On-the-Job Stress in Policing—

Reducing It, Preventing It

On-the-Job Stress in Policing—

Reducing It, Preventing It

Photo: EyeWire

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ January 200019

Police officers and membersof their families considertheir job to be one of the

most stressful. It is hard to disagreewith that assessment, as officersthemselves report high rates ofdivorce, alcoholism, suicide, andother emotional and health prob-lems.1 No job is immune fromstress, but for the law enforcementofficer, the strains and tensionsexperienced at work are unique,often extreme, and sometimesunavoidable.

Fortunately, many law enforcementagencies, recognizing the high tollexacted by stress on officers andtheir families, are tackling it with anarray of creative prevention andreduction strategies. Through theCLEFS (Corrections and LawEnforcement Family Support) pro-gram of the National Institute ofJustice, several of these agencies arereceiving support.

This article summarizes an NIJreport that documented the causesand effects of job-related stressaffecting law enforcement officersand their families. Much of theinformation was drawn from inter-views, conducted as part of thestudy, with officers themselves andtheir family members.2 Also includ-ed in this article are highlights ofsome stress prevention and reduc-tion programs reported in the studyand of some of the CLEFS projects.

Sources of Stress Exposure to violence, suffering, anddeath is inherent to the professionof law enforcement officer. Thereare other sources of stress as well.Officers who deal with offenders ona daily basis may view some sen-tences as too lenient; they may per-ceive the public’s opinion of policeperformance to be unfavorable; theyoften are required to work manda-tory, rotating shifts; and they may

not have enough time to spend withtheir families. Police officers alsoface unusual, often highly disturb-ing, situations, such as dealing witha child homicide victim or the sur-vivors of vehicle crashes.

The nature of the organizations inwhich officers work may also be asource of stress. Police departmentshistorically have been structuredalong military lines and as a resultoften have been rigidly hierarchicaland highly bureaucratic, with man-agement styles that can be inflexible.Although in many instances policeculture is changing, in many othersthe leadership remains predomi-nately white and male, opportuni-ties for advancement are limited,and despite the ubiquity of the per-sonal computer, a large amount ofpaperwork still is required.

Is Stress GettingWorse?Officers may increasingly view stressas a normal part of their job, but

they also see themselves as beingunder considerably more pressurethan they or their colleagues were 10 or 20 years ago. They see newsources of stress in the high level of violent crime and in what theyperceive as greater public scrutinyand adverse publicity. They also feelthat police camaraderie has declin-ed; they fear contracting air- andblood-borne diseases such as TBand HIV/AIDS; and they see them-selves as having to deal with suchrelatively new issues as culturaldiversity and the imperative of“political correctness.”

Even widely accepted changes in lawenforcement can lead to more stressfor some officers. Although commu-nity policing may mean more jobsatisfaction, greater overall depart-mental efficiency, and highermorale, the transition to it can causeapprehension on the part of theofficers who on a day-to-day basismust operationalize this fundamen-tal shift in the philosophy of polic-ing. Performance expectations arenew and perhaps not fully under-

Police officers see themselves as under more pressure than 10 or 20 years ago. Photo: EyeWire

On-the-Job Stress in Policing—Reducing It, Preventing It20

stood by all officers. Whether or notstress is increasing, identifying thecauses is a first step toward reducingand preventing it. (See “How OneAgency Pinpointed Stress.”)

Counting the Ways:The Effects of StressThe physical and emotional effectsof stress are numerous and oftensevere. Any one of them can impairjob performance. The consequencesof job-related stress commonlyreported by police officers are:

• Cynicism and suspiciousness.• Emotional detachment from vari-

ous aspects of daily life.• Reduced efficiency.• Absenteeism and early retirement.• Excessive aggressiveness (which

may trigger an increase in citizencomplaints).

• Alcoholism and other substanceabuse problems.

• Marital or other family problems(for example, extramarital affairs,divorce, or domestic violence).

• Post-traumatic stress disorder.• Heart attacks, ulcers, weight gain,

and other health problems.• Suicide.

According to many counselors whowork with police officers, difficultieswith intimate relationships are themost common problem they treat.

