Or Cad New

A Project Report on

December ’09 Winter Training

Submitted To: Mrs S.INDULecturer,Electronics And Communication Engineering Department,Delhi College of Engineering.

Submitted By:SUNDEEP AHUJA 2K8/EC/706VISHAL BAGLA 2K8/EC/721SAHIL MAKHIJA 2K8/EC/686UTSAV GUPTA 2K8/EC/712

1A project report on Cadence Orcad:

This is to certify that

“A project report on Cadence OrCAD”

At

Delhi College of Engineering

Has been completed successfully as a winter training report in December ‘09 and

is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Mrs. S.INDULecturer,

Electronics And Communication Engineering Department,Delhi College of Engineering.

DELHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE


We would like to thank our respected lecturer Mrs.S.INDU for guiding us all through the entire training period. The

training would not have been possible without her sincere, honest and dedicated efforts .We want to extend our

gratitude on the successful completion of the training.

We also want to thank other staff members of E&C dept. for all their support.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


Introduction

• Introduction to OrCAD

• OrCAD Capture

• Cadence PSpice A/D

• OrCAD PCB Editor

Working with OrCAD

• List of Symbols

• Commonly Used Schematic Icons

• Starting a Project in OrCAD

• Circuit Simulation

Electronics-I Circuit Designing and analysis in OrCAD


CONTENTS


IntroductionIntroduction



Introduction to OrCAD©

Cadence® OrCAD® personal productivity tools (including Cadence® PSpice®) have been designed to boost productivity for smaller design teams and individual PCB designers, OrCAD PCB design suites the growing technology challenge . OrCAD is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic design automation. The powerful, tightly integrated PCB design suites include design capture, librarian tools, a PCB editor, an auto/interactive router, and optional analog and mixed-signal simulator. The software is used mainly to create electronic prints for manufacturing of printed circuit boards (PCBs), by electronic design engineers and electronic technicians to manufacture electronic schematics and diagrams, and for their simulation.The OrCAD Suites are built upon the Proven OrCAD technologies which include powerful tools such as:-

ORCAD CAPTURE

Cadence OrCAD Capture design entry is the world's most popular schematic entry system for a simple reason: fast and universal design entry. Whether you're designing a new analog circuit, revising the schematic diagrams for an existing PCB, it gives you everything you need to complete and verify your design quickly. OrCAD Capture delivers the intuitive interface and rich feature set that has made OrCAD Capture the de facto industry standard for schematic design entry

PSPICE A/D

Analog and mixed-signal designers rely on Cadence PSpice simulation solutions for accurate circuit simulations and the latest in simulation technology. Since the introduction of the PSpice simulator it has been continuously enhanced to utilize the latest hardware and operating systems. Each subsequent generation has addressed numerous technological advances. The latest edition continues this tradition with new enhancement to the PSpice simulation engine and user interface.

ORCAD PCB EDITOR

For proven, scalable, cost-effective PCB editing and routing The Cadence OrCAD PCB Designer suite contains everything needed to take a PCB design from concept to production with a fully integrated design flow–including design capture, component tools, a PCB editor, and an auto/interactive router as well as interfaces for manufacturing, and mechanical CAD. A common database architecture, use model and library offer fully scalable PCB solutions for both OrCAD and Cadence Allegro product lines, giving you the ability to grow and expand as designs and design challenges increase in



complexity. The results are increased productivity, shorter design cycles, and faster ramp up to volume production.

OrCAD© Capture

Intuitive Schematic Design Entry

Cadence® OrCAD® Capture design entry is the world's most popular schematic entry system for a simple reason: fast and universal design entry. Whether you're designing a new analog circuit, revising the schematic diagrams for an existing PCB, or a block diagram of HDL modules, it gives you everything you need to complete and verify your design quickly. OrCAD Capture delivers the intuitive interface and rich feature set that has made OrCAD Capture the de facto industry standard for schematic design entry.

Full-Featured Schematic Editor View and edit multiple schematic designs in a single session Reuse design data by copying and pasting within or between schematics Select parts from a comprehensive set of functional part libraries Place, move, drag, rotate, or mirror individual parts or grouped selections while

preserving both visual and electrical connectivity Ensure design integrity through configurable Design and Electrical Rule checkers Create custom title blocks and drawing borders to meet the most exacting

specifications. Insert drawing objects, bookmarks, logos, and bitmapped pictures Choose from metric or imperial unit grid spacing to meet all drawing standards Design digital circuits with VHDL or Verilog® text editor

Project Manager Coordinates All Design Data OrCAD's sophisticated Project Manager greatly simplifies the critical job of organizing and tracking the various types of data generated in the design process. An expanding tree diagram makes it easy to structure and navigate all of your design files, including those generated by PSpice®, CIS and other plug-ins.

