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Home / Technical Review / Optical fibre for smart communication

Optical fibre for smartcommunicationSaloni Sharma & Vignesh Dhanabalan*D.K.T.E.S Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji-416115(M.H), India * Corresponding author: vigneshdhanabalan@hotmail.com

Issue » February, 2014 Volume 07, Issue 02 Print this News

Prologue:

In modern-day, optical communications is the most requested and preferredtelecommunication technology, due to its large bandwidth and low propagation

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attenuation, when compared with the electric transmission lines. Besides theseadvantages, the use of optical fibers often represents for the telecom operators alow implementation and operation cost. Communication is an important part ofour daily life. The communication process involves information generation,transmission, reception and interpretation. As needs for various types ofcommunication such as voice, images, video and data communications increasedemands for large transmission capacity also increase. This need for largecapacity has driven the rapid development of light wave technology; a worldwideindustry has developed. An optical or light wave communication system is asystem that uses light waves as the carrier for transmission. An opticalcommunication system mainly involves three parts: transmitter, receiver andchannel. In optical communication transmitters are light sources, receivers arelight detectors and the channels are optical fibers. In optical communication thechannel i.e., optical fibers play an important role because it carries the data fromtransmitter to the receiver. Hence, here we shall discuss mainly about opticalfibers.

Key words- Communication, interpretation, light wave, optical fibre, receptiontransmission.

Introduction

Optical fibres are arguably one of the world’s most influential scientificdevelopments from the latter half of the 20th century. Fiber optics are simplestrands of flexible glass as thin as human hair that is used for communications.These strands carry digital signals in form of light rays. Even though these cablesare made of glass, they are not stiff and fragile; they can bend kind like wiresand are very tough. When hundreds and thousands of these strands arearranged in bundles, it is called an optical cable [1]. These glass cables arecovered with a special protective layer called cladding. It is made from a materialthat reflects the light back into the core or centre of the cable. This cladding

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creates a mirror-lined wall. The final outer layer is a buffer coating to protect thisspecial glass cable from physical damage and moisture. A typical optical fibercan be either made out of glass (otherwise known as silicon dioxide) or plastic(typically a polystyrene or polymethyl methacrylate), because of the fibre’s lightweightiness and compact size and the ability to have greater informationcarrying capacities than metallic wires, they are more suitable for many differentapplications [2]. With so many beneficial factors in using an optical fiber it is nosurprise that many companies have applied this technology in developing newinstallations and applications, in-turn making them commercially viable. Thereare two different verities based on its raw material usage for making the opticalfiber (plastic and glass). In plastic core fibers, they are more flexible andinexpensive compared to glass fibers, they are easier to install and canwithstand greater stresses with 60% less weight than glass fibers [3]. However,they transmit light less efficiently leading to high losses, giving them very limiteduse in communication applications, such plastic fibers are practical for shortruns such as within buildings. Therefore, due to their restrictive nature glasscore fibers are much more widely used because they are capable of transmittinglight effectively over large distances. Optical fibres have a high bandwidth (datacarrying capacity) of the order of GHz. Consequently, they carry 100 million timesmore information and 100 times faster than telephone lines.

These optical fibres are very light weight, easily twistable and have a lowattenuation (power loss and hence information loss) i.e. 0.5 decibels/kilometre(dB/km) which is approximate 10 times less than telephone cables. Since it ismade up of cylindrical silica which is non conductive and non irradiative, there isno possibilities of cross talk. Fibers are resistive to high temperature as themelting point of silica is very high i.e 1900ºC. Besides, the transmitted signals areoptical and problems associated with sparking at the ends of cable are notencountered in this case. [4]

Principle of optical fibres:

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The fibre optic cable works by applying the principles of reflection andrefraction. When light strikes a shiny or mirrored object it “bounces” off it, justlike a ball bouncing off the ground. When light travels between two substancesthat are of different thickness or densities, it bends (refracts), depending on theangle at which it strikes the substance. At a certain angle, light no longer travelsbetween the substances, but reflects back into the original substancecompletely. The boundary now acts like a mirror, keeping the light inside. This iscalled total internal reflection and is the basis of the fibre optic cable.

