thecliff.

The geodynamic province of “Central Greece” hasbeenwitnessingactive crustalextensionat arate ofabout10 mm/yr during most of the Quaternary (e.g. Jackson,1994). The latest (Pleistocene) phase of the extension isresponsiblefort heformationof theNorthern EvoikosGulf (e.g. Philip,1974; Lemeille, 1977; Rondogianni, 1984), agraben bound by a series of WNW-ESE to NW-SE faultzones which are active as of today (Figure 4). On themainland side, the graben is bound by the NNE to NE-dipping fault zones of Atalanti and Arkitsa-KammenaVourla (Afz andAKfz in Figure 4, respectively, e.g. Philip,1974; Rondogianni, 1984; Kranis, 1999), whereas theEuboea side is defined by the SW-dipping Kandili faultzone (Kfz) as well as other zones on the side of Euboea

,

3. Regionalgeodynamicsetting

th st

western euboean coast and 6.2 km NW of the village of Rovies (Figure 1), a votive inscribed stele and a fragmentofasecondonewerediscoveredbya citizenandhandedover to the Greek Archaeological Service. They werefound in a crack on bedrock and on the ground surface,togetherwith surfacepottery,identified asHellenistic (seeNikolopoulos, 2005), right next to the ruins of a wall madeof large, roughly worked blocks (Figure 2a/b). The wall,possibly part of an enclosure or of a retaining wall is

preserved for a length of 13 m and ends abruptly to theNorth,apparentlydue tolandsliding.The steepnessof theterrain at the site, the high rock-fall hazard and potentialincreased slope instability do not allow a safearchaeological trial excavation at the moment. In anycase,the slopeandthe wallsustains onlyalimited amountof soil covering the bedrock on which the wall remainsrest, i.e., valuable archaeological evidence has beenobviouslywashedaway fromthes ite.

The inscription no 216 (Figure 2c), mentions thed ed ic at i on o f a f em al e s la ve t o s o t ha tafter a certain time she could obtain her liberty. There arealso mentioned the names of the dedicator and theauthoritieswhowerepresent.Accordingtothetypeoftheletters, it is dated in the 1 half of the 1 century BCE.Thefragment No 217 (Figure 2d), mentions in its 1 verse thetownship ( ) of the area, Histiaia, and, in the 7 , apr iestess( .Th isoneisdatedinthemid4 century

 Apollo Selinaios

 )

st st

st

th

thÄÇÌÏÓÉÅÑÅÉÁ

,

ancient Oroviai (mdn. Rovies - Figure 1), where Strabolocated it, but farther North, under the XVI centurymonastery of Aghios Georghios of Helia (Figure 1,Bursian,1872,411,n.2;Sackettetal.,1966,39n.25).

 A sanctuary of Apollo with oracular function is notu ne xp ec t ed i n t he a r ea . I n th e H om er i c , adetailed description is given of the route taken by Apollo,in his quest for an appropriate site to found his oracle(Figure 3). Starting from Mt. Olympus, he headed southand, through Iolkos (in Thessaly), he arrived at capeKenaeon (cape Lichas) of Northern Euboea. From there,following a route along the west coast of the island he

reached the Lelantion field and he subsequentlywanderedwestwardstowards thearea ofBoeotia, beforeending up in Phokis, where he founded the oracle of Delphi. The hymn describes how local deities were putunder Apollo's domination and how at least one sacredplace with a spring ( wasdestroyed upon resisting the domination of the god. It isremarkable that the site at Aghios Taxiarches, (AS inFigure 3), is located on the mythological route describedinthe HomericHymn (Figure3).Consider ing the above, the ep ithet used for  

HymntoApollo

Telphoussa, 9 in Figure 3)

Selinaios.

(Rondogianni,1984;Robertsand Jackson,1991;Ganas,1997 and many others). The activity of these fault zoneshas strongly influenced the landscape evolution of theregion, and is related with significant historical (e.g.Bousquet and Pechoux, 1977; Rondogianni, 1984;Papaioannou et al., 1994 and several others) andinstrumentally recorded seismicity (e.g. Papanastassiouetal., 2001).