Project Creation Wizard guides you through all the resources available for a specific design flow

Centralized management of all design data permits a seamless interchange of schematic data for OrCAD plug-ins

Hierarchy browser lets you navigate the entire schematic structure and open specific elements whether it's a schematic page, a part, or net instantly

File tab groups multi-page schematics in folders for flat designs and creates new folders automatically for added levels of hierarchical designs



Archive capability ensures the portability of your entire design project

Hierarchical Design and Reuse

OrCAD Capture boosts schematic editing efficiency by enabling you to reuse subcircuits without having to make multiple copies of them. Instead, using hierarchical blocks, you simply reference the same subcircuit multiple times.

Just one instance of the circuitry for you to create and maintain Unlimited referencing and re-use of circuitry throughout your entire design Serve schematic pages from library files Automatic creation of hierarchical ports eliminates potential connection errors Sophisticated Property Editor clearly distinguishes properties in a subcircuit from

those in referenced uses of that subcircuit in the design, allowing you to view and edit them all from one place

Libraries and Part Editor

Libraries and Part Editor we can access OrCAD's Library Editor directly from the OrCAD Capture user interface. Create and edit parts in the library or directly from the schematic page without interrupting your workflow.

Intuitive graphical controls speed schematic part creation and editing Create new parts quickly by modifying existing ones Spreadsheet and pin array utilities make short work of creating and editing pin-

intensive devices Bused vector pins reduce clutter on schematics Create FPGA and CPLD symbols quickly and easily with the part generator.

Compatible with ten popular place and route pin reports Drag and drop parts between libraries Speed creation and maintenance of master

library sets with design cache Revise a part in the original subcircuit only, or propagate the change to all other uses

of the subcircuit in the design Control power and ground pin visibility and connectivity on a per-schematic basis

Verify Circuits Early with Design Rule Check

The configurable Design Rule Check (DRC) function in OrCAD Capture lets you thoroughly verify your design before committing to downstream processes, saving the time and cost of late cycle modifications.

Report identical part identifiers Identify invalid packaging Detect off-grid objects (can prevent connectivity) Configure which electrical violations to report and assign severity warnings



Check entire design or specific modules

Reports

OrCAD Capture creates basic bill of materials (BOM) outputs, drawing on the information contained in the schematic database.

Extract all part properties in the schematic design and output them to a text file Automatically package parts with reference designators prior to report generation

Part Selection

While placing a component, you can confirm it visually, edit its properties as needed, then place it all in one smooth sequence.

Zero-in quickly on the exact library part you want, using wildcard searches Pick your recent part choices from the most recently used (MRU) menu Choose a logic gate or DeMorgan equivalent Edit schematic parts graphically prior to placement Add, modify and delete part properties at any time Place previously used parts fast by grabbing them from the project design cache Automatically assign reference designators during or after part placement. Update

all, or just unidentified parts, or reset all to placeholder values Add libraries to a project from any drive or directory without leaving the part selector



Cadence© PSpice A/D

Advanced simulations for analog & mixed-signal environments Cadence® PSpice® simulation provides industry-standard solutions for accurate analog and mixed-signal simulations. PSpice A/D is a full-featured, native mixed-signal simulator. To improve design performance, yield, and reliability use robust PSpice Advanced Analysis (AA) tools in conjunction with PSpice A/D. PSpice and The MathWorks MATLAB Simulink package integrates two industry-leading simulation tools in a powerful co-simulation environment (SLPS). Together, they give designers the ability to perform system-level simulations that include realistic electrical models of actual components. Design and integration problems can be discovered much earlier in the design process, reducing the number of prototypes needed to execute the design.