Fig.1- Total internal reflection

When a light ray is sent into a fibre optic, it is sent at an angle towards the sideof the fibre that will reflect. The light reflects and then strikes the opposite sideof the fibre, again at an angle that will reflect. This light ray will reflect from sideto side, travelling through the whole length of the fibre. The angle that the lightwill reflect at is called the critical angle. The diagram above shows whathappens. An added bonus to the principle of total internal reflection is that lightrays can pass through each other without causing any destruction orinterference. The light signals will be unaffected, resulting in the ability of beingable to send more than one signal through the fibre at the same time. Becauseof this, each fibre can carry many signals, such as phone calls, at the same timewith great clarity to each caller.

Fig.2- Light traverse through optical fiber

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Basic construction and structure of optical fibre:

In fibers, there are three significant sections – the core, cladding and the buffercoating. The core is thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels and thecladding is an Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the lightback into the core of slightly lower refractive index to cause total internalreflection. Usually both sections are fabricated from silica (glass). The light withinthe fiber is then continuously totally internally reflected along the waveguide.The Buffer coating is a plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage andmoisture.

Fig.3(a) and (b) Parts of Optical fibre

Optical fibre system: A fibre optic system has four main components:

Transmitter- converts a signal, for example sound, into a pattern of light.Optical Fibre- The cable that conducts the light patterns over largedistances.Optical Regenerator- In transmittance, some light energy may be lost. Thisdevice boosts the light signal back up to continue its journey. This is used forsignals sent over very large distances.Optical Receiver- converts the light patterns back to an understandablemessage, (i.e.sound).

Classification of optical fibers:

Optical fibers are classified into three types based on the material used, numberof modes and refractive index.

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1) Based on the materials used:-

Glass fibers:

They have a glass core and glass cladding. The glass used in the fiber is ultrapure, ultra transparent silicon dioxide (SiO2) or fused quartz. Impurities arepurposely added to pure glass to achieve the desired refractive index.

Plastic clad silica:

This fiber has a glass core and plastic cladding. This performance though not asgood as all glass fibers, is quite respectable.

Plastic fibers:

They have a plastic core and plastic cladding. These fibers are attractive inapplications where high bandwidth and low loss are not a concern.

2) Based on the number of modes:-

a. Single Mode fiber: When a fiber wave-guide can support only the HE11 mode,it is referred to as a single mode wave-guide. In a step index structure, thisoccurs when the wave-guide is operating at v<2.4 where v is dimensionlessnumber which relates the propagating in the cladding. These single mode fibershave small size and low dopant level (typically 0.3% to 0.4% index elevation overthe cladding index.) In high silica fibers the wave-guide and the materialdispersion are often opposite signs. This fact can be used conveniently toachieve a single mode fiber of extremely large bandwidth. Reduced dopant levelresults in lower attenuation than multimode fibres. A single mode wave guidewith its large and fully definable bandwidth characteristics is an obviouscandidate for long distance, high capacity transmission applications. [7]

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Multimode fiber: It is a fiber in which more than one mode is propagating atthe system operating wavelength. Multimode fiber system does not have theinformation carrying capacity of single mode fibers. However they offerseveral advantages for specific systems. The larger core diameters result ineasier splicing of fibers. Given the larger cores, higher numerical apertures,and typically shorter link distances, multimode systems can use lessexpensive light sources such as LEDs. Multimode fibers have numericalapertures that typically range from 0.2 to 0.29 and have core size that rangesfrom 35 to100 micro-meter.

Fig 4: Different modes of wave propagation

3) Based on refractive index:-

a. Step index fiber:

The step index (SI) fiber consists of a central core whose refractive index is n1,surrounded by a cladding whose refractive index is n2, lower than that of core.Because of an abrupt index change at the core cladding interface such fibers arecalled step index fibers.[4]

b. Graded index fibers:

The refractive index of the core in graded index fiber is not constant, theydecrease gradually from, its maximum value n1 to its minimum value n2 at thecore-cladding interface. The ray velocity changes along the path because ofvariations in the refractive index. The ray propagating along the fiber axis takesthe shortest path but travels most slowly, as the index is the largest along this