 Afurther important element of the regional geodynamicsis volcanism, focused in the broader area around theLichades islands (star n. 1 in Figure 4), which consist of Pleistocene volcanics (Fytikas et al., 1984). Older,Miocene-age volcanic rocks are found at Chronia, SE of Rovies (star n. 2 in Figure 4, Lemeille, 1977; Katsikatsoset al., 1980). Volcanic activity has formed a significantnumber of thermal springs around Northern Evoikos, asin Hypate, Thermopylae (=hot gates or gates of thermalsprings), Aedipsos (e.g. Kelepertsis et al., 2009) andYialtra in N. Euboea, and at Limni (9 km SE of Rovies)and Helia (Figure 4; Sfetsos, 1988). The thermal springsare often found along fault zone traces and especially attheir intersections. In the case of Aedipsos, thehydrothermal springs are related to extensive travertinedeposits(e.g.Hancock etal., 1999).

The ruins of the sit e discussed herein are located about420 m North of the chapel of Aghios Taxiarches, on asouth-facing slope of Mt. Telethrion overlooking the N.Evoikosgulf(Figures1and5).Mt. Telethrionispartofthehighestmountainrange (700-990m) ofthe northernmostpartof Euboea(Figure5).The northernmost part of Euboea is dominated by Lower Miocene to Lower Pleistocene fluvio-lacustrine depositsoftheLimni-Istiaiabasin(Mettosetal.,1992).Upliftofthe

4. Geologicaland geomorphologicalenvironment of thesite

Fig. 1. Topographic map of the broader area of the study site (Telethrion mountain). 20 m contours from 1:50,000 HAGStopographicmaps.On shorefaultsmodifiedfrom theIGME geologicalmap(Katsikatsoset al.,1984),and fromthis study.Major offshore fault traces are based on Van Andel & Perissoratis (2006), with modifications (see also Sakellariou et al., 2007 for smallerscale map).Agreat numberofthermal springsarefound inthe BathsofAedipsos (LoutraAedipsou)andin Helia,whichareaccompaniedby theemission ofgasses. 1a: Triassicmetavolcanicsand crystallinelimestones,1b: Triassicmetaclastics,2: Permianmetaclastics,3: Neogenefluvio-lacustrinedepositsoftheLimni-Istiaiabasin (Katsikatsosetal., 1984)

Fig. 4.   The Northern Evoikos Gulf graben and surrounding area. Faults from Philip (1974), Katsikatsos et al. (1984),Rondogianni (1984), Kranis (1999), Palyvos et al. (2006), Van Andel & Perissoratis (2006) and references therein. Major thermal spring locations reproduced from Sfetsos (1988), volcanic centres from IGM E maps. The existence of the thermalsprings is attributed to the Lichades Quaternary volcanic centre (large star) and the presence of many active faults, alongwhich and especially at their intersections- the occurrence of these springs is favoured. Older volcanic centres are those of Chronia and Achillion (marked with a smaller star). A: normal fault (ticks on downthrown side), B: probable fault or faultextension.

8and 9a),their positionsdefinedby jointscross-cutting thelimestones. Dripping water along parts of the cave is stillobservedtoday.The present form of the cave is probably the result of subsequent r emoval by mass wasting of themetavolcanics under the floor of the limestones on theupthrown block of F1. It is characteristic that, whenobserving the escarpment from the south, on the westernside of the hanging valley and the waterfall the

metavolcanics systematically protrude underneath thecrystalline limestones above them. On the contrary, in thevicinity of the cave, the limestones are seen overhangingabovethemetavolcanics,givingtotheobserverthesenseof removal of a significant mass of metavolcanicsunderneath them (Figure 6 - rockfalls can be seen also onthe slope in front of this area). This may be due to moreintense rock fracturing because of the intersection of twofaults and differences in mechanical behaviour betweenthelimestonesand themetavolcanics.