Key benefits

Single-button simulation and cross-probing and full integration with Cadence Allegro® Design Entry HDL and OrCAD Capture

Explore circuit behavior using basic DC, AC, noise, transient analysis Automatically identify analog and digital signals and apply A-to-D and D-to-A

interfaces Prevents board failures by determining which components are over stressed using

Smoke analysis or observing component yields using Monte Carlo Improve speed without loss of accuracy via integrated analog and event-driven

digital simulations Allows system-level interfaces to be tested with actual electrical designs with SLPS

integration


http://parallel-systems.co.uk/orcad-capture.htm

http://parallel-systems.co.uk/Allegro_Design_Entry_HDL.htm

http://parallel-systems.co.uk/Allegro_Design_Entry_HDL.htm


OrCAD© PCB Editor

Cadence® OrCAD® PCB Editor, as part of the Cadence OrCAD PCB Designer suite, is an intuitive, easy-to-use, constraint-driven environment for creating and editing simple to complex PCBs. Its extensive feature set addresses a wide range of today’s design challenges and manufacturability concerns.

Pcb Editing Environment OrCAD PCB Editor provides a powerful and flexible set of floorplanning tools. Powerful shape-based shove/hug interactive etch creation/editing provides a highly productive interconnect environment. Dynamic shape capability offers real-time copper pour plowing/healing functionality during placement and routing iterations. The software can also generate a full suite of phototooling, bare-board fabrication and test outputs, including Gerber 274x, NC drill, and bare-board test in a variety of formats.

Constraint ManagementA constraint management system displays physical and spacing rules. Each worksheet provides a spreadsheet interface that enables the user to define, manage, and validate the different rules in a hierarchical fashion. This powerful application allows designers to graphically create, edit, and review constraint sets as graphical topologies that act as electronic blueprints of an ideal implementation strategy. Once the constraints are present in the database, they are used to drive the placement and routing processes for constrained signals. The constraint management system is completely integrated with the PCB editor.

Floorplanning And PlacementThe constraint and rules-driven methodology drives a powerful and flexible set of placement capabilities, including interactive and automatic component placement. The engineer or designer can assign components or subcircuits to specific “rooms” during design entry or floorplanning. Components can be filtered and selected by reference designator, device package/footprint style, associated net name, part number, or the schematic sheet/page number. With thousands of components on today’s boards needing precise management, real-time assembly analysis and feedback increases the designer’s productivity and efficiency by placing components to corporate or EMS guidelines.

Interactive Etch EditingThe interactive routing capability of OrCAD PCB Editor provides powerful, interactive features that deliver controlled automation to maintain user control, while maximizing routing productivity. Real-time, shape-based, any angle, push/shove routing enables users to



choose between “shove-preferred,” “hug-preferred,” or “hug-only” modes. Shove-preferred mode allows users to construct the optimum interconnect path while the real-time, shape-based router takes care of dynamically pushing obstacles. Routes will automatically jump over obstacles such as pins or vias. The hug-preferred mode is the perfect solution when a databus needs to be constructed. In hug-preferred mode, the router contour follows other interconnect as a priority and only pushes aside or jumps obstacles when there is no other option. The hug-only option performs like the hug-preferred mode, but without the push-and-shove aggression on other etch objects. The real-time, embedded, shape-based routing engine optimizes the route by either pushing obstacles or contour-following obstacles while dynamically jumping vias or component pins.

Dynamic Shapes Dynamic shape technology offers real-time copper pour plowing/healing functionality. Shape parameters can be applied at three different levels. Parameters are structured into global, shape instance, and object-level hierarchies. Traces, vias, and components added to a dynamic shape will automatically plow and void through the shape. When items are removed, the shape will automatically fill back in. Dynamic shapes do not require batch autovoiding or other post-processing steps after edits are made.

PCB Manufacturing A full suite of photo-tooling, bare-board fabrication and test outputs, including Gerber 274x, NC drill, and bare-board test in a variety of formats can be generated. More importantly, OrCAD PCB Editor supports the industry initiative towards Gerber-less manufacturing through its Valor ODB++ interface that also includes the Valor Universal Viewer. The ODB++ data format creates accurate and reliable manufacturing data for high-quality, Gerber-less manufacturing.