Families Feel Stress, Too

If the effects on officers are severe,they can be similarly serious forofficers’ family members. In one

survey of the spouses of police officers, a very large percentage said they experienced unusuallyhigh levels of stress because oftheir spouse’s job.3

Stress felt by spouses is a concern inand of itself and also because astressful home environment canadversely affect the officer’s job per-formance. Even conditions, situa-tions, or incidents that may nottrouble the officers themselves—orthat they may even enjoy, such asshift work or undercover work—canmean severe problems for their fam-ilies. Sources of stress commonlycited by officers’ spouses include:

• Shift work and overtime.• Concern over the spouse’s cyni-

cism, need to feel in control in thehome, or inability or unwilling-ness to express feelings.

• Fear that the spouse will be hurtor killed in the line of duty.

• Officers’ and others’ excessivelyhigh expectations of their chil-dren.

• Avoidance, teasing, or harassmentof the officer’s children by otherchildren because of the parent’sjob.

• Presence of a gun in the home.• The officer’s 24-hour role as a law

enforcer.• Perception that the officer prefers

to spend time with coworkersrather than with his or her family.

• Too much or too little discussionof the job.

• Family members’ perception ofthe officer as paranoid or exces-sively vigilant and overprotectiveof them.

• Problems in helping the officercope with work-related problems.

• “Critical incidents,” or the officer’sinjury or death on the job.4

Because stress affects family mem-bers, they are often the first to rec-ognize the officer’s need for help,and they can play a crucial role by

How One Agency Pinpointed StressWhen the Baltimore Police Department decided to seek out the sources of stressin the agency, they turned for assistance to public health researchers at nearbyJohns Hopkins University. With the Fraternal Order of Police as the third partner,the Department created Project SHIELDS to take on this task as well as to developresponse strategies.

The sources of stress were identified by means of a survey, conducted by theresearchers, among line officers and spouses/life partners. Some of the resultswere surprising. For example, fully two-thirds of the officers said they consideredmedia reports of alleged police wrongdoing to be stressful to them. The sameproportion said that what they view as lack of administrative support for officers introuble was a major source of stress. Almost one-fourth reported low energy orchronic back pain, which they believed was related to job stress.

After the Hopkins researchers complete their analysis of the survey data, they and the project’s advisory board (officers and family members) will help theDepartment develop a response. Total quality management (TQM) teams will be established to focus on selected issues drawn from the research findings.Consisting of officers from all ranks, the TQM teams will develop strategies toaddress aspects of organizational stress identified in the survey as particularlyproblematic.*

* Unpublished progress report of “Law Enforcement Work Stress and Family Support

(Project SHIELDS),” Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health,

Baltimore, submitted to the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice,

by Robyn Gershon, Principal Investigator, March 31, 1999.

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ January 200021

encouraging him or her to seekassistance before the problembecomes worse. This is the conceptbehind the Spousal Academy, acomponent of the comprehensiveofficer and family support programoffered by the Collier County(Florida) Sheriff ’s Office.

The Academy offers training tospouses and other domestic partnersof deputies and recruits who areenrolled in the Office’s trainingacademy. The 10-hour programinvolves an introduction to thenature of law enforcement work andan opportunity to discuss expecta-tions about the effect the spouses’occupation will have on family life.Participants learn about the struc-ture of the Sheriff ’s Office, aboutsuch human resource issues asemployee benefits (health insurance,for example), and about stress man-agement and conflict resolution.Two related programs in the devel-opment stage are peer supportgroups for spouses and life partnersand for deputies’ adolescent chil-dren.5

Soliciting feedback from partici-pants is part of the program. Severalnoted the program’s effectiveness inconveying the reality of what anofficer does on the job. In the wordsof one spouse, “I now realize someof what my husband goes through.”One of the comments heard mostfrequently concerns the value ofsimply meeting and interacting withother spouses. As one participantcharacterized the spouse’s role,“Sometimes, this can be a lonelyjob.”6

Countering DomesticViolence

There is some belief that a relativelylarge proportion of law enforcementofficers may be involved in domestic

violence, in part because of thestressful nature of the job.7 Manylaw enforcement agencies havebegun to turn their attention to theissue and devise ways to respond.