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path in medium of lower refractive index, they travel faster. It is thereforepossible for all rays to arrive together at the fiber output by a suitable choice ofrefractive index profile. [2]

Manufacturing process of optical fibre:

Making optical fibers requires the following steps:

Making a preform glass cylinderDrawing the fibers from the preformTesting the fibers

Making a preform glass cylinder – The glass for the preform is made by modifiedchemical vapor deposition (MCVD). In MCVD, oxygen is bubbled through solutionsof silicon chloride (SiCl4), germanium chloride (GeCl4) and/or other chemicals.The precise mixture governs the various physical and optical properties (index ofrefraction, coefficient of expansion, melting point, etc.) of the cylinder.

The gas vapors are then conducted to the inside of a synthetic silica or quartztube (cladding) in a special lathe. As the lathe turns, a torch is moved up anddown the outside of the tube. The extreme heat from the torch causes

1. The silicon and germanium react with oxygen, forming silicon dioxide (SiO2)and germanium dioxide (GeO2).2. The silicon dioxide and germanium dioxide deposit on the inside of the tubeand fuse together to form glass .The lathe turns continuously to make an even coating and consistent blank. Thepurity of the glass is maintained by using corrosion-resistant plastic in the gasdelivery system (valve blocks, pipes, seals) and by precisely controlling the flowand composition of the mixture. The process of making the preform blank ishighly automated and takes several hours. After the preform blank cools, it is

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tested for quality control. [3]

Fig 5(a) synthesis of fiber and processing in lathe Fig.no.5(b)- Drawing of optical fiber

Drawing Fibers from the Preform Blank:

Once the preform blank has been tested, it gets loaded into a fiber drawingtower. Fiber drawing tower is used to draw optical glass fibers from a preformblank. The blank gets lowered into a graphite furnace (3,452 to 3,992 degreesFahrenheit or 1,900 to 2,200 degrees Celsius) and the tip gets melted until amolten glob falls down by gravity. As it drops, it cools and forms a thread. Theoperator threads the strand through a series of coating cups (buffer coatings)and ultraviolet light curing ovens onto a tractor-controlled spool. The tractormechanism slowly pulls the fiber from the heated preform blank and is preciselycontrolled by using a laser micrometer to measure the diameter of the fiber andfeed the information back to the tractor mechanism. Fibers are pulled from theblank at a rate of 33 to 66 ft/s (10 to 20 m/s) and the finished product is woundonto the spool. It is not uncommon for spools to contain more than 1.4 miles (2.2km) of optical fiber.

Testing the Finished Optical Fiber:

The finished optical fiber is tested for the following:

Tensile strengthRefractive index profile Fiber geometryAttenuationInformation carrying capacity (bandwidth)

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Chromatic dispersion )Operating temperature/humidity rangeTemperature dependence of attenuationAbility to conduct light underwater

Essential features of an optical fiber:

Good stable transmission characteristics in long lengths at a minimum costand with maximum reproducibility.The fibers and fiber cables may be terminated and connected togetherwithout excessive practical difficulties and in ways which limit the effect ofthis process on the fiber transmission characteristics to keep them withinacceptable operating levels. It is important that these jointing techniquesmay be applied with ease in the field location where cable connection takesplace.The bandwidth of the fiber and light beam is extremely wide. It should bepossible to handle signals which turn on and off at gigabit per second rates(1 gigabit, gbit =1000 Mbitts).The electric fields of the noise source should not affect the light beam in thefiber.No light escapes to the outside where loss or tampering of data should bedone.Since there is no electricity or electrical energy in the fiber, it can be run inhazardous atmospheres where the danger of explosion from spark mayexist. Also, the fiber itself is immune to many types of poisonous gases,chemicals, and water.[7]

Application of optical fiber:

Fiber optics has lots of uses. It is a perfect application because it is digitalinformation and the fiber optic cables send digitally. Telephones were one of the

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first uses for fiber optics. Many times internet and telephone signals travel overthe same cables. Digital television (cable TV) is often transmitted by fiber opticcables. Other uses are medical imaging, Textile smart fabric, and mechanicalinspection.