Working with OrCAD©


List of SymbolsButton icon Description

Place a part from the current library or to add libraries to your project

Click this button to select the selection facility

Click this to place a generic ground. Be careful, as there are lots of types

of ground. The simulator needs ground 0. IC's expect GND

Click this to connect your components with wires

Click this to place a DC power point in your circuit

Click this to place no-connects on you circuit. This is good practice to

tell the schematic that you know nothing should be connected here

Commonly Used Schematic IconsComponents Description

A 220KΩ (220,000Ω) resistor labelled R1

A 100nF (100*10-9 F) capacitor labelled C3

A diode which has had its type field changed to OSCILLATOR and itslabel is D1

A 5volt DC supply source labeled V1

A ground point labeled 0 (node 0)

Symbol to tie the connected node to a node termed VCC. Its use is tosave on lots of wires, in your design, which would connect back to thesupply.



OrCAD© Capture

AIM

How to create and simulate circuit schematics with Orcad Capture CIS. Understand various stimulus types and their corresponding analysis types. Determine desired results and understand how to achieve correct results.

1. Starting a Project in OrCAD

One can start a project on any PC that has OrCAD installed.

a. Types Of Projects

There are 4 types of projects that OrCAD has to offer. These are: Analogue or mixed mode circuit design. This is the type of project of interest

for this report PC board. we select this type of project if we want to target your project

straight to a PCB design. Programmable logic project. You select this type of project if you want to

target your project as a CPLD or FPGA design. The project will configure libraries based on the vendor (manufacturer) you choose to target.

Schematic. We select this type of project if you want to create a project that is NOT specifically targeted for vendor specific devices or PCB.The purpose of specifying your project is to tell OrCAD what libraries of components you will need. However, we may change your project and add libraries later in the project.

b. Opening OrCAD Capture

On your PC go to Start -> Programs -> Cadence PSD 14.2 -> Capture CIS. When prompted with Studio Suite Selection, choose PCB design expert with Capture

CIS from the drop down menu. Select File -> Project. From the New Project window, give your project a name, select

“Analog or Mixed A/D”, and select its locatio . We are now ready to create your schematic.Note: The directory you place your project in must already exist.



c. Creating Schematics with Capture CIS We must draw the desired schematic. To get parts, go to Place -> Part Shift+P allows us to reach this dialog box quickly.

Note: If no parts are visible in the “Place Part” dialog, simply click on the “Add Library…” button. Inside the Browse File dialog, click on any *.olb file the press Ctrl+A to select all the files (or Ctrl+Arrow to select certain library files) and hit the “Open File” button

d. Let’s draw a simple circuit.

We will find the parts we need by typing the name of the part in thePart section and clicking “OK.” Before we draw our circuit let’s learn a few things about electronic components.

To place a component, click anywhere on the Schematic worksheet to select it (thewindow title bar will go blue) and a set of buttons will appear on the far right hand side on the Capture window. Click on the Place Part button .To place a resistor:From the place part window, just select the Analog library (by clicking on it)and then scroll down the parts list window and select the R part. A resistorsymbol should appear. Click OK and place the resistor on your worksheet, byclicking it.When it is placed, another component will automatically appear. You may eitherpress the Esc key on the keyboard or click the right hand mouse button andselect End mode.To edit the resistor:You will need to rotate the resistor by selecting an area around the resistor (itgoes pink) and clicking on Edit and Rotate.To change the properties of the default resistor click on the Select button, .Double-click on the 1K property, just next to the resistor, to change theresistance value from 1K to 220K or 220 depending on which resistor you areentering and then click OK. The resistor should now have 220K next to it withlabel R1.In schematic terms, each component needs a label, but it does not matter whatthe label is (as long as all the labels are different). Therefore, you may havedifferent component labels from other figure. However, if we wish, wecan edit them by double-clicking on a component (not the label), select the partstab on the bottom of the property editor, edit the part reference box then closethe window.We have the usual copy and paste facilities. However, this will place at least 2components on the worksheet with the same label. You will need to alter thelabel number so as two components don’t share the same label.



To place a capacitor:Place a capacitor in the same fashion as the resistor, by selecting part C andchanging its value from 1n to 10n, 100n or 0.47u depending on what capacitorwe are entering.

To place a voltage source:Place the DC voltage source in the same fashion as above, but the voltage sourceis termed VDC in the source library. Make sure you change the value from 0v to5v when you have the battery on the worksheet. ( Click away form thecomponent, then double-click over the 0V).To place a Ground:To place a ground symbol we click on the GND button, , select the sourcelibrary, and select the 0 component.

NOTE:-Similarly various other components can be placed from the library according to our circuit design.Moving components:We may click on components, keep the mouse button down and dragcomponents around the worksheet.To connect up with wires Unconnected components have a square box around the area where the wire is to connect. To place a wire, click on the Place wire button. We must place the wire into the connection box, rather than just on the symbol.