One agency, the Los Angeles(County) Sheriff ’s Department(LASD), has adopted a zero-toler-ance policy toward domestic vio-lence, with a full range of discipli-nary actions that could include dis-missal from the force. To reduce thenumber of domestic violence inci-dents among the LASD’s 8,000sworn officers, the Department bolstered the policy with a trainingprogram for all supervisory person-nel; a vigorous information dissemi-nation campaign (which includeddevelopment of an educationalvideo to be shown to all staff);and counseling services for individ-uals, couples, and families. The De-partment has trained more than1,200 supervisors to spot signs ofstress and domestic violence.8

Why Start or Expanda Stress Program? Why should law enforcement agen-cies spend time and money on a lawenforcement stress program andperhaps set aside space for it? Theanswer has to do with the implica-tions of stress for the department.Essentially, stress reduces the qualityof departmental performance.

Stress Affects AgencyPerformance

The cumulative negative effects ofstress on officers and their familiestypically affect the agency throughimpaired officer performance andthe related problems of tardiness,absenteeism, and low morale. Theconsequence for the department islower productivity. Stress-related

performance inadequacies also maygenerate labor-management frictionand lead to civil suits. There may beadverse public reaction as a result ofstress-related incidents, such as anofficer’s suicide or a case of policebrutality. Even problems that areconfined to only a few individualsor that occur rarely can have majorrepercussions. For instance, a singleincident in which a handful of offi-cers abuse alcohol or other drugscan lower public confidence in theentire agency.9

Though establishing and operating astress reduction program requires afinancial outlay, it can mean costsavings in the long term. That isbecause stress affects the bottomline. Agencies can find it enormous-ly costly when employee turnoverincreases as a result of stress-relatedearly retirement or long-term dis-ability. Robert Peppler, AssistantSheriff of the San Bernardino(California) Sheriff ’s Departmentnoted the cost to his agency: “Wehave a tremendous investment incops,” he said, “and if they leaveafter one traumatic incident, wehave lost a tremendous amount. Adollar in psychological services nowcan save us hundreds of thousandsdown the road.”10

Why Not an EAP?

Many agencies have access to city-or countywide employee assistanceprograms (EAP’s). Law enforcementstaff and their families may be eligi-ble for services from additionalproviders. These may include policechaplains, wellness programs, sup-port groups, and local private ser-vice providers. This prompts thequestion: Why shouldn’t an agencyrely on other existing programsrather than develop its own stressreduction program?

On-the-Job Stress in Policing—Reducing It, Preventing It22

The fact that a service is availabledoes not necessarily mean it ismeeting—or can meet—the distinc-tive needs of police officers. Mentalhealth practitioners, police adminis-trators, and others, when askedabout city or county EAP’s, saidpolice officers do not use thembecause these programs do not pro-vide enough confidentiality, becauseEAP staff usually do not understandlaw enforcement, and because theofficers feared the stigma that mightbe attached to using an EAP.

What StressReduction ProgramsLook LikeApproaches to reduce or preventstress can take many forms, amongthem:

• Services provided by a privatemental health practice or an individual therapist working

with one or more law enforce-ment agencies.

• Peer support and referrals fromspecially trained police officers.

• Psychological services set up inthe agency through the union,chaplaincy, or employee assistanceprogram.

• A combination of these arrange-ments.

Almost all programs are geared pri-marily to line officers, because theyconstitute the largest group in anylaw enforcement agency, they dealwith the public on a day-to-daybasis, they are widely believed toexperience high levels of stress, andthey may have limited means to payfor extended counseling. Most pro-grams also provide at least minimalservices (that is, referral to othertreatment providers) to nonswornpersonnel and former employees,as well as to officers’ and otheremployees’ family members andclose friends.

Services typically include assessmentand referral to mental health orother practitioners; critical incidentdebriefing; intervention for othertypes of crises; short-term counsel-ing for both individuals and fami-lies; and long-term counseling andother services, including treatmentfor substance abuse.

Most mental health practitionersemphasize the importance ofinvolving family members, whenpossible, in all these services. Tovarying extents, all programsinclude referrals to outside sourcesof assistance. For some programsthat operate with limited resources,referral to outside services is the pri-mary component. That is often thecase with programs staffed largelyby peers. (See “A Little Help FromYour Friends—Peer Support in NewYork City.”)