Recent works point out the straightforward connectionbetween geological features and phenomena (mostlyrelated to the presence of an active normal fault zone, inspecific) and the selection of the particular site for theoracle of Delphi, the major oracle of Apollo in CentralGreece (Piccardi, 2000; de Boer and Hale, 2000; de Boer et al., 2001). They discuss Plutarch's and other ancientauthors' description of the process of divination over achasm from which gasses where emitting, provoking astate of 'ecstasy' to the priestess of the oracle, and theyprovide geological evidence which supports the validity of the ancient sources, proposing that the oracular chasmindeed existed in the form of a fissure related to a ground-rupturingactivefault oran associatedextensionalfracture.Piccardi (2000) identified such a fault (paralleling thegeneraldirectionof theDelphifault zone)that runsthroughthe shrine of Athena at Delphi, where the primitivesanctuary of the 14th century BCE was also located. DeBoerandHale(2000)haveshownthattheshrineofApollo(atalocationdifferentthantheshrineofAthena)islocatedattheintersectionoftheDelphifaultzoneandaconjugateswarm of NNW-SSE fractures, along which a number of springs were found (de Boer and Hale, 2000). Chemicalanalyses of spring waters and travertine deposits realizedbydeBoeretal.(2001)haveprovedthatlighthydrocarbongasses were emanating with the spring waters at Delphi,originating from the underlying strata of bituminouslimestones. Among these gasses ethylene was detected,which, upon inhalation causes effects that match thosedescribed for the prophetic vapours in ancient texts (deBoeret al.,2001).Takingintoaccounttheinitialdedicationof oraclestoGaia(earth)andPoseidon,thegodofearthquakes,andthefactthat earthquakes are closely related to myths regardingthe Delphic oracle (Polimenakos, 1996; Piccardi, 2000preference to the particular type of environment for theoracle of Delphi may be attributed to the fact that it mostvividlyreflects the'underworld'( chthonian)powers,which,inmodernt erminologywouldbe geodynamicphenomena.In a passage referring to a steep escarpment in the valleyof Peneos in Thessaly, Herodotus explicitly states: “In myopinion it is the work of an earthquake” (Her. 7, 129, 26).

5. Discussionandopenquestions

 ),

intense dissection of the crystalline limestones and meta-volcanics by numerous joints and fault planes. The talusslopes along the base of the escarpment speak of a longhistoryofrock falls,whereasveryrecentfallsaredescribedby locals (unrelated to strong earthquakes) and evidencedbythelargenumberof fallenbouldersinfrontof thebaseof the escarpment. Rockfalls could also be related (althoughnot necessarily) to strong earthquakes caused by any oneof the fault zones around the N. Evoikos graben, or the

Telethr ion fau lt zone i tse lf. Fur ther mor e, str ongearthquakescouldhave causedhydrologicaldisturbances,suchas thosementionedfor Aedipsosandthe broaderareainan accountoft henaturalphenomenacausedby thelarge426 BCE earthquake, given by Strabo (Bousquet andPechoux,1977).

Two inscr iptions, one dedicated to “ ” ,and another mentioning a priestess were found at

 Aghios Taxiarches, 6.2 km NW of modern Rovies(where ancient Oroviai are located).The inscriptions,locatednextto wallruins, providestrongindications( if not definitive proof) of a shrine of Apollo bearing thee pi t he t , un k no wn f r om l i te r ar y a ndepigraphicalsources.

GiventhevicinityofthesitetoancientOroviai andthenew epigr aphica l mater ia l, we pr opose thehypothesis that the site can well be the “oracle atO ro vi ai ” o f “ ” m en ti on ed o nl y i n asingle passage of Strabo (and in no other literary or epigraphic source). Considering that epigraphicevidence is stronger than evidence from historicalsources, and that Strabo never visited Euboea, itseems very likely that he may have used a wrongversion of Apollo's epithet (more details inNikolopoulos,2005).