Editing The Title BoxGo to the bottom right hand side of the schematic window where you will find atitle box (need to scroll). Double-click on the word <title> and the propertyeditor will appear. Enter a name in the title field and it will appear in the title box.We can now print (scaled to paper size) our schematic and it would be a good idea at this point to save.

Creating a Cross Reference (XRF)Its often a good idea to have a list of components, their values and a note of whereOrCAD is getting the simulation details for individual components. This is done bycreating an XRF.To do this, you must go to the project window. This can be done either byclicking on 'Window' and then select the window with your project name.opj (opj stands for OrCAD project) or by clicking on the .opj window itself.Click on the .dsn file (this is your design file holding the schematic file), click on'Tools' and then 'Cross Reference...'. The Cross Reference Parts window will appear.As the default settings are adequate, just click on OK. OrCAD generates an .xrf file.

Creating a Bill of Materials (BOM)Underneath the Cross Reference option, there is a Bill of Materials option. Here,Capture will analyse your circuit and give a textual file that you might use for ordering components from a manufacturer. To create the BOM, select the window with our project name.opj. Click on the .dsn file, click on 'Tools' and then 'Bill of



Materials...'. The BOM is also stored in the outputs folder of the project window as a .bom file.

One can view contents by double-clicking on it.For example BOM.Item Quantity Reference Part

1 1 C1 0.47u2 1 C2 10n3 1 C3 100n4 1 R1 220k5 1 R2 1k6 1 R3 10k

Now moving on to our circuit:

Note: When making changes one has to be careful, else parts may become disconnected.

2. Circuit Simulation After all desired components are in place, go to PSpice -> New Simulation Profile. Give a name to simulation profile and click on Create, then the “Simulation Settings”

dialog will appear for naming Simulation and editing Simulation Settings Select the correct analysis type for desired output. Then further change the options for a more specific analysis. Once desired options are selected, click “OK.” To actually run the simulation, select

PSpice->Run.



Types of Stimulus and AnalysisEach type of source is actually paired with a certain type of analysis, and in most cases with only one. Theprimary sources we will use in this class are VPulse, Vsin, and Vac. These are available in the standardPSpice libraries we added when you created the schematic.VPulseIt is used to measure the transient response of a circuit. For Vpulse, we control all aspects of generated pseudo-square wave. Factors directly affecting produced Vpulse function are visible in Table 1 below.

Table 1 Vpulse characteristics [1]

a) VPulse combined with the Time domain (transient) analysis. Let’s take the following example of anRLC network. First we draw the following circuit.

Now it is time to change the Simulation Settings to the desired values. We can access the settings by clicking on the button. So, we will find that value and in turn set the Run to time to approximately 10us. As can be see from the Time Domain simulation below, the output is trying to follow the input and at the end, the output reaches the steady state value of 0 Volts after input becomes zero.



VsinThis source, used in conjunction with the transient sweep, yields the time response of a circuit with a constant frequency input. Vsin has the parameters: Voff (Offset Voltage), Vampl (Amplitude), and Freq (Frequency). In what circumstances could this tool be useful to us? What kind of response should we expect?a) Let’s take the following example. Once drawn, we’ll again use the Time Domain (transient) sweep as we did in the section above. Select a running time of approximately 100 ms, just so we can see beyond the point where the sine wave crosses 0 volts.

b) But what are those little bubble things? They are a trick to naming the wires thatthey are attached to. They’re guaranteed to make our life easier. Simply find the button on the right of the screen. Once in the Place Power menu find VCC/CAPSYM identified by . Now,let’s just change their names.



c) Since we already have the desired simulation settings, let’s simulate by clicking the button, or by pressing F11. PSpice A/D will appear as before but nothing will be present. So we will need to find the appropriate waveforms to add.

d) Click on the button. Once the Add Trace dialog is open, find V(IN) and V(OUT). Multiple traces can be added (when separated by commas, as visible in FigureAdd Trace Dialog Our output is now visible as seen in Figure 7, below. Are the results as we expected? How can we be sure we conducted the correct analysis? Finally, what does the following graph mean?

Figure :-Vsin Transient SweepTo have the smooth curves, change the default maximum step size equal to 10u seconds in the Simulation Settings. Observe the curve, is it smooth or not? If not then reduce the step size more. If simulations are taking a very long time, then increase the step size.