Preventing StressThe most common method for preventing stress is to train officersto recognize its signs and sourcesand to develop individual copingstrategies. Training helps encourageofficers and nonsworn personnel to use stress reduction techniquesand services and dispels the stigmafrequently attached to seeking assistance.

One period during which officerscould be taught about stress is whenthey are at the academy, accordingto most of the police officers, pro-gram administrators, and indepen-dent mental health practitionerswho were asked about this issue.They felt that the initial trainingperiod was a possibility becauserecruits are a captive audience andbecause the information mayremain with them throughout theirentire police career. There is somethinking that “inoculation” duringrecruit training is not the bestapproach, because most recruits are

A Little Help From Your Friends—Peer Support in New York CitySometimes it takes a tragedy or critical incident to prompt a law enforcement agencyor related organization to develop or expand a stress reduction program for policeofficers.

That was the case in New York City, where 26 police officers committed suicide in the2-year period from 1994 through 1995. The unusually high number was the result ofsuch factors as perceived pressure from the media and allegations of corruption. Thecrisis spurred the Patrolmen’s Benevolent Association, supported by the city council,to establish a peer support program by officers for officers. The Members AssistanceProgram (MAP) trained 150 officer volunteers to aid fellow officers and an additional26 to aid their families. The peer support officers staff a 24-hour hotline, serve as apoint of first contact and screening for officers who report stress-related difficulties,and encourage individuals who need more intensive help to seek it.

MAP also trained 60 mental health practitioners in law enforcement stress, and thesepractitioners began taking referrals from the peer support officers. Between 1996, theyear the program started, and 1998, the hotline received some 1,500 calls, resultingin more than 650 referrals.*

* “NYC Patrolmen’s Benevolent Association Members Assistance Program: Program for theReduction of Stress for New York City Police Officers and Their Families,” final report submittedto the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, grant 96–FS–VX–007, December1998.

not experienced enough to recog-nize that stress comes with the job.The optimal time to reach themmay be 6 to 8 months into the job,after they have experienced on-the-job stress. Some agencies offer inser-vice training not only for line offi-cers but also for midlevel managersand command staff, prospectiveretirees, and nonsworn personnel.

Because, as noted above, the struc-ture and management of the agencycan be a significant source of stress,mental health professionals shouldconsider working with departmentalmanagement and unions to planand implement organizationalchange. This can be done in a num-ber of ways, all of which fall withinthe domain of management:

• Training command staff in effec-tive supervision.

• Training field training officers toconstructively supervise rookies.

• Eliminating rotating shift work.• Improving the match between

officers’ capabilities and thedemands of specific assignments.

What NIJ Is DoingThe issue of job-related stress forlaw enforcement officers and theirfamilies has received attention at thehighest levels of government. In the1994 Omnibus Crime Act, thePresident and Congress recognizedthe severity of the problem andmandated a Federal Governmentresponse. The National Institute ofJustice was assigned the task ofsponsoring research, establishingpilot programs, and conductingprogram evaluations that supportState and local efforts.

Research and Development

Since the start of the Correctionsand Law Enforcement FamilySupport program, NIJ has spon-sored research and program devel-opment in some 30 agencies andrelated organizations (labor unionsand employee professional organiza-tions, for example). These projectsinclude the development of innova-tive treatment and training pro-grams as well as research into thenature and causes of stress.

In one study now under way, NIJ is exploring the nature and extent of job-related stress for police in asingle geographic region. And toimprove access to service, NIJ provided support to the MetroNashville Police Department in cre-ating an online resource of informa-tion for the families of law enforce-ment officers, particularly those inunderserved communities. Availableon the Internet, the resource is anew type of service delivery sys-

tem.11 The Web site contains,among other things, materials devel-oped by psychologists for preparingworkshops on stress, messageboards, a chat room, links to relatedWeb sites, recommended readings,and postings from police psycholo-gists and consultants.

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ January 200023

AcknowledgmentsPeter Finn, coauthor of the report on whichthis summary is based, contributed to thepreparation of this article. Mr. Finn is anAssociate with Abt Associates Inc., a pub-lic-policy and business research and con-sulting firm headquartered in Cambridge,Massachusetts. He also serves as a specialpolice officer with the Belmont, Mas-sachusetts, Police Department. VincentTalucci, manager of the CLEFS portfolio ofgrants at NIJ, and Jenifer Wood, a formermanager of CLEFS grants, also contributed.