The walling remains at the site are located on the300m high, steep bedrock escarpment of an active

normal fault zone. The presence of the fault zone isresponsible for a landscape of particular beauty andimposing geomorphological elements, which includesteep cliffs and rockfall scars, a hanging valley with ahighwaterfallandasmallcavethathasformedatthe

 junction of two faults and has extensive travertinedepositsinsideit.

The site at Agios Taxiarches, when compared to theoracleofApolloatDelphi,isfoundtobesituatedinanenvironment with similar geological and geomorphicfeatures(this referringto typesof landforms,notexactsimilarity). Considering that recent studies havedemonstratedthattheoracleofDelphiwaslocatedinthe particular site exactly because of the presence of specific geological features and phenomena that aredirectly connected to the presence of active faultzones, the geological and geomorphologicalsimilaritiesbetweenthe siteat AghiosTaxiarchesandthe oracle of Delphi, in our view provide indirectsupport to the hypothesis that the former can be theareawherean ancientoraclestood.

Systematic archaeological study of the broader areaaround the walling remains and of the nearby cave shouldbe undertaken, if the hypothesis we propose is to beirrevocably verified. Such a study will probably betechnically demanding, considering the steep terrain andhigh rockfall hazard Geological/geomorphological,geochemical, and geochronological studies would benecessary to clarify the connection the cave may had withthesite's function.

TheauthorswouldliketothankMrsAggelikiNikolaoufor finding the inscriptions and delivering them to theEphorate of Antiquities in Chalkis, Euboea, the Director of the Epigraphical Museum in Athens, Dr CharalambosKritzas for his comments on the text of the inscriptions, MrsYiolitaBantekasand Prof.Chary Cliadakisfor revisingearlyversions of the manuscript, and two anonymoys reviewersfor their constructive comments and suggestions. For theancient sources references theseries (London Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard Univ.Press)was used.

 Apollo Selinaios

Selinaios

 Apollo Selinountios

Selinaios

.

Loeb Classical Library 

6. Conclusions

7. Acknowledgements

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VanAndel, T.H. & Perissoratis, C. (2006). Late Quaternary depositional history of the NorthEvvoikosGulf,AegeanSea,Greece. 232,157-172.

Fitch Lab. Occas.Paper 

Bulletin de CorrespondanceHellenique

Bull.Soc.Geol. France

 American Journal ofArchaeology 

Les affranchissements par consécration en Béotie et dans le mondegrechellénistique

GeologicalSociety,Sp. Publ 

Geology 

The geological evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean

PhDdissertation

Greek Sanctuaries, New  Approaches,

JournalofStructural Geology 

 Ann.Rev.EarthPlan. Sci.

CentralEuropeanJournal ofGeosciences

PhDDissertation

. Cl au d i G a le n i O pe r a Om n ia ,

PhDDissertation

BasinResearch

PaleontologiaiEvolucio

 ArcheionEvoikonMeleton

Geomorphology,

Proc. Of the XXIV European Seismological 

Comissiongeneralassembly 

Bull.Geol.Soc.Greece

PhDDissertation

Geology 

LexikontisEllinikisArchaiologias,Áthens

Geol.Soc.ofLondon Sp.Publ.

PhDDissertation

 Ann.ofthe Brit.Sch. atAthens

Bull. Geol. Soc.

Greece

HydrologicalandHy drogeologicalinvestigations

MarineGeology 

 ).

Fig. 7.   View of the hanging valley and high waterfallimmediatelyto theWestofthewallremainsandcaveatthestudy site. The person (in white circle) shown for scale,underestimatestheheightof thewaterfallsince hedoes notstandimmediatelyinfront ofit.

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12th International Congress of the Geological Society of Greece, May 19-22, Patras, Greece.