Output Display optionsWe now know how to get the desired results based on either a circuit’s response to either change in time or frequency. Let’s take what we’ve learned and find some ways to transform our output data to allow us to gather exactly the information we need from our circuit.Gain/AttenuationGain or attenuation is a measure of how much of a signal actually passes through a circuit. In many amplifiers which you have already constructed, you have witnessed gain. Gain is defined by Vout/Vin.Let’s see if we can find the gain for a simple RLC circuit.a) Let’s draw the circuit below and find the smooth output.



b) Remember that we want to use the Time Domain analysis with our Vac source; otherwise we might not get any results. Are these the results we expected?

c) What of the relationship between the output and input? Let’s use the above definition of gain and find the exact gain for this circuit. First, we’ll keep both of these traces and go back to the Add Tracebutton. In the Trace Expression window, we’ll divide one waveform by the

other as shown . Next we just have to click “OK.” What kind of information does this give us?



d) Another useful way to illustrate gain or attenuation is with the use of decibels. Decibels are best defined as the level of relative strength of a signal. Follow the directions, but from the Functions or Macros section of the Add Trace window select Analog Operators and Functions in the drop down menu. Now select DB() from the list, and make sure the following

appears in the Trace Expression window : then just click on "OK." What did you observe?




Electronics-I Circuit Designing and analysis

in OrCAD©


Circuits Designing & Analysis in OrCAD©

1. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

0

V

V 1

F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0 V

1 k

D 1

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Sine voltage

source1 V1 VSIN Vamp =10, Voff=0,

Freq=50Hz2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -3. Diode 1 D1 D1N4148 -



2. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER CAPACITOR

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

D 1

2 2 0 uC 1

V 1F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0

V1 kR 1V

APPARATUS


source1 V1 VSIN Vamp=10, Voff=0,

Freq=50Hz2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -



3. Diode 1 D1 D1N4148 -4. Capacitor 1 C1 220μF -

3. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V 1F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0

D 1D 1 N 4 1 4 8

V

T1

TR A N S F O R M E R

1 5

6

4 8

V

D 2

R 11 k

APPARATUS





Freq=50Hz2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -3. Diode 2 D1,D2 D1N4148 -4. Centre tap

transformer1 T1 10-0-10 -

4. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITIVE FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V 1

F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0 R 1

1 kC 12 2 0 u

D 2

V

D 1D 1 N 4 1 4 8

V

T1

TR A N S F O R M E R

1 5

6

4 8



APPARATUS



Freq=50Hz2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -3. Diode 2 D1,D2 D1N4148 -4. Capacitor 1 C1 220μF -5. Centre tap

transformer1 T1 10-0-10 -



BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V 1

F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0

V

V

R 1

1 k

- +

B R I D G E

1

4

3

2

APPARATUS



Freq=50Hz2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -3. Diodes 4 D1,D2,D3,D4 D1N4148 -



5. BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITIVE FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

VV 1

F R E Q = 5 0 H zV A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0

C 12 2 0 u- +

B R I D G E

1

4

3

2R 11 k

APPARATUS



Freq=50Hz



2. Resistor 1 R1 1k -3. Diodes 4 D1,D2,D3,D4 D1N4148 -

4.Capacitor 1 C1 220μF -

6. BJT AS COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM



APPARATUS


source1 V1 VSIN Voff =0,

Vamp=10m, Freq = 10KHz

2. Resistors 5 R1,R2,R3,R4,R5

R1=1.5K, R2=3K, R3=3K, R4=15, R5=500

-

3. NPN Transistor

1 Q1 Q2N2222 -

4. DC Voltage source

1 V2 VDC=20

5. Capacitor 3 C1,C2,C3 C1=1μf, C2=10μf, C3=1μf,

-

Voltage gain

To calculate VOLTAGE GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltage was taken. Voltage gain of approximately 2.7 is obtained from the graph.



Current gain

To calculate CURRENT GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input current was taken. Current gain of just less than unity(0.85) is obtained from the graph.



Input resistance

To calculate INPUT IMPEDANCE all capacitance are shorted and all DC bias voltages are converted to zero and voltage across source resistance and input voltage is taken and current flowing through it is taken and their ratio(Vpeak-peak:Ip-p) gives us the input impedance.