For More Information Law Enforcement Officer Stress

• Visit the CLEFS page on the NIJ Web site:http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/clefs.

• Visit http://policefamilies.com, a Web site developed by the Metropolitan PoliceDepartment of Nashville and Davidson County with funding from the National Institute ofJustice.

• See Developing a Law Enforcement Stress Program for Officers and Their Families, byPeter Finn and Julie Esselman Tomz, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice,National Institute of Justice, March 1997 (NCJ 163175).

Corrections Officer Stress

• “Fighting the Enemy Within: Helping Officers Deal With Stress,” by Rebecca Childress,Vincent Talucci, and Jenifer Wood, Corrections Today, December 1999: 70.

• Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies, by Peter Finn, inprocess, forthcoming in 2000 from the National Institute of Justice.

On-the-Job Stress in Policing—Reducing It, Preventing It24

From LEFS to CLEFS

Originally geared solely to lawenforcement, the NIJ program hasexpanded to include correctionsofficers. In some cases, correctionsofficers experience more intensestress-generating incidents than dolaw enforcement officers. They may,for example, encounter violentbehavior by inmates more often and over longer periods of time.

NIJ support for research and development is given to correctionsagencies as well as law enforcementagencies. A study of programs toreduce and prevent stress amongcorrections staff is under development.

NCJ 180079

Notes 1. Burke, R.J., “Career Stages,

Satisfaction, and Well-BeingAmong Police Officers,”Psychological Reports 65(1989):3–12; and Delprino, R.P.,K. O’Quin, and C. Kennedy,“Identification of Work andFamily Services for LawEnforcement Personnel,” finalreport submitted to the NationalInstitute of Justice, 1997(NIJgrant 95–IJ–CX–0113).

2. The NIJ report is Developing aLaw Enforcement Stress Programfor Officers and Their Families,

by Peter Finn and Julie EsselmanTomz, Issues and Practices,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart-ment of Justice, NationalInstitute of Justice, March 1997 (NCJ 163175).

3. The survey was conducted aspart of a study by LeanorBoulin-Johnson, professor ofAfrican- American Studies andFamily Studies at Arizona StateUniversity. See “On the FrontLines: Police Stress and FamilyWell-Being,” testimony ofLeanor Boulin-Johnson beforethe Select Committee onChildren, Youth, and Families,U.S. House of Representatives,102nd Congress, 1st Session,May 20, 1991, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1991:32.

4. Borum, R., and C. Philpot,“Therapy With Law Enforce-ment Couples: ClinicalManagement of the ‘High-Risk Lifestyle,’” American Journal of Family Therapy 21(1993):122–135.

5. Ferguson, Edward T., and AceyL. Edgemon, “Collier CountySheriff ’s Office Law Enforce-ment Family Support Initiative,”draft executive summary, reportsubmitted to the National Insti-tute of Justice, U.S. Departmentof Justice, April 1, 1999.

6. Unpublished program evaluations by participants in Spousal Academy, CollierCounty (Florida) Sheriff ’sOffice, no date.

7. “On the Front Lines: PoliceStress and Family Well-Being,”testimony of B.J. Andersonbefore the Select Committee onChildren, Youth, and Families,U.S. House of Representatives,102nd Congress, 1st Session,May 20, 1991, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1991:61–63.

8. Unpublished progress report ofthe Family Violence Preventionand Recovery Project (FVPRP),Los Angeles County Sheriff ’sDepartment, submitted to theNational Institute of Justice,U.S. Department of Justice, byAudrey L. Honig, PrincipalInvestigator, FVPRP, and StevenE. Sultan, Project Coordinator,FVPRP, for period September 1,1998, through March 3, 1999.

9. Springer, K., “When the HelperNeeds Help: Stress and the LawEnforcement Employee,” EAPAssociation Exchange 25 (1995):6–11.

10. Finn and Tomz, Developing aLaw Enforcement Stress Programfor Officers and Their Families: 3.

11. The site address is http://policefamilies.com.

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ January 200025

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