TelethrionrangeduringtheQuaternary hasresultedin theremovaloftheoriginalcoverofNeogenedepositsandtheextensive exposure of alpine bedrock. In specific, the Mt.Telethrion consistsof UpperPaleozoic toMiddle Jurassicmetamorphic rocks belonging to the Pelagoniangeotectonic unit of the Hellenides. In the broader areaaround the oracle of Apollo, greenstones (meta-volcanics) with intercalations of schists and phyllitesoccur (Katsikatsos et al., 1984). These are interpreted tobe the product of submarine extrusions of basic igneousrocks, mainly diabasic and basaltic, that were epizonallymetamorphosed during the Alpine orogenetic cycle(Katsikatsos et al., 1984). Within the above formation,intercalations of Middle Triassic white-grey crystallinelimestonescanbe found(Katsikatsoset al.,1984).The morphology of the S-SSW face of Mt. Telethrion ischaracteristically straight and steep (Figures 1 and 5), its

slopes descend to the sea with the deepest waters of theNorthernEvoikosGulfinfrontofthem(>400m Figure1).This morphology is the geomorphic expression of apresumably active fault zone directed roughly WNW-ESE, which bounds this part of the Northern Evoikos gulf graben to the N-NNE (Figure 4) e.g. Van Andel &Perrissoratis(2006). Triangularfacets, featurestypical of fault-bounded range-fronts (e.g. Burbank andAnderson,2001) are present on the slopes of Mt. Telethrion (Figure

5). The ruins are located near the base of one of thesefacets (~800 m high - Figures 1 and 5), under the highestpeakof Mt.Telethrion(970m).In the 1:50,000 geological map of the Institute of Geological and Mineral Exploration (IGME - Katsikatsoset al., 1984) the respective fault zone along is traced atthe base of the facet where the ruins are located, as adiscontinuity that brings into contact the middle Triassic

metavolcanics / crystalline limestones formation withPermian metaclastics (modified fault trace 'A' in Figure1). The orientation of the fault zone at the base of thefacet(andthefacetitself)is obliquerelativetothegeneraldirection of the offshore fault zone that bounds Mt.Telethrion to the SW ('C' in Figure 1). We consider faultzone A to be part of a different group of neotectonicstructures (rather than a splay of the offshore fault zoneC), because of (a) the existence of a second fault zonewiththissamedirectionfartherSE(faultzone'B'inFigure1, which juxtaposes Neogene deposits against rocks of the Pelagonian unit), and (b) the existence of probableneotectonic faults with the same general directioncrossing this part of Northern Euboea farther ESE

(Palyvoset al.,2006and referencestherein).Inmostofitsextent,thefacetwiththeruinsismoreorlessconcave in cross profile, consisting of easily erodiblemetamorphosed clastics (1b in Figure 1). Its SW tipthough (where the ruins are located), consists of themetavolcanics of the Telethrion escarpment and thelargest occurrence of crystalline limestones inside them(1ainFigure1),bothveryhardlithologies,resultinginthespecific part of the facet being steep and convex inprofile. The morphological surroundings are particularlyimposing: apart from the steepness of the bedrockescarpment, the site is located next to a very scenicwaterfall more than 70 m high, at the exit of a smallhangingvalley(Figures6 and7).The crystalline limestones / metavolcanics contact at theareaoftheruinsisdippingtotheNEandit iswelldefinedand readily observable on the western side of thehangingvalley,allthewaytothevalleybottom(Figure6).

 At the eastern side of the valley the metavolcanicsdisappear abruptly, and the escarpment facet in thisspecific part consists of limestones only. This is sobecausethecontactis interruptedbya NE-SWtrending,SE-dipping normal fault down throwing to the SE, whichwill be called 'F1' in the discussion that follows. Weconsider fault F1 to be a secondary splay of the facet-bounding fault zone A shown in Figure 1. Fault F1 wasobserved a few tens of meters W of the walling remains,and together with other discontinuities, relates to thepresence of a cave that was discovered between thewall ing r emains and the water fa l l dur ing our  reconnaissance(Figures6,8 and9).