Ri = 533ohm

Output resistance

To calculate OUTPUT IMPEDANCE all capacitance are shorted and all DC bias voltages are converted to zero , the input voltage source is also shorted and a voltage source is applied instead of load and the current flowing through that source is found out . Ratio of the voltage source (Vpeak-peak) and current flowing through it (Ipeak-peak) gives us the output impedance

Ro = 3.4kohm



SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS

Small signal analysis can also be done as will be shown in the case of CB configuration where a CURRENT CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE(CCCS) of gain beta and a resistance (Beta Re) is used instead of the transistor after grounding all DC bias voltages and shorting the capacitances. To calculate Ro and Ri the same above procedure was used.



7. BJT AS COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM



APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference

Value

1. Sine voltage source

1 V1 VSIN Voff =0, Vamp=10m, Freq = 1KHz

2. Resistors 4 R1,R2,R3,R4

R1=25K, R2=700K, R3=100K,

R4=7K

-

3. NPN Transistor 1 Q1 Q2N2222 -4. DC Voltage

source1 V2 VDC=10

5. Capacitor 2 C1,C2 C1=1μf, C2=1μf,

-

Voltage gain

To calculate VOLTAGE GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltage was taken. Voltage Gain is unity.



Current gain

To calculate CURRENT GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input current was taken. Current Gain is approx. 46



Input resistance

To calculate INPUT IMPEDANCE all capacitance are shorted and all DC bias voltages are converted to zero and voltage across source resistance is taken and current flowing through it is taken and their ratio(Vpeak-peak:Ip-p) gives us the input impedance.

Ri = 666kohm

Output resistance


Ro = 50ohm



8. BJT AS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V

0

R 56 0 0

21

R 46 5 k

2

1

0

V 21 0 V d c

V 1

F R E Q = 5 0V A M P L = 1 0 mV O F F = 0

C 11 0 u

1 2

R 36 . 5 k

2

1

V

C 22 0 u

1 2

Q 2Q 2 N 2 2 2 2

R 64 k

2

1

R 16 0 0

2

1

R 21 0 k

2

1

C 31 0 u

1 2

APPARATUS




source1 V1 VAC Voff =0,

Vamp=10m, Freq = 50Hz

2. Resistors 6 R1,R2,R3,R4,R5,R6

R1=600, R2=10K, R3=6.5K, R4=65K, R5=600, R6=4K

-

3. NPN Transistor

1 Q1 Q2N3904 -


1 V2 VDC=10


-

Voltage gain

To calculate VOLTAGE GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltage was taken. Voltage Gain = -100

Input Voltage

Output Voltage



Current gain

To calculate CURRENT GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input current was taken. Current Gain = -99.75



Input resistance


Ri = 10kohm

Output resistance


Ro = 6.6kohm

9. BJT AS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER WITH EMITTER RESISTANCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM



R 6

4 k

2

1

C 2

2 0 u

1 2

V

R 7

5 0

2

1

IR 5

6 0 0

21

C 3

1 0 u

1 2

Q b re a k n

Q 3

0

C 1

1 0 u

1 2

R 3

6 . 5 k

2

1 0

I

R 4

6 5 k

2

1

V 1

F R E Q = 1 kV A M P L = 1 0 mV O F F = 0

R 1

6 0 0

2

1

R 2

1 0 k

2

1

V 21 3 V d c

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference

Value

1. Sine voltage source

1 V1 VSIN Voff =0, Vamp=10m, Freq = 10KHz

2. Resistors 7 R1,R2,R3,R4,R5, R6, R7

R1=600, R2=10K, R3=6.5K, R4=65,

R5=600, R6=4K, R7=50

-


source1 V2 VDC=13


-



Voltage gain

To calculate VOLTAGE GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltage was taken.

Voltage Gain = -29.5



Current gain

To calculate CURRENT GAIN ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input current was taken.

Current Gain = -37.5

Input resistance


Ri = 10kohm



Output resistance


Ro = 6.6kohm

COMPARISON OF VARIOUS BJT CONFIGURATIONS

CC CB CE CE (with Re=50ohm)

Av (V/V) 1 2.7 -100 -29.5

Ai (A/A) 46 0.85 -99.7 -37.5

Ro (ohm) 50 3.4k 6.6k 6.6k

Ri (ohm) 666k 533 10k 10k

Gm (mA/V) 6.35 180 -49.6 -53.1

DISCUSSION

VOLTAGE GAIN

CC is rightly called emitter follower as it has voltage gain of just less than unity whereas CE has a high gain and CB has a medium gain. Because of unity voltage gain CC is used to connect high impedance source to a low impedance source without significant signal attenuation. For CE with Re, voltage gain decreases.