Textile Application: Optical fibers are attractive supports for biosensorsintegrated into textiles, and consist of an optical fiber with a sensing layercomprising the chemical or biological sensing element, a light source, and adetector. Multiple reflections of the light propagating in the optical fiberallow sensing of optical changes in the vicinity of the fiber core – within theevanescent field. Transmitted light is collected with a spectrometer orphotodiode, which allows detection of changes in the colour of the sensinglayer.[9]

Smart Shirt: In October 1996, A project called “Georgia Tech WearableMotherboard” (Smart Shirt) was initially funded by the U.S. Navy and in 2000,The Georgia Tech Research Corporation licensed the technology to New York-based SensaTex Inc. to manufacture and market the Smart Shirt. Dr.Sundaresan Jayaraman, who is a professor at the School of Textile & FiberEngineering Georgia Institute of Technology, is also the principal investigatorat this project. According to Jayaraman, Smart Shirt is a computer tshirtwoven with fiber optics and electrically conductive thread that can monitorthe health of soldiers, rescuers, the elderly and others who are medicallyvulnerable. The main advantage of Smart Shirt is that it provides a verysystematic way of monitoring the vital signs of humans in an undisturbingmanner. To use this new technology; first sensors are attached to the body,then the shirt.[9]

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Fig 6: Smart shirt collects data from the wearer and transmits to the receiver endfor analysis

The Smart Shirt is “armed” and ready to detect what is going on in an athlete’sbody during workout. Shirt itself is so customizable that sensors to detect anyrequired information, such as wounds, temperature, heart rate and respirationrate, oxygen levels or hazardous gas levels (which indicates that Smart Shirt canalso be used by internal department when necessary. This flexible data busintegrated into the structure, transmits the signals to the tracker givinginformation about the health status of the person who wears it.

Wearable Motherboard: Georgia Tech Wearable Motherboard can also beused on patients that are continuously need to be monitored (e.g., patientsdischarged after major surgeries, patients those are suffering from manicdepression) and this reveals the possibility of telemedicine. Likewise,continuous monitoring of astronauts in space, of athletes during practicesessions and in competition are all extremely important.[10]

Figure 7: Clothing with a flexible fiber-optics screen and remote-control

Flexiable screen: France Telecom R&D, announced in the press release May03, 2002 that, it has designed a prototype for a flexible screen made ofwoven optical fibers capable of downloading and displaying static oranimated graphics such as; logos, texts, patterns, scanned images etc.Graphical communication interface, displaying visual information in realtime and offering access to all telecom services (internet, video, e-commerceand 3G mobiles). This unique display technology is based on the associationof fabric containing optical fibers and an electronic control system that

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controls lighting based on luminous diodes. A special abrasion process forthe fibers at the surface of the fabric associated to a specific fabric weavedeveloped by the France Telecom laboratories made it possible to create thefirst bitmap screen matrix on a flexible textile base.[9]

Figure 8: Flexible Screen on clothing

Wearable sensor: Optical fiber sensing textiles are interesting for directmeasurement in body fluids like sweat, urine or wound exudates. A firstapplication was designed for performing pH measurement of sweat.Following chemical removal of the cladding of a commercial glass fiber, a pHsensitive sol-gel layer was deposited on the fiber core using dip coatingtechnology.

Sr.No Field Working Area Quality

2. CommunicationLinks

Short and Longdistancecommunication,

utilized to connectclosely spaceditems of electronicsequipment. 50bauds and 4.8kbits-1, 7 MHz videolinksoperating overdistances of up to10 m

TrunkNetwork

Transmit system at ahigh capacity in

enormously fromunder 20 km to over

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order to minimizecosts per circuit

300 km, andoccasionally to asmuch as 1000 km

Mobiles The small size andweight ofopticalfibers provide andattractive solution tospace problems inthese mobiles

optical fibertransmission willallow themultiplexing of anumber of signalson to acommon bus

JunctionNetwork

switching centers,telephoneexchanges or officesin the junctionnetwork of largeurbanareas

over distances oftypically 5 to 20 km

3. Militaryapplication

Communicate datawithout any dataattenuation

For very long rangeand confidentialinformations

4 Civil application stimulatedinvestigation andapplication of thesetransmissiontechniques by publicutilityorganizations

low cost solution,also give enhancedprotection in harshenvironment,especially inrelation to EMI andEMP, British Railhas successfullydemonstrated a 2Mbits-1 system