Thecaveisfoundontheupthrown (footwall)blockof 

fault F1, right next to the fault. The SE wall of the cave isthe very well preserved polished fault plane of fault F1(Figures 8 and 9) that dips 81-85 towards N153-163 E,with striations (70 /226 ). A thick travertine depositoccurs along the plane of F1 (Figures 8 and 9b). Theceilingofthecaveisthefloorofthecrystallinelimestonesof the upthrown fault block, whereas the NW wallconsistsof themetavolcanicsthat arefound belowthem,boundedbya successionof atleast threediscontinuitieswith more or less the same strike as F1 (Figure 8b).Furthermore,the polishedfaultplane ofF1 isinterruptedbyatransversefault(F2in Figure8aand9a,dipping85towards N252 E). All these discontinuities pre-definedthe shape of the cave, whose formation was initiated bygr oundwater cir cu la tion a long the l imestone /metavolcanics contact (permeable and impermeable,respectively). The bases of three large stalactites -thatarebrokentoday-arefoundonthecaveceiling(Figures.

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This is a clear indication that the connection betweenearthquakes and changes in the landscape (formation of 

tectonic landforms) was a notion understood at least asearlyas Classicaltimes (presumably,alsoevenearlier).Comparing the landscape features at the oracle of Apolloat Delphi and the site of Aghios Taxiarches we canrecognize quite similar geological and geomorphicfeatures (similarity referring to types of landforms found inthe landscape, but not necessarily similarity in t heir sizesordetails):

The oracle at Delphi is also located in front of a 500-700mhighfaultescarpmentfacingtothesouth,witha WNW-ESE normal fault zone running along itsbase (Birot, 1959;Aronis et al., 1964; Mariolakos etal., 1989, 1991; Pechoux, 1992; Piccardi, 2000; deBoer and Hale, 2000). The fault zone at Delphi isconsidered active (e.g. Mariolakos et al., 1989,1991; Piccardi, 2000; de Boer and Hale, 2000),albeit less active arguably- than t he Telethrion faultzone(judgingfrom theirgeomorphicexpressions).

 At both sites the fault escarpments consist of bedrock: limestones in Delphi, limestones andmetavolcanics in Aghios Taxiarches. These hardlithologies result in steep and imposing escarpmentmorphology, “decorated” with steep cliffs and rockfallscars.

The oracle at Delphi was also constructed at themouth of a valley with a gentle upper part, hangingabove a steep lower part (e.g. Piccardi, 2000). In thecase of Aghios Taxiarches the impressive, highwaterfallinthelowerpartofthevalleyaddstoa more“dramatic” landscape; the sacred spring Castallia at

Delphiis alsotypicallydepicted asa smallwaterfall. At both sites, the presence of carbonates(limestones and crystalline limestones) broken up by

 joints and fault planes, in combination withimpermeable underlying rocks, favoured thepr esence of spr ings, spr ing water be ing afundamental element in the process of divination. Atthe site of Aghios Taxiarches, water is still drippinginsidethecave todayThe oracle springs at Delphi were also associatedwith thick travertine deposits (e.g. Higgins andHiggins,1996;de BoerandHale, 2000)

Considering that studies by Piccardi (2000), de Boer and

Hale(2000)anddeBoeret al.(2001)havedemonstratedthat the oracle of Delphi was located in the particular siteexactly because of the presence of specific geologicalfeatures and phenomena, directly connected to thepresence of active fault zones, the geological andgeomorphological similarities between the site at Aghios

Taxiarches and the oracle of Delphi, in our view provideindirectsupportto thehypothesisthattheformercanwellbe the oracle of “Apollo Selinountios” mentioned byStrabo.Thecavenexttothewallingremainsshouldmeritconsideration as a potential key geomorphologicalelement of the site, considering that use of caves asplaces of chthonian cult was in fact common in ancientGreece.Someofthemwerealsousedasoracles,e.g.theoracle of Trophonios in Leivadeia (Boeotia), which waslocated at a cave with springs inside it (Higgins andHiggins,1996).Inorderfora firmconnectionbetweenthecave and the archaeological remains (walling) nearby tobe established, a test excavation inside the cave and amore systematic work on the site in general is necessary.