CURRENT GAIN

CC and CE has a high current gain whereas CB has a gain of just less than unity. Therefore it is used as current buffer, accepting input current signal at low input impedance and delivering equal current at collector at high impedance.

CE is used in various cascaded stages because it provides high current and voltage gain. For CE with Re current gain decreases

INPUT IMPEDANCE

CC has a high input Ri and therefore it is used to connect a source with high source resistance with low –resistance source without significant loss in signal strength. CB has low Ri and CB configuration helps in improving the frequency response of the combined stages.

CE has moderate Ri. For CE Ri is between that of CC and CB.

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

Ro of both CB and CE are equal to their Rc values whereas for CC it is very low which show us its use in cascaded amplifier as last stage to provide the amplifier with low output impedance, which in turn permits the amplifier to be connected to low valued load impedances without severe reduction in gain.



10.USE OF BJT AS A SWITCH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1 0 0

1 0

1 0V

V 1

TD = 0

TF = 1 nP W = 2 0 0 uP E R = 4 0 0 u

V 1 = 5

TR = 1 n

V 2 = -5

Q 2

0

V

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Square wave

voltage source1 V1 VPULSE V1= 5, V2= -5

2. Resistor 2 R1,R2 R1=10, R2=100

-


source1 V2 VDC=10 -



Input Voltage



Output voltage



11.USE OF FET AS A SWITCH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1 0

0

V J 1

V 1

TD = 0

TF = 1 nP W = 2 0 0 uP E R = 4 0 0 u

V 1 = 5

TR = 1 n

V 2 = -5

V

1 0 0

1 0

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Square wave

voltage source1 V1 VPULSE V1= 5, V2= -5

2. Resistor 2 R1,R2 R1=10, R2=100

-

3. JFET 1 J1 J2N3819 -4. DC Voltage

source1 V2 VDC=10 -



Input Voltage

Output voltage

12.SIMPLE CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT



CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V 11 0

I 11 0 0 u

0

0

Q 2

II

R 1

1 K

0

Q 1

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. DC current

source1 I1 100u

2. Resistor 1 Rvar 500-1k3. NPN

Transistors2 Q1,Q2 Q2N3904


1 V1 VDC=10



With 1k

With 900



13. WILSON CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2 V d c

I

Q 3

R 2

1 k

1 k Q 2

Q 1

I

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Resistors 2 R1,Rvar R1=1k,

R2=500-1k2. NPN

Transistors3 Q1,Q2,Q3 Q2N3904


1 V1 VDC=2



With 1k

With 900



14.THREE TRANSISTOR CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT (CURRENT MIRROR CIRCUIT WITH GAIN)

Circuit Diagram

1 k

0

I

2 V d c

Q 1

I

Q 3

R 2

1 k0

Q 2

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Resistors 2 R1,Rvar R1=1k,

R2=500-1k2. NPN

Transistors3 Q1,Q2,Q3 Q2N3904


1 V1 VDC=2



With 1k

With 900

With 500



15.UJT APPLICATION ( RELAXATION OSSCILLATOR ) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

V

X2

2 N 2 6 4 6

V 25 V d c

R 25 0 k

2

1

R 4

4 7

2

1

R 1

3 3 0

2

1

V

C 1

. 1 u1

2

0

0

V

APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Resistors 2 R1,R2,R3 R1=330, R2=50k, R3=472. UJT 1 X1 UJT 2N26463 Capacitor 1 C1 0.1u4. DC Voltage Source 1 V1 12V



Graph

16.SCR APPLICARION (SERIES STATIC SWITCH)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1 0 0I

F R E Q = 5 0V A M P L = 1 0V O F F = 0

1 0 0



APPARATUS

S. No. Part Qty Reference Value1. Resistors 2 R1,R2 R1=100,

R2=1002. Diode 1 D1 D1N41483. AC voltage

source1 V1 VAC Freq=50Hz,

Voff=0, Vamp=104. SCR 1 X1 2N1595

Input



Output


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