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suspendedbetween theelectrical power linegantries over a 6 kmroute in Cheshire

5 MedicalApplication

Bronchoscopes,Endoscopes,Laparoscopes

To examine theinside of therespiratory tract(detect or rule outtumors of the lungsor airways and toget tissue samplesfor analysis), theinterior surfaces ofan organ, growthswithin the abdomenor pelvic areas, toexamine the femaleorgans, stomach,liver, appendix, orgallbladder, andremove theappendix orgallbladder

Fig 9: Drop cable – increase network efficiency & Fiber optic cable used forendoscopy

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Advantage of optical fibre:

Digital signals: Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digitalinformation without attenuation, which is especially useful in computernetworks.Higher carrying capacity: Because optical fibers are thinner than copperwires, more fibers can be bundled to a given-diameter cable than copperwires. This allows multi-signal to go over the same cable or more channels tocome through the cable into your business or home.Less signal degradation: The loss of signal in optical fiber is very less than incopper wire.Less expensive: Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper thanequivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider and you money.Thinner: Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.Light signals: Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from onefiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. Thismeans clearer phone conversations or TV reception.Low power: Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-powertransmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmittersneeded for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money.Non-flammable: Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers,there is no fire hazard.Lightweight: An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wirecable. Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground.Flexible: Because fiber optics are so flexible and can transmit and receivelight, they are used in many flexible digital cameras for medical imaging inbronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes; for mechanical imaging used ininspecting mechanical welds in pipes.[6]

Limitations of optical fibres:The use of fibers for optical communication does have some drawbacks in

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practice. Hence to provide a balance picture these disadvantages must beconsidered. They are

Cost – Cables are expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.Transmission – transmission on optical fibre requires repeating at distanceintervals.Fragile – Fibres can be broken or have transmission loses when wrappedaround curves of only a few centimetres radius. However by encasing fibresin a plastic sheath, it is difficult to bend the cable into a small enough radiusto break the fibre.Protection – Optical fibres require more protection around the cablecompared to copper.[5]

Conclusions:

We are currently in the middle of a rapid increase in the demand for databandwidth across the Earth. For most applications optical fibers are the primarysolution to this problem. They have potentially a very high bandwidth, with manyof the bandwidth limitations now being at the transceivers rather than being anintrinsic property of the fiber allowing easy upgrading of systems withoutrelaying cable. This is creating a surge in the deployment of fiber both inbackbones of networks and in topologically horizontal cabling, which in turn issupporting and propelling the industry into further research. With the adoptionof new techniques such as DWDM, soliton transmission and ultimately the purelyoptical network, we have a medium that will satisfy our communication needs forthe foreseeable future.

Bibliography:

1-Hecht, Jeff , Understanding fibre optics, 3rd edition,New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc,1999.

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2-Harlin, Ali, Mäikinen, Mailis & Vuorivirta, Ann “Development of polymeric optical fibre fabrics as illumination elements and textile displays” Autex ResearchJournal, march 2003 Vol.3, No 1.pg.no.1-83-Linda Oscarsson1“Flat knitting of a light emitting textile with optical fibre” AutexResearch Journal, June 2009 Vol. 9, No2 pg.no-62-65.4- Simon Kwan “Principles of Optical Fibers” In partial fulfillment of courserequirement for MatE 115, Fall 2002 San Jose State University.5- http://www.www-fibreoptics.com.6-Savci. S, Curiskis J.I & Pailthorpe. “ Knittability of glass fibre weft-knitted preformsfor composites” Textile Research, January 2001 vol 71(1), p. 15-21.7- Bahaa E. A. Saleh, Malvin Carl Teich “Fundamentals of Photonics” Copyright ©1991 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.8-Dina Meoli and Traci May-Plumlee “ Intractive electronics textile development”JTATM vol 2, Issue2, Spring 2002.9-A. Schwarz et al “Integration of technology in textiles”Textile Progress2010 .10-John Crisp, Introduction to Fiber Optics, 2nd Edition Newnes 2001.

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