Such studies will probably require special geotechnicalconsiderations given the slope instability problems and thehigh rock fall hazard. If the cave is indeed found to berelated to the use of the nearby site, detailed geological,geomorphological, geochemical and gechronologicalstudycould attemptto helpaddressingquestions relatedtothe type of connection the cave may have had with thefunction of the site. E.g. how different was the morphology

of the cave during antiquity, when the nearby site wasoperational?Wasit moreenclosedoropenmoreorlessasat present? Limestone blocks fallen from the cave ceilingare blocking the entrance of the cave (Figs. 8 and 9a) but,when exactly this collapse took place is not known. Howmuch lower was the cave floor (now filled with debris) inantiquity? What is the age of the travertine deposits insidethe cave, and what was the chemical composition of thefluids that deposited the travertines? Were there gasemissionsinvolved,andif yes,of whatgasses?The origin of the travertine deposits along the fault plane of F1 and their relation or not to hydrothermal activity arequestions that refer to whether the cave may have servedas the adyton (sanctum) of a shrine, with geologicalfeaturessimilartothosedescribedbyancientwritersfortheDelphic adyton (fissure on the ground & emanatinggasses). These questions become very interesting,

considering:· thelocationofthesitewithinthemajorhydrothermalfield of Northern Evoikos Gulf, the type locality for travertine deposits (of hydrothermal origin) being atnearbyAedipsos(Figure5)

· the preferential location of travertine deposits insuch fields along normal faults (e.g. Hancock et al.,1999) and especially their intersections, as is the

caseforthecave,· the gas emissions associated with hydrothermalsprings on the opposite side of the gulf and nearby

 Aedipsos (e.g. Sfetsos, 1988, Gioni Stavropoulou,1998)

Regardless of its exact use in antiquity, given the locationof the Agios Taxiarches site in a geodynamically andgeomorphologically highly active environment, futuredetailed studies could also clarify whether geo-environmental factors played a role in its decline (or destruction). Two such possible causes of disturbance of the site's operation could be destructions by strongearthquakes in the broader N. Evoikos graben (nearbyOroviai were devastated during the 426 BCE earthquake(Thuc. 3. 89, Bousquet and Pechoux, 1977), anddestructions due to rock falls. Rock falls are greatlyfavoured by the steepness of the escarpment and the

Fig. 2.(a)/(b): WallingremainsofthesiteofApolloSelinaios.c, d:Theinscribedstelaefoundatthesamesite(Nikolopoulos,2005). The stele at (c) is dated at the 1 half of the 1 century BCE and mentions the dedication of a slave toApollo Selinaios(Ó ÅËÉÍ ÁÉÙÉ)sothatafteracertaintimeshecouldobtainherliberty. Thesteleat(d)mentionsthemajortownship(demos)of thearea,Histiaia,and apriestess( ÉÅÑÅÉÁ),andisdatedatmid4 centuryBCE.

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Fig.7. 3DsketchofthecavelyingontheverysteepslopeimmediatelyWestoftheruins.Theformationofthecavewasdirectedby a NE-dipping crystalline limestones (Lm) / metavolcanics (mV) contact, which forms the ceiling of the cave, fault F1, thepolishedfaultplaneofwhichconstitutestheSEwallofthecave,faultF2strikingtransversetoF1,andfaultsstrikingparalleltoF1inside themetavolcanics inits upthrown(footwall)block. Afissure alongfaultF1 isfilled withtravertines(Tr). Ticksindicatedownthrown(hangingwall)faultblocks.

Fig. 6. Photograph of the escarpment where the study site is located (view from the South). Walling remains are visible in thezoomed-in part of the photograph, near a hanging valley and a very scenic waterfall more than 70 m high. The escarpmentconsists of crystalline limestones (Lm), over metavolcanics (mv), their contact (marked with a dashed line) dipping around 27towards the NE. Where the cave is located (entrance facing to the left of the photo, not visible in the photo), the contact isdownthrownbya normalfaultparallelto theescarpment(see text),andonly limestonesareexposed inthev icinityofthe wallingremains. Elevationstakenfroma 1:5.000topographicdiagramofthe HellenicArmyGeographicalService arealsoshown.

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Fig.8.(a)

(b)

Obliqueviewofthecaveentrance,lookingupfroma lowerpointintheverysteepslopeinfrontofit.Lm:Limestone.mV:Metavolcanics.F1/F2:polished faultplanes,C: thecave ceiling,dippingawayfrom thereader(=the floorofthe limestones,with the metavolcanics mv- underneath them removed), B: part of a large limestone block fallen from the ceiling. W: largelimestone wedge ready to fall off.Thick broken stalactites (dashed-line circles) and newer generations of CaCO deposits canbe seen on the cave ceiling. The interior of the cave. A large fissure along the polished and striated fault plane of F1 isvisible,filledwith thicktravertinedeposits (Tr).Thefloor ofthe cavewas probablylowerduring antiquity,nowfilledwith rockfalldebris.

3

Fig.3. TherouteApollofollowedfrom Mt.Olympus toDelphion hisquestfor anappropriateplaceto foundanoracle,acc ordingto the Homeric “Hymn to Apollo”. Numbers indicate places mentioned in the Homeric 'Hymn to Apollo' including those where

 Apollo founded oracles before ending up in Delphi (the oldest and the most important oracles ofApollo, more recent ones beinglocatedinAsiaMinor,ontheislandsofLesvos,LemnosandDelos,andoneinPeloponnesos).Itisremarkablethattheoraclesintheir majority have been founded within the greater area between the Northern Evoikos Gulf and the gulf of Corinth, two major neotectonicgrabentrendingWNW-ESEtoNW-SE, whichareassociated withthemost intenseseismicityof mainlandGreece.1:Mt.Olympus, 2:Iolkos,3: CapeKenaeon,4: LelantionField,5: PtoonMt.,oracle of'PtoosApollo', 6:Ismenion,oracle of'IsmeniosApollo', 7:oracleof 

 ApolloinIsiae, 8:oracleof ApolloinEutresis, 9:Telphoussa,10:oracle ofApolloin Tegyra,11:oracleofApollo inAvai,12: Delphi,wherethe mostfamous

ofApollo'soraclesare located,AS:Thesite atAg.TaxiarchesnearOroviaidiscussed herein.Oraclenamesfrom Ragavis(1888).

1

2 nd 

University of Athens, Faculty of Geology, Dynamic, Tectonic and Applied Geology Department, Panepistimioupolis Zografou, 157 84, Athens, Greece, mariolakos@geol.uoa.gr, pandaemonium12@yahoo.gr 

Ministry of Culture, 2 Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, L. Syggrou 98-100, 117 41 Athens, Greece, vanpep@otenet.gr 

3 Harokopio university, Department of Geography, El. Venizelou 70 (part-time) / Freelance Geologist, Navarinou 21, 152 32 Halandri, Athens, Greece, palyvos@gmail.com

Fig. 5. Digital Terrain Model of Mt. Telethrion, where the study site is located. 3-D view from SSE towards NNW, verticalexaggeration 1.5x. DTM resolution is 20 m, interpolated from 20 m contours of HAGS 1:50.000 maps. The straight and steepmorphology is due to the presence of a NW-SE active fault zone boundingTelethrion to the SW. Dashed lines mark triangular facetsonthemountainfront,inbetweendeepwine-glassandV-valleysthatdissectit.Thelargefacetonwhichthestudysiteislocated,isdrawn simplified(itcan besubdividedinone upperfacetand twolowerones).